Exploring mobility characteristics in rural Sub-Saharan Africa: a case study of the Yamoussoukro Region, Côte d’Ivoire

Rosne , Philipp e al.
A icle — Published Ve sion
Explo ing mobili y cha ac e is ics in u al Sub-Saha an
A ica: a case s udy o he Yamoussouk o Region, Cô e
d’I oi e
T anspo a ion
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Rosne , Philipp e al. (2025) : Explo ing mobili y cha ac e is ics in u al Sub-
Saha an A ica: a case s udy o he Yamoussouk o Region, Cô e d’I oi e, T anspo a ion, ISSN
1572-9435, Sp inge US, New Yo k, Vol. 52, Iss. 6, pp. 2511-2570,
h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s11116-025-10671-0
This Ve sion is a ailable a :
h ps://hdl.handle.ne /10419/333378
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© The Au ho (s) 2025
Ex ended au ho in o ma ion a ailable on he las page o he a icle
Explo ing mobili y cha ac e is ics in u al Sub-Saha an
A ica: a case s udy o he Yamoussouk o Region, Cô e
d’I oi e
Da idZiegle 1· PhilippRosne 1· ClemensPizzinini1· Ma hisK eme 1· Sa aG ambs1·
Vic o Rommel1· Ma kusLienkamp1
T anspo a ion (2025) 52:2511–2570
h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s11116-025-10671-0
Abs ac
Access o anspo a ion is a key enable o economic and sus ainable de elopmen in u al
eme ging economies. Implemen ing e ec i e imp o emen s equi es a deep unde s anding
o he cu en mobili y landscape. Despi e i s signi icance, ecen esea ch on anspo a-
ion and mobili y cha ac e is ics in u al Sub-Saha an A ica emains limi ed. This s udy
add esses his gap by analyzing mobili y pa e ns and mo i a ions in cen al Cô e d’I oi e,
based on a se ies o quan i a i e and quali a i e ield su eys and a wo- elec ic- ehicle
pilo s udy, conduc ed be ween 2021 and 2023. We comp ehensi ely assess u al ans-
po a ion by si ua ing ou empi ical indings wi hin he con ex o exis ing anspo a ion
models and p io s udies while e alua ing hei implica ions o he Sus ainable De elop-
men Goals, and o e ing an ou look on elec ic ehicle usage pa e ns in u al a eas. The
indings p o ide impo an guidance o policymake s and indus y s akeholde s, helping
o de elop sus ainable in e en ions and business models ha imp o e local access o
goods, se ices, and economic oppo uni ies.
Keywo ds T anspo a ion · Ru al mobili y pa e ns · Sub-Saha an A ica · GPS
logging · Su eys · In e iews · Elec ic Mobili y · Sus ainable De elopmen Goals
In oduc ion
Access o anspo a ion is a key enable o economic and sus ainable de elopmen in u al
eme ging economies, enabling u al popula ions o access goods, se ices, and oppo uni ies,
which is i al o mi iga ing po e y and os e ing economic g ow h (Po e 2014), as p o-
posed by he Uni ed Na ions (2015) (UN) wi hin hei Sus ainable De elopmen Goal (SDG)
agenda.
A ica lags behind Asia in he a ailabili y o in e media e means o anspo (IMT), low-
cos op ions equen ly u ilized o sho -dis ance a el and anspo ing goods (S a key
2001). This dispa i y is e iden in anspo a ion access, he e iciency o anspo se ices,
e al.[ ull au ho de ails a he end o he a icle]
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T anspo a ion (2025) 52:2511–2570
he supply o ag icul u al anspo , and anspo a ion cos s, indica ing a signi ican po en-
ial o imp o emen s in he egion (Hine 2014).
Go e nmen s, suppo ed by de elopmen banks and agencies, hea ily in es ed in u al
oad in as uc u e in he la e 20 h cen u y (B yceson e al. 2008). Howe e , he e has been
minimal in es men in u al anspo a ion se ices (RTSs) in ecen decades, making i
challenging o u ilize he s ill-exis ing in as uc u e. Acco ding o S a key e al. (2002),
he lack o in es men , which has been p ima ily le o he p i a e sec o , hampe s po e y
educ ion e o s, pa icula ly in isola ed and ma ginalized communi ies.
These socioeconomic dispa i ies be ween unde de eloped and mo e de eloped egions
unde sco e he u gen need o anspo a ion imp o emen s o Sub-Saha an A ica (SSA)
ailo ed o he local popula ion’s speci ic needs and eali ies. Howe e , despi e i s c ucial
ole, many u al a eas o SSA con inue o ace signi ican anspo a ion challenges, limi ing
hei po en ial o de elopmen .
Poo anspo a ion access limi s essen ial se ices and economic oppo uni ies, pe pe u-
a ing he cycle o po e y and limi ed mobili y. The e o e, imp o ing access o essen ial
se ices and ma ke s is c ucial o e adica ing po e y and enhancing li elihoods (Hine
e al. 2015; Acheampong e al. 2022).
Ru al anspo a ion is complex and encompasses se e al ac o s, including he quali y
o oads, anspo a es, and he a ailabili y o egional adap ed anspo a ion se ices.
In equen and cos ly anspo se ices limi anspo a ion, u he en enching po e y.
Women, in pa icula , bea a subs an ial anspo bu den, impac ing hei heal h and educa-
ion ou comes (Hine 2014).
Ye , in many pa s o SSA, limi ed in as uc u e, adi ional ag icul u al p ac ices, and
clima e change ulne abili y con ibu e o a mobili y landscape ha emains poo ly unde -
s ood. Despi e i s c i ical impo ance, ecen esea ch on anspo a ion and mobili y in u al
SSA emains sca ce (Po e 2014; Pizzinini e al. 2023; Colle and Hi me 2021).
Wi h his s udy, we ocus on u al mobili y be ween 2021 and 2023, d awing on ex ensi e
ieldwo k conduc ed a ound he illage o Za a in Cô e d’I oi e. By in eg a ing quan i a i e
me hods–such as on- ield GPS acking–wi h quali a i e app oaches, including wo kshops
and su eys, we iden i y he in en ions, scales, mo i a ions, and cons ain s ha unde lie
human mo emen and anspo a ion demand in hese communi ies.
Fu he mo e, ecognizing ha insu icien anspo a ion access hampe s economic
oppo uni ies and he a ainmen o he Sus ainable De elopmen Goals, we e alua e he
po en ial o on-si e elec ic ehicles o enhance anspo a ion and elec ici y access wi hin
he egion. Ou indings o e aluable insigh s o policymake s and indus y s akeholde s,
p o iding a obus ounda ion o sus ainable in e en ions, business models, and u u e
esea ch ailo ed o u al SSA’s speci ic challenges and oppo uni ies.
Li e a u e e iew
This sec ion b ie ly o e iews exis ing anspo a ion assessmen s in SSA including he po en-
ial in luence on p og ess owa ds he SDGs as well as possible elec i ica ion solu ions o he
p oblems iden i ied.
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T anspo a ion (2025) 52:2511–2570
T anspo a ion
Al hough human mobili y in en ions and beha io di e as ly be ween u ban and u al
A ica, in o mal pa a ansi se ices (minibus, sha ed, and mo o cycle axis) a e as ly mo e
common han p i a e ehicles in bo h se ings (Eheb ech e al. 2018; Falche a e al. 2021).
In u ban con ex s, pa a ansi ills he gap le by inadequa e o mal public anspo , p o id-
ing lexible and a o dable anspo a ion (Goda d 2013), bu is o en poo ly in eg a ed in o
u ban planning, con ibu es o conges ion and is plagued by sa e y conce ns (Beh ens e al.
2016; Salon and Gulyani 2019).
In con as , u al mobili y emains cons ained by limi ed oad in as uc u e, high ans-
po cos s, low ehicle a ailabili y, and he e o e ewe ehicle se ices (B yceson e al.
2008; Po e 2014). In consequence, mul iple s udies ha e emphasized hea y dependence
on non-mo o ized anspo (i. e. walking and cycling) o daily ac i i ies such as accessing
ma ke s, educa ion, and heal hca e (Po e 2002; B yceson e al. 2003; Munyaka e al. 2022)
and In e media e Means o T anspo (IMT) such as wo- and h ee-wheele s, as hey p o-
ide c i ical las -mile connec i i y whe e oad condi ions limi con en ional ehicle access
(S a key 2016; Dennis and Pullen 2017). Fu he mo e, he mobili y ans o ma ion po en ial
o digi al communica ion echnologies is mo e p onounced in u al a eas (Po e 2016).
In addi ion o pe sonal anspo , u al mobili y pa e ns a e shaped by a combina ion o
ag icul u al ac i i y, ade, and seasonal a ia ions (B yceson e al. 2003). P e ious esea ch
has also explo ed he social dimensions o mobili y, pa icula ly gende dispa i ies in ans-
po access and he impac s o mobili y cons ain s on economic oppo uni ies (Po e 2011).
While S a key (2007) p o ides me hodologies o quickly assessing local u al anspo
se ices, and a di ec in luence o anspo a ion accessibili ies on sus ainable de elopmen
(i. e. he UN SDGs) has been shown (Cook e al. 2017; Yiu e al. 2019; Ipingbemi e al.
2021), sca ci y and missing gene ali y o quan i a i e anspo a ion s udies wi h a ocus on
u al SSA lea e a gap in cu en li e a u e (Zuidgees 2019). This is especially ue conside -
ing he signi ican egional di e ences in ypical modes and beha io s (Diaz Ol e a e al.
2013)
In he con ex o ield da a acquisi ion o assessing mobili y wi hin a de ined a ge
egion, Table 1 summa izes he p incipal app oaches mos commonly epo ed in he
li e a u e.
Me hodology Publica ions
GPS logging Booysen e al. (2013); Engelb ech e al.
(2015); Kemajou e al. (2019); Joseph e al.
(2020); Hull e al. (2023); P e o ius e al. (2024)
CDR logging Me edi h e al. (2021)
In e iews Dennis (1998); Del Mis o and A enze (20002);
Beh ens e al. (2006)
T a el dia ies Golob and Meu s (1986); Schlich and Axhau-
sen (2003)
G oup wo kshops
incl. design hink-
ing me hods
Dennis (1998); S a key (2007); Sol es e al.
(2017); Sigauke (2021); Wolco e al. (2021)
Cogni i e maps Vajjhala and Walke (2010)
Table 1 Exis ing me hodolo-
gies o assessing local mobili y
pa e ns.
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T anspo a ion (2025) 52:2511–2570
Elec i ica ion
Elec i ica ion o anspo se ice ehicles o e s a ange o bene i s o ope a o s, such as
cheape local ene gy supply, obus d i e ains, and ehicle concep s ailo ed o he local con-
ex and use cases (Colle e al. 2021). Howe e , signi ican ba ie s s and in he way o elec-
ic ehicle (EV) adop ion (Gicha e al. 2024), mainly among which a e he highe pu chase
p ice in compa ison o in e nal combus ion engine ehicles (ICEVs) and eliable cha ging
in as uc u e (Moele si 2021). Ne e heless, a esea ch g oup a S ellenbosch speci ically
analyzes he ene gy equi emen s, scheduling, and ensuing elec i ica ion po en ials o mini-
busses in (in e )u ban pa a ansi (Ndiba ya and Booysen 2021; Rix e al. 2022; Wus e al.
2025), comp ising he majo i y o publica ions in he ield. Elec ic mo o cycle axis, p ima ily
localized in Eas A ica and employing ba e y swapping in se ice models, a e ano he s and
o ecen publica ions (Wahab e al. 2019; Sheehan e al. 2021; Vana a e al. 2022; Ma in
e al. 2023). These wo a e he mos p e alen o ms o anspo a ion in u ban a eas and,
he e o e, he i s o be elec i ied.
Once again, howe e , ewe publica ions co e pe iu ban o u al EVs adop ion, whe e
he men ioned challenges a e exace ba ed u he . Ne e heless, wi h mo o cycles (Allee
e al. 2022; Pawlak e al. 2023) and axis (Gammon and Sallah 2021), he same ehicle ypes
p e ail, complemen ed by ag icul u al machine y (Gö z e al. 2024) and ishing essels
(Lukuyu e al. 2020), all o which a e ypically esea ched in conjunc ion wi h elec i ica-
ion sys ems. Fo bo h domains in gene al, howe e , eal-wo ld mo emen da a is equi ed
o quan i y elec i ica ion’s po en ials bu is s ill lacking in li e a u e (Colle and Hi me
2021).
Resea ch gap
The p e ious sec ions show ha mobili y and anspo a ion in A ican egions, pa icula ly
in u ban a eas, ha e been s udied wi h a a he limi ed ocus o e he pas h ee decades.
The e is a no iceable gap in ecen s udies add essing he cu en mobili y s a e, especially
o u al egions in SSA. The e o e, a mo e comp ehensi e app oach ha no only deepens
he unde s anding o mobili y pa e ns bu also e alua es he sus ainable impac o ans-
po a ion on he daily li es o people in u al SSA is needed. Ou s udy aims o educe his
gap by p o iding a holis ic assessmen o mobili y, in eg a ing insigh s and me hods om
a ious me hodologies, and aligning ou indings wi h sus ainable de elopmen o es ima e
he po en ial o enhance he quali y o li e in hese communi ies.
Resea ch design
This publica ion encompasses six mobili y su eys in he egion o Za a, a u al illage
in he subp e ec u e o Kossou, Cô e d’I oi e. Acco ding o he hubs-and-spokes model o
S a key e al. (2002), p ima ily ocused on eme ging egions and sha ing simila i ies wi h
he indus ial na ion- ela ed Cen al Place Theo y o Ch is alle (1933), Za a se es as he
Ma ke Town Hub o he egion. Ha ing a ca chmen a ea ( u he : ma ke hub ca chmen
a ea) up o a dis ance o 10 km, smalle illages ely on Za a’s ma ke place o ade and
hei inhabi an s commu e he e equen ly. An addi ional de ailed egional map, p o iding
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T anspo a ion (2025) 52:2511–2570
a geog aphical o e iew, can be ound in Fig. 1. Fo compa ison o he egional demog aph-
ics o ou su eys’ demog aphics, Za a’s demog aphic p o ile is p esen ed in he s udy by
Essé e al. (2008), which is based on a su ey o 168 esponden s conduc ed in 2002. Addi-
ionally, na ional demog aphic da a (Ins i u Na ional de la S a is ique, République de Cô e
d’ I oi e 2014) p o ides insigh s in o he gende dis ibu ion in he su ey a ea, indica ing
o be nea ly equal.
To in es iga e he mobili y needs, pa e ns, and beha io s, we conduc ed six s udies
wi hin he ma ke hub ca chmen a ea ac oss eigh illages o a ying popula ion sizes,
including Za a, as summa ized in Table 2. Ou esea ch was pa o a de elopmen coop-
e a ion p ojec ha aimed o implemen elec ic mobili y se ices in he Za a egion wi hin
h ee yea s. The su eys we e conduc ed du ing he Design Thinking (DT) p ocess's empha-
size, de ine, and idea e phases (Munyai 2016). DT empowe ed he local communi y o dis-
co e new mobili y solu ions, as u he de ailed by Pizzinini e al. (2024). A imeline o he
su eys conduc ed o his publica ion is ou lined in Fig. 12.
To ensu e a comp ehensi e unde s anding o mobili y mechanisms oge he wi h he
communi ies, we employed a dual-pe spec i e app oach:
Fig. 1 Za a and i s su ounding illages. The blue ci cle shows Za a’s ma ke hub ca chmen a ea. G ey
ci cles show he ca chmen a eas o o he ma ke owns. G een illages co espond o he su eyed il-
lages lis ed in Table 2
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T anspo a ion (2025) 52:2511–2570
1. Mo emen -Cen e ed (p edominan ly quan i a i e esul s): We collec ed da a on peo-
ple’s ehicle mo emen s o analyze mo emen pa e ns, me ics, and modal usage (
Sec . Mo emen -cen e ed su eys).
2. Human-Cen e ed (p edominan ly quali a i e esul s): We conduc ed wo kshops, su -
eys, and in e iews o explo e indi idual mo i a ions, a el needs, and pe cei ed
mobili y ba ie s (Sec . Human-cen e ed su eys).
We conduc ed an in-dep h analysis o Za a as a Ma ke Town Hub while examining he
su ounding illages o unde s and hei in e dependencies, di e ences, and commonali ies
wi hin he b oade ca chmen a ea (we u he call his a ea ma ke -spoke ca chmen a ea).
Unlike exis ing s udies, ou esea ch in eg a es bo h pe spec i es ac oss a 2.5-yea s udy
pe iod, conside ing he egion as a hubs-and-spokes sys em. This app oach allows us o
unde s and illage-le el mobili y and how hese u al communi ies in e ac wi h hei ma -
ke hub. Figu e 2 illus a es he s udy a ea and he oad ne wo k quali y wi hin he hubs-
and-spokes model.
This s udy p o ides a holis ic analysis o he u al mobili y by syn hesizing da a om
indi idual, communi y, and anspo a ion sys em pe spec i es. The esul s ocus on mobil-
i y needs, beha io s, and anspo a ion dynamics, con ibu ing o he b oade unde s and-
ing o he mobili y ecosys em. Some isual imp essions o he di e en su eys held o his
publica ion can be ound in Fig. 3.
Mo emen -cen e ed su eys
To unde s and mobili y in he in es iga ed egion, we i s ocused on he cen al ma ke hub,
Za a. As he la ges se lemen in he a ea, Za a plays a c ucial ole in egional mobili y,
se ing as he p ima y cen e o se ices, ade, and anspo a ion. Due o i s high olume
o a el ac i i y and ehicle p esence compa ed o smalle illages, he mo emen -cen e ed
su eys we e concen a ed on his hub. The indings om Za a se e as a i m e e ence
Table 2 Lis o he illages whe e ou mobili y su eys ook place and whe he hey we e mo emen - o
human-cen e ed.
Su eys
Village name Inhabi -
an s†
GPS
logging
Roadside
in e iews
Za a
wo kshop
Indi idual
a el
mo i s
Communi y
a el mo i s
Pe -
sonal
in e -
iews
Za a* 8391
✓
✓
✓
–
✓
✓
Gogok o 2091 – – – –
✓
–
Zougounou 1694 – – – –
✓
✓
Ténik o 867 – – –
✓
– –
Ko ik o 273 – – –
✓
✓
✓
Djé N’go - ank o 232 – – – – –
✓
Akossé 127 – – – – –
✓
An oinek o 101 – – – –
✓
–
Mo emen cen e ed
✓
✓
–
✓
– –
Human cen e ed –
✓
✓
–
✓
✓
* Ma ke Hub, †Popula ion de i ed om Wo ldPop Ta em (2017); The geog aphical placemen o he
illages and o ien a ions o Za a a e shown in Fig. 1.
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T anspo a ion (2025) 52:2511–2570
o unde s anding mobili y in he su ounding illages. Since a el pa e ns in smalle il-
lages a e o ien ed mainly owa d he ma ke hub–p ima ily o ade and essen ial se ices– he
insigh s gained om Za a p o ide a aluable ounda ion o modeling egional mobili y.
The ollowing sec ions de ail he me hods applied a he ma ke hub, including GPS
logging o ack mo o ized a el be ween Za a and smalle illages, oadside su eys o
cap u e inbound and ou bound ips, and wo kshops o iden i y key loca ions, isi equen-
cies, and a el dis ances o esiden s.
GPS logging
Su ey a ea Za a
Pa icipan s (conside ed) 29 (16)
Su ey pe iod 2021–2022
Focus Mo o ized a el
In es iga ed a el cha ac e is ics
F equency Dis ance Mean o anspo S a /s op In en ion F eigh
✓
✓
✓
✓
– –
We moun ed Global Posi ioning Sys em (GPS) logge s (Wi mann e al. 2017; Balke
and Adenaw 2023) o ack mo emen s o 27 local ICEVs in Za a. The logge s we e ac i-
a ed by he ib a ions when ehicles mo ed, acked a a sample a e o 1Hz and powe ed
di ec ly by he ehicles’ 12V ba e ies. Fig. 3a shows an exempla y logge ins alla ion. The
acked ehicles we e p ima ily used in on-demand pa a ansi and/o ag icul u al goods
anspo and s em om one o he ou classes lis ed in Table 3 . The ehicle d i e s’
p ima y occupa ions a e shown in Figu e 13. We did no eco d he ypes o goods and/o
numbe o passenge s anspo ed as pa o he logging su ey. The selec ion o ehicles
Fig. 2 Schema ic o e iew o he illages pa icipa ing in he su eys and hei hub-and-spoke
dependencies.
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T anspo a ion (2025) 52:2511–2570
Class S a ed occupa ions* Numbe To al
dis-
ance
(km)
Mo o cycle Fa me , Pis eu †, Plumbe ,
Coope a i e P esiden , Co-
ope a i e Rep esen a i e
12 15730
Taxi D i e 1 10002
aCa D i e 2 3901
T icycle Owne /O pe a o 1 742
Table 3 O e iew o GPS
logged ehicle classes. Fu he
de ails a e shown in Table 14.
* One occupa ion can accoun
o mul iple pa icipan s and
ice e sa; † Middlemen
be ween he a me s and
p oduce expo e s.
Fig. 3 Imp essions on he di e en su eys held in he a ge egion.
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T anspo a ion (2025) 52:2511–2570
Table 9 Quan i ica ion o he esul s om he communi y ca dboa d su ey aken place in Za a and su ounding smalle illages.
Dis ance in km* Impo ance anked om highes (10) F equency in days pe 30 days o ha e a leas 1 ip†
School Elec ici y Wa e Ag icul u e Ma -
ke
Mo-
bile
Re-
cep-
ion
So-
cial
Heal h-
ca e
Con-
s uc-
ion
Ma-
e ial
Ma-
chines
School Elec-
ic-
i y
Wa e Ag-
i-
cul-
u e
Ma -
ke
Mo-
bile
Re-
cep-
ion
So-
cial
Heal h-
ca e
Con-
s uc-
ion
Ma-
e ial
Ma-
chines
School Elec-
ic-
i y
Wa e Ag-
i-
cul-
u e
Ma -
ke
Mo-
bile
Re-
cep-
ion
So-
cial
Heal h-
ca e‡
Con-
s uc-
ion
Ma-
e-
ial†
Ma-
chines
Za a 0 0 0 10 0 0 − 0 0 0 9 5 6 8 8 4 − 10 7 3 20 30 30 24 30 30 − 4 1 0
Gogok-
o
0 0 0 3 0 0 15 10 15 15 10 710 9 8 9 7 10 9 8 20 30 30 24 430 424 4 0
Zou-
gounou
0 0 0 5 7 0 15 715 15 9 8 10 9 9 8 8 9 7 7 20 30 30 24 430 424 30 0
Ko -
ik o
0 6 0 4 6 6 15 6 6 15 10 10 10 9 9 10 710 9 8 20 30 30 24 430 2 4 1 0
An-
oinek-
o
3 3 0 2 5 0 15 5 5 15 9 8 10 9 9 8 8 9 7 7 20 30 30 24 430 424 1 0
Ø
§
0.6 1.8 04.8 3.6 1.2 15 5.6 8.2 12 9.4 7.6 9.2 8.8 8.6 7.8 7.5 9.6 7.8 6.6 20 30 30 24 9.2 30 3.5 16 7.4 0
* A dis ance o ze o means ha ca ego y is a ailable inside he illage; † he answe "e e y day" is coun ed as e e y usual day o he occupa ion would ake place and is he e o e in e p e ed based on known equencies o
a el de e mined in he Za a wo kshop, Sec . Za a wo kshop; ‡ he equency accoun s o he whole illage communi y in hese cases;
§
a e age o he alues abo e.
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T anspo a ion (2025) 52:2511–2570
o a e hei impo ance as lowe . This sugges s ha people pe cei e hese esou ces as
mo e i al when hey a e no eadily a ailable in hei local a eas.
●Machine y is p e e ed in he illages su ounding Za a, bu i is minimally a ailable
and, he e o e, no commonly used. This limi ed a ailabili y is likely due o he sig-
ni ican dis ance om hese illages–a e aging 15 km–and he logis ical challenges o
anspo ing he machine y. As a esul , people a e un amilia wi h using his equipmen ,
leading o a lowe demand o i .
●Cons uc ion ma e ial impo ance is in luenced by ongoing house-building ac i i ies
wi hin illages. The e o e, some illages conside hem e y impo an and needed, o h-
e s less impo an . S ill, he dis ance o access he ma e ials is ela i ely high on a e age,
wi h abou 8.2 km.
The e alua ion and compa ison show ha heal hca e, ag icul u e, and cons uc ion ma e i-
als a e a apa , making i di icul o a el on oo daily. Machine usage and social e en s
exceed a usual oo dis ance signi ican ly, ende ing hem o be acili a ed much less han he
o he ca ego ies. The local ma ke hub, Za a, al eady inco po a es many ca ego ies, allow-
ing hem o be used much mo e o en bu being p io i ized lowe han in he su ounding
illages lacking hese esou ces.
Indi idual a el mo i s
Based on he p e ious sec ion, we ha e al eady analyzed a a ie y o illages in he ma ke -
spoken ca chmen a ea ega ding hei collec i e mo i s o a el. Fu he , we wan o de ail
ou a el mo i analysis by e alua ing indi idual esponses om Za a (Sec . Za a wo k-
shop), Ko ik o (Sec . Indi idual a el mo i s), a compa able small illage wi h only abou
250 inhabi an s, and Ténik o, a illage wi h oughly he same dis ance o Za a bu a ound 3
imes mo e inhabi an s han Ko ik o.
In he i s s ep, we analyze he cogni i e maps om he Za a Wo kshop (Sec . Za a
wo kshop), shown in Figs. 16, 17 and 18.
A quali a i e syn hesis ac oss he maps o all h ee wo kshop g oups e eals simila i ies
in a el des ina ions, aligning wi h people’s in en ions o mee equal needs. P edominan ly
iden i ied mo i s om he wo kshop encompassed educa ion (schools, college), ood- ela ed
places (ma ke , bake y), social spaces (chu ch, mosque), heal hca e acili ies (hospi al), and
wo k ( ields).
Fu he quan i a i ely condensing he cogni i e maps o Table 10 leads o he ollowing
conclusions:
●People walk up o 1 kilome e wi hin he ma ke hub o access he bake y, hospi al,
ma ke , and o he ameni ies.
●Indi iduals o en op o mo o cycles i possessed o subs an ial social e en s, such as
a ending chu ch.
●In e p e ing he equency numbe s o hospi al isi s o he whole communi y, people
end o isi hem less han once a week pe pe son bu needed once a day by a leas one
pe son in he illage, a s a is ic ha unde sco ed hei impo ance.
●The ag icul u al ields, p ima ily loca ed in he no hwes , no heas , and sou h o Za a,
a e age 4.4 kilome e s om he communi y. Fo ips o hese ields, mo o cycles and
1 3
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T anspo a ion (2025) 52:2511–2570
Table 10 F equencies o des ina ion maps d awn du ing he Za a wo kshop (Sec . Za a wo kshop).
Max. dis ance in km Mode o anspo * F equency in days pe week
Des ina ion 1 3 5
≥
7 Ø in km W B M 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Ø in days
Inside Za a College 1 − − − 1.0 2 − 1 − − − − 2 1 − 5.3
School 3 − − − 1.0 1 − − − − − − 6 − − 5.0
Ma ke 2 − − − 1.0 16 1 − 4 − 1 1 2 1 1 3.4
Chu ch/ Mosque 3 − − − 1.0 6 − 4 5 2 2 − 1 − 2 2.8
Bake y 1 − − − 1.0 − − 1 − 2 2 − − − − 2.5
Hospi al 1 − − − 1.0 2 1 2 2 − − − − − − 0.8†
Field 1 1 4 1 4.4 9 8 12 − 1 2 3 3 6 − 4.7
* W: walk, B: bicycle, M: mo o bike; †one addi ional answe wi h once−a−mon h equency included.
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T anspo a ion (2025) 52:2511–2570
bicycles a e he p e e ed modes o anspo a ion, pa icula ly among hose who can
a o d o own hem.
As a coun e pa o he wo kshop held wi h Za a locals, we made a a el dia y su ey
in ol ing he pa icipa ion o 35 indi iduals om wo local illages, Ko ik o and Ténik o
(localiza ion: Fig. 1), pa ly elying on Za as’ ma ke . Simila o he Za a wo kshop, we
iden i ied wi h he a el dia y impo an loca ions, dis ances, means o anspo , and a el
equencies o illage locals. Simila o he p eceding wo kshop e alua ion in Table 10, he
esul s a e condensed quan i a i ely in Table 11.
The analysis o he wo illages highligh s ha he ma ke hub Za a and he nex own
Yamoussouk o se e as essen ial emo e hubs o he esiden s. Village s isi hese hubs
equen ly, a e aging a leas once a week, which suppo s he hubs− and− spokes model
desc ibed by S a key e al. (2002). Al hough Za a is geog aphically close o he illage s,
Yamoussouk o is mo e a ac i e o hem, likely because i o e s a b oade a ie y o goods
and se ices.
I un eiled se e al in iguing obse a ions abou he local cus oms and li es yle pa e ns.
Religious si es, such as chu ches and mosques, a e a cen al pa o li e in Za a and su -
ounding owns, wi h people a ending se ices a leas once a week.
Fieldwo k is a p edominan occupa ion, d awing indi iduals in o he ields abou i e
imes a week on a e age, mainly o subsis ence a ming. This i al wo k e hic is also e i-
den in o he subsis ence ac i i ies, which occupy hei ime a ound six days a week. The
analysis also highligh ed ha he dis ance o hese ields a ies, ypically 2.5 o 5 kilome e s,
depending on he p oximi y o each illage. In Za a, mo o ized anspo is s anda d o
eaching hese ields, unlike in smalle illages whe e walking emains he p ima y mode
o anspo a ion.
Mo eo e , he eme gence o cell phones and o he elec ical de ices has c ea ed new
mo i a ions o a el among he popula ion. People isi places wi hin walking dis ance
ha p o ide elec ici y and cell phone ecep ion, illus a ing a mix o adi ional and con-
empo a y easons o a eling wi hin he communi y.
Mo emen —cen e ed su eys
In his sec ion, we discuss he esul s o he mo emen —cen e ed su eys di ec ly obse ed
ia a ic coun ing, oadside in e iews, o he GPS logging o locals’ ehicles.
Roadside in e iews
To di ec ly ga he in o ma ion abou a ic lows in and ou o Za a, we conduc ed oad-
side in e iews and coun ed a ic as desc ibed in Sec . Roadside in e iews. The con en
o he oadside in e iews and he coun s a e shown in Tables 16 and 17. Thei esul s a e
discussed nex .
The e alua ion o he oadside in e iews un eils ha people om Za a a el ou side
on a e age, wi h 82 % o ields, 8 % o cons uc ion si es, and 2.5 % isi ing he o es ,
ga den, o a ms. The p ima y goods collec ed p edominan ly om ields we e i ewood (19
%), banana and yam (16.7 %), manioc (12 %), cacao (9.5 %), oma oes (4.75 %), and o he
1 3
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T anspo a ion (2025) 52:2511–2570
Table 11 F equencies o des ina ion maps d awn om he indi idual mo i s su ey (Sec . Indi idual a el mo i s).
Ko ik o
Des ina ion Max. dis ance in km Mode o anspo * F equency in days pe week
1 3 5
≥
7Ø in km W B M T C 1234567Ø in days
Chu ch/ Mosque† 4 − − 1 1.64 4 − 1 − − 5 − − − − − − 1.0
Za a − − − 2 7.0 1 − 1 − − 2 − − − − − − 1.0
Yamoussouk o − − − 5 22.6 − − − 1 4 4 1 − − − − − 1.2
Field 2 6 − 1 2.7 8 − − 1 − − − − − 9 − − 5.0
Ténik o
Max. dis ance in km Mode o T anspo * F equency in days pe week
Des ina ion 1 3 5
≥
7Ø in km W B M T C 1234567Ø in days
Chu ch/ Mosque† 20 − 1 − 0.8 20 − 1 − − 18 3 − − − − − 2.8
Wo k† 1 − − − 1.0 − 1 − − − − − − − − 1 − 6.0
Cellphone c ha ging − 1 − − 4.0 1 − − − − 1 − − − − − − 1.0
Neighbo illages 2 − 1 2 10.5 1 1 1 2 − 4 − − − − 1 − 1.8
Za a − − − 2 10.5 1 1 − − − 2 − − − − − − 1.0
Yamoussouk o − − − 11 21.3 3 2 − − 6 10 1 − − − − − 1.1
Field − 8 8 10 4.7 21 2 3 − − − 3 2 3 9 9 − 4.7
* W: walk, B: bicycle, M: mo o bike, T: icycle, C: ca & axi; † inside he illage.
1 3
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T anspo a ion (2025) 52:2511–2570
goods like lea es, d ied g ass, aube gine, mush oom, ish o chicken om animal enclosu es
acili a ed nea by o he ields (2.38 %).
The analysis, shown in Fig. 4a, e ealed ha people mainly walked o dis ances up o
5 km ou side he illage, used bicycles o dis ances up o 10 km, and used mo o cycles o
longe dis ances up o 30 km. Addi ionally, icycles we e equen ly used o anspo goods
o and om he ields, pa icula ly o sho dis ances wi hin he illage.
We also examined how di e en modes o anspo a ion a e used based on gende , as
depic ed in Fig. 4b. Ou analysis e ealed ha women mainly walked o ode as passenge s
in a icycle as hei p ima y mode o anspo . In con as , i was uncommon o women
o ide mo o cycles o bicycles hemsel es, likely due o limi ed owne ship o mo o ized
ehicles and cul u al usage no ms a o ing men.
Vehicle GPS logging
This sec ion de ails he quan i a i e GPS logging esul s o 16 local ehicles a ound Za a,
desc ibed in Sec . GPS logging. The loggings co e a o al o 1362h and 30439km. Table 12
summa izes he acked lee ’s o al (le ) and daily ( igh ) dis ance and du a ion dis ibu ion.
On a e age, he ehicles co e ed 1902km (85h) in o al and eco ded espec i ely 27km
(1.2h) pe day. The medians a e lowe han he a e age due o skewed dis ibu ions owa ds
lowe dis ances. Ou lie s s emming om he axis aking signi ican ly mo e and longe ips
han o he classes. Figu e 5 shows he numbe o daily eco ded ips o each ehicle ype.
The elec ic aCa s commenced ope a ions in Oc obe 2022. We conside a ip a ehicle’s
mo emen be ween wo s a iona y in e als o mo e han 10min each. Du ing he su ey,
ip coun s luc ua ed due o logging issues desc ibed in Table 4. Main enance and da a syn-
ch oniza ion we e pe o med a he s a o each esea ch isi , leading o high eco ded ip
coun s and la ing ou due o e o easons, men ioned in Sec . GPS logging.
The geog aphical each o each ehicle ype is mapped in Fig. 6. Mo o cycles seem o be
used in bo h he immedia e ma ke hub and i s ca chmen a ea. While sho e dis ances a e
mo e common, hey a e also employed o a ew ex ended jou neys ou side he ma ke hub
ca chmen a ea. In con as , icycles a e (wi hin he e y limi ed da a o his ehicle ype)
exclusi ely used wi hin he ma ke hub ca chmen a ea, o en o sho —dis ance ips o
and om ields ( o ag icul u e) o o es s ( o i ewood). This indica es hei p edominan
applica ion in ag icul u al anspo .
Elec ic ca s (aCa s) we e ope a ed using a anspo a ion se ice model simila o
icycles bu ee o cha ge du ing he p ojec phase. As a esul , hey also se e simila
des ina ions wi hin he ma ke hub a ea, wi h he no able addi ion o occasional ips o
Yamoussouk o, likely due o hei com o and sui abili y o d i e longe dis ances on well-
main ained oads oo. Las ly, axis exhibi high and egula usage connec ing illages on
mos ly hese egional spoke oads wi h ew long-dis ance ips as well.
To unde s and he dis ances d i en in u al uninhabi ed a eas (UHAs) and esiden ial
a eas (REAs), we conduc an analysis ocusing on ip in e sec ions wi h esiden ial a eas
de ined in Open S ee Maps (OSM) and he Wo ldPop da ase . The indings in Fig. 7 illus-
a e he dis ance dis ibu ion o he di e en ehicle ypes in UHAs and REAs.
The deepe e alua ion shows:
●aCa s’ a e d i en inside REAs in median jus a ound 0.6km bu wi hin he UHAs 3.5km.
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T anspo a ion (2025) 52:2511–2570
●Taxis co e conside ably highe UHA dis ances, in median a ound 10km, while hei
REA dis ances a ies be ween 1km o 7km. Taxis a e d i en much mo e in REAs han
he o he ehicle ypes. Occasionally, a one- ime ide o almos 100km was eco ded.
●T icycles’ a e mos ly u ilized in UHA, o dis ances o 1.5km in he median, while only
0.6km in REA.
●Mo o cycles co e UHA dis ances up o 5km, wi h occasional longe one- ime ides up
o 100km.
2021−09
2021−11
2022−01
2022−03
2022−05
2022−07
2022−09
2022−11
2023−01
2023−0
3
Da e
0
20
40
60
80
100
T ips
aCa s Taxis T ic
y
cles Mo o c
y
cles Weekends
Fig. 5 Daily numbe o ips eco ded o he di e en means o anspo wi h he GPS logge s.
q25
¯x
˜x
q75
σ
To al dis ance in km 821 1562 1902 1913 2187
Daily dis ance in km 5 15 27 27 51
To al du a ion in hou s 47 72 85 106 60
Daily du a ion in hou s 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.4 1.5
Table 12 To al and daily e-
co ded dis ances and du a ions o
he pa icipan s.
Fig. 4 Analysis o he oadside in e iews and simul aneous a ic coun ing.
1 3
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T anspo a ion (2025) 52:2511–2570
The analysis unde sco es ha axis a e mo e equen ly u ilized in esiden ial a eas. Mo o -
cycles a e used o longe a el o owns and o he egions, bu no p edominan ly. In
con as , aCa s, icycles, and mo o cycles usually co e dis ances o 2km o 10km h ough
UHAs o a el be ween illages o o access ields.
REA
UHA
REA
UHA
0
1
2
5
10
20
Dis ance in km
aCa s
REA
UHA
REA
UHA
0
1
2
5
10
20
50
100
Taxis
REA
UHA
REA
UHA
0
1
2
5
10
T icycles
REA
UHA
REA
UHA
0
1
2
5
10
20
50
100
Mo o cycles
Fig. 7 Dis ances co e ed in esiden ial (REA) and uninhabi ed a eas (UHA).
Fig. 6 GPS aces by mode ocused on he egion nea by Za a. The inse includes all ips, also he less
equen ips exceeding he Za a a ea.
1 3
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T anspo a ion (2025) 52:2511–2570
We u he del e in o he c oss−combina ions be ween UHA and REA o igin/des ina ion
combina ion, as depic ed in Fig. 8, encompassing bo h he eco ded numbe o ips and
hei dis ances.
We ecognize ha :
●The aCa s show a lowe numbe o ips om REAs o UHAs han om UHAs o
REAs. The disc epancy sugges s he e may be occasional da a logging gaps. The me-
dian dis ances in ol ing UHAs a e nea ly he same, wi hin 5km, e lec ing he ca ’s
ag icul u al se ice-o ien ed usage, which aligns wi h he ypical dis ances o ields and
o es s discussed in p e ious sec ions. In con as , ips wi hin REAs a e ela i ely sho ,
indica ing many in a- illage a els. Longe ou lie s s em om a ic be ween di e en
illages.
●Taxis make abou en imes mo e ips wi hin o be ween REAs han o o he combi-
na ions. T ips solely connec ing wo UHAs a e nea ly negligible in coun , cons i u ing
only 3 ou o e e y 1,000 ips, e en hough hei dis ances a e signi ican . Analysis o
Fig. 8 C oss combina o y analysis di e en ia ing esiden ial (REA) and uninhabi ed a ea (UHA) o igins-
des ina ion pai s.
1 3
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T anspo a ion (2025) 52:2511–2570
ip eco ds indica es ha he p ima y pu pose o hese longe ips is likely p i a e
leisu e. T ips ha include REAs end o be mo e consis en , wi h an a e age dis ance o
a ound 10km. This sugges s ha axis a e mo e commonly used o longe ides o and
om esiden ial a eas.
●T icycles ea u e wice as many ips wi hin o be ween REAs han ips in ol ing
UHAs. T ips only in ol ing REAs a e ela i ely small, indica ing a majo i y o a els
inside REAs. UHA o REA ips a e sho e han REA o UHA ips, sugges ing ha hey
a e o en combined wi h sho ips wi hin he UHAs wi hin one jou ney.
●Mo o cycles’ ha e ou imes mo e ips wi hin o be ween REAs han o combina-
ions including UHAs. S ill, solely UHA ips signi ican ly inc ease compa ed o axis
o icycles. Mo o cycles co e sho dis ances wi hin REAs, wi h ou lie s indica ing
longe ips up o 100 km o jou neys be ween esiden ial a eas. T ips be ween REAs
and UHAs a e app oxima ely 3 o 5 km long, e lec ing ag icul u al anspo pu poses
a ound Za a. Solely UHA ips a e age 1.8 km, indica ing hey a e combined wi hin
one jou ney.
T anspo elec i ica ion modeling conside a ions
Since he in en ion o he aCa s’ ield es is e alua ing he gene al sui abili y o EVs in
RTSs wi hin o ou side o elec i ied a eas, Fig. 9 u he de ails he essen ial pa ame e s o
modeling local EV ope a ions o each o he ou ehicle classes in he GPS da ase . One
o he main ope a ional challenges is echa ging, which we assume o be possible only a
he ehicle’s home base as public ( as ) cha ging in as uc u e is no a ailable ye in u al
A ican se ings. We, he e o e, combine ips o ou s s a ing and ending in Za a, as hei
leng h de e mines he necessa y ange o EVs. Thei depa u e ime is c ucial i he ene gy
is o be p o ided locally h ough enewable sou ces only a ailable a ce ain imes o day
and especially i he ehicles shall be in elligen ly managed o minimize cha ging cos . To al
ene gy h oughpu and ou du a ion (i. e. e u n ime) depend on he a e age speed wi hin
he d i ing po ions and he idle ime du ing he ou . The e o e, he pa ame e s’ dis ibu-
ions a e plo ed in Fig. 9. As he di e si y in da a quali y and ou beha io be ween he
ehicle classes would make his og ams qui e con using, we choose o p esen mos o he
da a in cumula i e o m. We exclusi ely use a Gaussian ke nel densi y es ima ion o he
p obabili y densi y o he depa u e ime o ease he plausibili y check o daily pa e ns.
No ably, due o he non- ep esen a i e composi ion and selec ion o he acked lee , no
indings conce ning absolu e p obabili ies o demand le els o di e en ehicle classes
in he a ge egion can be d awn, limi ing he analysis o ela i e demand cha ac e is ics.
Ne e heless, o ou knowledge, his is s ill he i s quan i a i e da ase on anspo elec-
i ica ion in u al SSA.
S a ing wi h he op le sub igu e, he indings om he geog aphical analysis a e con-
i med as mo o cycles and icycles gene ally co e e y sho ou s, he median being
below 2km. While bo h he aCa s and axis based in Za a also conduc abou 30% o hei
ou s simila ly, he majo i y co e longe dis ances ma ked by dis inc ly igh -shi ed dis i-
bu ions. The ma ked accumula ion (ca. 40%) o axi ou s a 35 km o 45 km and 70 km o
90 km signi ies hei equen usage shu ling be ween he egional hub o Yamoussouk o
and Za a, which a e abou 18km apa . The aCa s expe ience simila accumula ions -albei
1 3
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T anspo a ion (2025) 52:2511–2570
seen in Sec . Human-cen e ed su eys, p ima ily due o he sca ci y o anspo ehicles.
Walking as a mode o anspo poses subs an ial isks and dange s, especially o women,
due o ex e nal ac o s as no ed in Sec . Impac on sus ainable de elopmen . The men ioned
insigh s, along wi h e idence om Sec . Impac on sus ainable de elopmen , highligh ha
egional de elopmen and p og ess in a ious a eas a e subs an ially p omo ed by mobil-
i y, posi i ely impac ing SDG achie emen s. Mo eo e , he ecip ocal ela ionship be ween
mobili y access and sus ainable de elopmen unde sco es he necessi y o p io i ize ans-
po a ion unde s anding and p og ession, which seems equally c ucial o exis ing SDG
indica o s.
By in eg a ing anspo a ion conside a ions in o b oade sus ainable de elopmen agen-
das, policymake s can ca alyze posi i e socio-economic impac s and os e inclusi e g ow h
o u al communi ies in eme ging economies.
Ou look
Mo ing o wa d, he e a e se e al possibili ies o u he esea ch and explo a ion. Fi s ly,
o gain an e en mo e ex ended unde s anding o he opics co e ed in his s udy, conduc ing
addi ional on- ield s udies wi h a la ge sample size o gende -di e se pa icipan s would
be bene icial. This would allow o a deepe in es iga ion in o a ious aspec s o mobili y
dynamics in u al a eas, p o iding mo e an e en mo e de ailed pic u e o anspo a ion
beha io and mo i s. Addi ionally, ex ending he s udy scope o mo e illages su ound-
ing he local ma ke hub can o e a mo e holis ic pe spec i e on local dispa i ies in he
egion. Fu he mo e, explo ing whe he mobili y mechanisms simila o hose obse ed in
ou s udy apply o o he u al egions in Cô e d’I oi e o SSA can p o ide aluable com-
pa a i e insigh s.
While his pape p ima ily ocuses on unde s anding mobili y and i s impac s on u al
socie y in SSA egions, u u e esea ch endea o s could del e in o sus ainable s a egies o
imp o ing exis ing mobili y sys ems based on he insigh s gained. By explo ing op ions o
enhancing mobili y sus ainably, u u e publica ions can con ibu e o de eloping a ge ed
in e en ions and policy ecommenda ions o add ess anspo a ion challenges and os-
e socio-economic de elopmen in u al communi ies. O e all, he insigh s o his s udy
con ibu e o he basis o u u e esea ch e o s o ad ance ou unde s anding o mobili y
dynamics and d i e posi i e p og ess in SSA egions.
Supplemen a y in o ma ion
We p o ide a supplemen a y da ase ha includes all ip in o ma ion o he eco ded acks,
desc ibed in Sec . GPS logging. Raw GPS coo dina es a e excluded, and da es, acking IDs,
o igins, and des ina ions a e anonymized in his da ase o p o ec he pa icipan s’ p i acy.
1 3
2541

T anspo a ion (2025) 52:2511–2570
Appendix 1: Resea ch design
See Figs. 12 13, 14, 15 and Tables 14, 15.
Fig. 14 Rep esen a i e ca ds o he collec i e su ey.
Fig. 13 Sho imp ession o all ehicle ypes we acked du ing he esea ch p ojec in Za a and i s su -
ounding egion.
Fig. 12 Timeline and mobili y- ocused su eys o he p ojec .
1 3
2542
T anspo a ion (2025) 52:2511–2570
Fig. 15 Boa d design o he collec i e su ey, including exempla y he esul s o Za a.
1 3
2543
T anspo a ion (2025) 52:2511–2570
Table 14 Full o e iew o he pa icipan s’ acking, including he pa icipan s’ occupa ions and p oblems
ha came up du ing he eco ding p ocess.
Pa icipan Occupa ion Vehicle Dis ance
eco ded
in km
Conside ed P oblems
1Ca ie aCa 2016
✓
–
2Ca ie aCa 1884
✓
–
3Ca ie T icycle 742
✓
–
4Ca ie T icycle 0xSD-Ca d missing
5Ca ie T icycle 0x Ene gy ins alla-
ion b oken
6Ca ie T icycle 0xSD-Ca d missing
7Ca ie T icycle 0xLogge missing
8 Cons uc ion manage &
wo ke
Ca 0xLogge missing
9Coope a i e
ep esen a i e
Mo o bike 840
✓
–
10 Fa me Mo o bike 2655
✓
–
11 Fa me Mo o bike 1858
✓
–
12 Fa me Mo o bike 1781
✓
–
13 Fa me Mo o bike 1722
✓
–
14 Fa me Mo o bike 883
✓
–
15 Fa me Mo o bike 772
✓
–
16 Fa me Mo o bike 674
✓
–
17 Fa me Mo o bike 97 x An enna cable
b oken
18 Fa me Mo o bike 0 x Da a co up ion
19 Fa me Mo o bike 0 xSD-Ca d missing
20 Fa me Mo o bike 0 x Da a co up ion
21 Fa me Mo o bike 0 x Da a co up ion
22 Fa me T icycle 116
✓
SD-Ca d missing
once
23 Fa me T icycle 0xLogge missing
24 Fa me T icycle 0xLogge missing
25 Pis eu Mo o bike 1072
✓
–
26 Pis eu T icycle 0xSD-Ca d missing
27 Plumbe Mo o bike 2064
✓
–
28 P esiden o ice
coope a i e
Mo o bike 1410
✓
–
29 Taxid i e Ca 10002
✓
–
1 3
2544
T anspo a ion (2025) 52:2511–2570
Semi-s uc u ed in e iew guideline
In o ma ion
The guideline was de eloped du ing a Bachelo ’s Thesis o G ambs (2022) in he con ex o
he esea ch p ojec connec ed wi h his publica ion. The guideline language is F ench, he
p edominan language in he su ey egion a ound he illage o Za a.
1. Demande de données pe sonnelles
Nous ous eme cions d’a oi accep é de pa icipe à ce e in e iew. Tou d’abo d, quelques
ques ions su o e pe sonne :
●Nom, Âge, sexe, (ancienne) p o ession, si ua ion/é a ci il.
2. Pou commence , nous aime ions sa oi à quoi essemble o e ie quo idienne.
●à quelle heu e commence o e jou née ?
No. In e iewees’
occupa ion
Gende Age Village Da e o
in e iew
1Ca pen e Male 42 Za a 04.05.2022
2Doc o Male 55 Za a 04.05.2022
3P esiden o
you h
Male 35 Za a 07.05.2022
4Rep esen a i e o
you h
Male 25 Za a 07.05.2022
5Rep esen a i e
o ag icul u al
coope a i e
Male 56 Za a 29.04.2022
6Rep esen a i e o
women
Female 55 Za a 05.05.2022
7School di ec o Male 60 Zougonou 05.05.2022
8Teache Male 45 Zougonou 05.05.2022
9Fa me Male 60 Koussé 05.05.2022
10 Fa me Male 30 Koussé 05.05.2022
11 Fa me Male 30 Koussé 05.05.2022
12 Fa me Male 42 Koussé 05.05.2022
13 Housewi e Female 40 Koussé 05.05.2022
14 Mo o - axi d i e Male 32 Ko ik o 02.05.2022
15 Fa me Male 40 Ko ik o 28.04.2022
16 Me chan Female 40 Ko ik o 28.04.2022
17 Tailo Female 25 Ko ik o 28.04.2022
18 Village Chie Male 60 Bokabo 02.05.2022
19 Ad iso o he
illage chie
Male 50 Bokabo 02.05.2022
20 Mo o - axi d i e Male 19 Bokabo 02.05.2022
Table 15 Lis o all pe sonally
in e iewed locals, including
hei occupa ion, age, and li ing
place.
1 3
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T anspo a ion (2025) 52:2511–2570
●Quelles son les ac i i és de o e a ail ?
●Combien d’heu es du e o e a ail ?
●Combien d’heu es ap ès/en deho s du a ail son a aillées dans la jou née sans ê e
émuné ées ? Pa exemple, l’éduca ion des en an s, l’adminis a ion, les onc ions a -
ibuées, les âches ménagè es ?
●A ez- ous des ac i i és de loisi s spéci iques ?
●Y a- -il des cycles hebdomadai es ? Pa ex. le jou du ma ché.
●Ques ions spéci iques à la p o ession, pa ex. jou de ma ché :
●Commen se dé oule un jou de ma ché ypique ?
●Di é en es pe sonnes on -elles des ôles di é en s ?
●Oú appo ez- ous la ma chandise ?
●Quelle pa de la ma chandise ga dez- ous au illage e quelle pa es endue ?
●Qui achè e la ma chandise ?
●Oú on les ma chandises à la in ?
●La ma chandise es -elle pe due, pa exemple si elle n’es pas endue ou si elle es
endommagée pendan le anspo ?
●Qu’ache ez- ous au ma ché ?
3. Ques ions su les habi udes de mobili é
●3.1 Nous souhai ons main enan sa oi commen ous ous déplacez dans o e ie
quo idienne.Oú ous déplacez- ous ?
●A quelle équence ous déplacez- ous ?
●Quand ous déplacez- ous ?
●Y a- -il des pé iodes p écises pendan lesquelles la mobili é es acc ue ? A quels in e -
alles ?
●Pendan combien de emps ous déplacez- ous ?
●A ec quels moyens de anspo ous déplacez- ous ?
●A ec quelles pe sonnes ous déplacez- ous habi uellemen ?
●Combien d’a gen consac ez- ous à la mobili é dans o e ie quo idienne ?3.2 Opin-
ions su les di é en s moyens de anspo Se déplace à pied : a an ages e incon é-
nien s, ac i i és, pe sonnes adap ées.
●E ec ue des aje s à élo : a an ages e incon énien s, ac i i és, pe sonnes adap ées.
●E ec ue des aje s en mo o/mobyle e : a an ages e incon énien s, ac i i és, pe son-
nes adap ées.
●Pa cou i des aje s en icycle : a an ages e incon énien s, ac i i és, pe sonnes adap-
ées.
●E ec ue des aje s en oi u e : a an ages e incon énien s, ac i i és, pe sonnes adap-
ées.
●Au iez- ous olon ie s ecou s à d’au es moyens de anspo si cela ous é ai possible
?
1 3
2546

T anspo a ion (2025) 52:2511–2570
4. Déc i ez les p oblèmes/besoins que ous pe ce ez dans o e locali é.
●4.1 App o isionnemen e u ilisa ion de l’éne gieU ilisez- ous ac uellemen de
l’élec ici é ?
●De quelle sou ce ?
●Dans quel bu ?
●Combien ous coû e l’élec ici é ?
●Quels son les p oblèmes que ous encon ez dans o e u ilisa ion quo idienne de
l’élec ici é ?4.2 Soins médicauxQuel es le lien a ec les soins de san é ?
●Commen éagissez- ous en cas d’u gence médicale ?
●Quel es le coû du anspo en e mes d’u gence médicale ?4.3 Disponibili é de l’eau
po ableQuelle eau bu ez- ous ?
●Combien de emps au -il pou se p ocu e de l’eau po able ?
●Combien payez- ous pou l’eau po able ?4.4 écoleOú se ou en les écoles les plus
p oches ?
●Combien de emps au -il pou se end e dans ces écoles ?
●Commen les écolie s se enden -ils à l’école ?
5. Ques ions dans le cad e d’un a elie du u u
●Quelle u ilisa ion de la mobili é pensez- ous pou oi ê e en isagée à l’a eni ?
●Commen pensez- ous que la mobili é é olue a à l’a eni ?
●Qui p o i e ai pa iculiè emen des di é en s changemen s en ma iè e de mobili é ?
●Pensez- ous que la mobili é peu condui e à une amélio a ion de la quali é de ie gé-
né ale ?
6. P oje aCa (en appo a ec le oo ing)
●P ésen a ion du p oje .
●Y a- -il des aje s que ous emp un ez pa iculiè emen sou en ?
●Pou iez- ous en isage d’u ilise l’aCa comme se ice ?
●Pensez- ous que la oi u e o e une aleu ajou ée que les au es oi u es ne peu en
pas a oi ?
●Si ous pensez à l’équipemen de la oi u e, y a- -il des ca ac é is iques pa iculiè es à
p end e en comp e ?
●Qui, selon ous, p o i e ai le plus d’un el moyen de anspo ?
1 3
2547
T anspo a ion (2025) 52:2511–2570
Appendix 2: Resea ch esul s
See Figs. 16, 17 and 18. Tables 19 and 18.
Fig. 16 Impo an loca ions iden i ied du ing he Za a wo kshop by he i s g oup o locals.
1 3
2548
T anspo a ion (2025) 52:2511–2570
Fig. 17 Impo an loca ions iden i ied du ing he Za a wo kshop by he second g oup o locals.
1 3
2549
T anspo a ion (2025) 52:2511–2570
Fig. 18 Impo an loca ions iden i ied du ing he Za a wo kshop by he hi d g oup o locals.
1 3
2550
T anspo a ion (2025) 52:2511–2570
Loca ion* Da e† Time Age Gende ‡ No. o
people
Di ec ion†† Mode‡‡ O igin Des ina ion Pu pose De ail F equency Dis ance Cos ** In e -
iewe s
S14.2 13:48 35,
40
m(2x) 2 Ou T Field Za a, oma o
ield
Wo k,
con-
s uc-
ion,
ans-
po
palm
lea es
They go
o hei
a he ’s
oma o
ield o
build a
shed ou
o palm
lea es.
Yes, ex-
cep ional
pu pose
100 m T icycle
owned
by he
owne
o he
a m
3,4
S14.2 14:00 38 m1In WFields
(cacao)
Za a Fi e-
wood
(Fago),
ans-
po
o wo
chicken
Ad-
di ional
wo k,
ac ually
wo ks
as a me-
chanic
Daily 1 km Wheel–
ba ow:
5000
3,4
S14.2 12:24 12 1Ou W Za a – Take
i e-
wood
and
wa e
– Daily 20 min –3,4
NE 15.2 12:00 30,
35
m(2x) 2 Ou W Za a Cons u–c ion
si e
House
on con-
s uc-
ion
si e
Ca ied
wi h
him:
cemen ,
wa e
o
d inking
Daily 500 m –3,4
Table 16 (con inued)
1 3
2557

T anspo a ion (2025) 52:2511–2570
Loca ion* Da e† Time Age Gende ‡ No. o
people
Di ec ion†† Mode‡‡ O igin Des ina ion Pu pose De ail F equency Dis ance Cos ** In e -
iewe s
NE 15.2 12:00 – m 1In MField a
Tenik o
Za a Wo ked
(caco
champ),
now.
ake a
es a
home
– Daily 17 km –2,3
NE 15.2 12:00 55 1In WField Za a Fi e-
wood,
yam
–Daily,
mul iple
imes
3 km –2,3
NE 15.2 12:00 52 m1In BField Za a Wo k Maniok,
gombo,
aube -
gine
No
egula y
7km B:
30000
2,3
NE 15.2 12:00 48 m1In BField Za a Banana
ha es
Bananas
a e sold
on ma -
ke on
Wednes-
day
5–6 imes
pe week
4km B:
30000
2,3
NE 15.2 12:30 50 m(2x) 2 In WAe o–
po
Za a Bush
a s
2 men
wi h
dogs
we e
chasing
a s and
wan ed
o sell
hem
la e in
Za a
Daily 5km –2,3
Table 16 (con inued)
1 3
2558
T anspo a ion (2025) 52:2511–2570
Loca ion* Da e† Time Age Gende ‡ No. o
people
Di ec ion†† Mode‡‡ O igin Des ina ion Pu pose De ail F equency Dis ance Cos ** In e -
iewe s
NE 15.2 12:30 – m 1In BField Za a Re u n
o Za a
o es
Cham-
pignon,
ish
Daily 3 km –2,3
NE 15.2 13:00 58 m1In WCon–
s u–
c ion
si e
Za a Ge ing
s h.
om
he con-
s uc-
ion
si e
– Daily 50m –2,3
NE 15.2 13:00 40 m1In MField Za a – – Daily 3km 40000 2,3
NE 15.2 13:00 35 m1In BField Za a Collec -
ing
Fi e-
wood,
ignam
Daily 7 km B:
30000
2,3
NE 15.2 13:00 30 1Ou B Za a Cons– uc ion
si e
Ge ing
ood
Toma es – – – 2,3
* NW: no hwes en ance o Za a, NE: no heas en ance o Za a, S: sou h en ance o Za a; † in he yea 2022;‡ : emale, m: male; †† In: o, Ou : ou o Za a;‡‡ B:
bicycle, M: mo o bike, T: icycle, W: walk; ** cos s in CFA, ‡‡ applies.
Table 16 (con inued)
1 3
2559
T anspo a ion (2025) 52:2511–2570
Table 17 Locals ha we e jus coun ed du ing he oadside in e iew phase.
Loca ion* Da e† Gende ‡ No. o people Di ec ion†† Mode‡‡ Ca go
NW 14.2 m7In B–
NW 14.2 m1Ou B–
NW 14.2 m(c) 1 In B–
NW 14.2 m3In M–
NW 14.2 m(c) 1 Ou M–
NW 14.2 9In W–
NW 14.2 (c) 3 In W–
NW 14.2 m – In W–
NW 14.2 m – Ou W–
S15.2 m1Ou MGene a o
S15.2 m3In T Wood
S15.2 m1Ou T –
S15.2 1In W Wood
S15.2 4In T People
S15.2 m1In B–
S15.2 m1In B–
S15.2 m1Ou M–
S15.2 m3Ou T People
S15.2 m1In BP oduce
S15.2 m1Ou M–
S15.2 m1In BP oduce
* NW: no hwes en ance o Za a, S: sou h en ance o Za a; † in he yea 2022; ‡ : emale, m: male, c:
child; †† In: o, Ou : ou o Za a;‡‡ B: bicycle, M: mo o bike, T: icycle, W: walk
1 3
2560
T anspo a ion (2025) 52:2511–2570
Des ina ion Mean o
anspo
Days pe week No. o
days pe
week
Dis-
ance
(one
way)
Pe son Vil-
lage
Chu ch Walk Wed, Sun 2 0.5 1 1
Field Walk Mo, Tue, Thu , F i, Sa 5 5 1 1
Chu ch Mo o Sun 1 1 2 1
Field Mo o Mo, Tue, Thu , F i, Sa 5 7 2 1
Yamoussouk o Ca Wed, Sun 2 15 2 1
Chu ch Walk Sun 1 0.3 3 1
Field Mo o Mo, Tue, Wed, Thu , F i, Sa 6 4 3 1
Chu ch Walk Sun 1 0.5 4 1
Field Walk Mo, Tue, Wed, Thu , F i, Sa 6 3 4 1
Chu ch Walk Sun 1 0.3 5 1
Field Walk Mo, Tue, Wed, Thu , F i, Sa 6 2 5 1
Chu ch Walk Sun 1 1 6 1
Field Walk Mo, Tue, Wed, Thu s, Sa 5 6 6 1
Yamoussouk o Taxi F i 1 21 6 1
Chu ch Walk Sun 1 0.5 7 1
Field Walk Mo, Tue, Wed, Thu s, F i, Sa 6 5 7 1
Chu ch Walk Sun 1 0.1 8 1
Field Walk Mo, Tue, Wed, Thu s, F i, Sa 6 5 8 1
Field Walk Mo, Tue, Wed, Thu s, F i, Sa 6 2 9 1
Cha ging Phone Walk Wed 1 4 10 1
Chu ch Walk Sun 1 4 10 1
Domicile Walk Thu 1 5 10 1
Field Walk Mo, Tue, Sa 3 8 10 1
Chu ch Walk Sun 1 0.5 11 1
Field Walk Mo, Tue, Thu s, F i, Sa 5 7 11 1
Za a Walk Wed 1 10 11 1
Chu ch Walk Sun 1 1 12 1
Field Bike F i, Sa 2 3 12 1
Field Walk Mo, Tue 2 3 12 1
Yamoussouk o Taxi Wed 1 21 12 1
Za a Bike Thu 111 12 1
Chu ch Walk Wed, Sun 2 1 13 1
Field Walk Mo, Tue, Thu s, F i 4 6 13 1
Yamoussouk o Bike Sa 1 24 13 1
Chu ch Walk Wed, Sun 2 1 14 1
Field Walk Mo, Tue 2 4.5 14 1
Loblak o Bike F i 1 36 14 1
Yamoussouk o Bike Thu 1 22 14 1
Chu ch Walk Sun 1 1 15 1
Field Walk Mo, Tue, Wed, Thu s, F i, Sa 6 3 15 1
Field Walk Mo, Tue, Wed, Thu s, F i 5 4.5 16 1
Yamoussouk o Taxi Sa 1 22 16 1
Chu ch Walk Sun 1 1 17 1
Field Walk Mo, Tue, Wed, Thu s, Sa 5 6 17 1
Table 18 Raw able o answe s gi en du ing he a el dia y su ey explained in Sec ion 3.1.3 and e alua ed
in Sec . 4.1.2.
1 3
2561
T anspo a ion (2025) 52:2511–2570
Des ina ion Mean o
anspo
Days pe week No. o
days pe
week
Dis-
ance
(one
way)
Pe son Vil-
lage
Yamoussouk o Taxi F i 1 21 17 1
Chu ch Walk Sun 1 0.3 18 1
Field Walk Mo, Tue, Wed, Thu , Sa 5 2 18 1
Yamoussouk o Walk F i 1 22 18 1
Chu ch Walk Sun 1 0.5 19 1
Field Walk Mo, Tue, Wed, Thu sdays, F i, Sa 6 3 19 1
Chu ch Walk Sun 1 0.3 20 1
Field Mo o Mo, Tue, Wed, Thu sdays, F i, Sa 6 4 20 1
Chu ch Walk Sun 1 0.3 21 1
Field Walk Mo, Tue, Thu sdays, F i, Sa 5 6 21 1
Yamoussouk o Walk Wed 1 22 21 1
Chu ch Walk Sun 1 0.3 22 1
Field Walk Mo, Tue, Wed, Thu sdays, F i 5 6 22 1
Yamoussouk o Walk Sa 1 22 22 1
Di e en
Villages
T icycle F i 1 0 23 1
Ville T icycle Wed 1 0 23 1
Wo k T icycle Mo, Tue, Wed, Thu sdays, F i, Sa 6 0 23 1
Chu ch Walk Sun 1 1 24 1
Field Bike Mo, Tue, Thu sdays, Sa 4 4 24 1
Yamoussouk o Taxi Wed 1 22 24 1
Zougounou Mo o F i 1 18 24 1
Field Walk Mo, Tue, Thu sdays, Sa 4 7 25 1
Field Walk Mo, Wed, F i 3 6 26 1
Chu ch Walk Sun 1 0.5 27 2
Field Walk Mo, Tue, Thu sdays, F i, Sa 5 2 27 2
Yamoussouk o Taxi Wed 1 22 27 2
Field Walk Mo, Tue, Thu sdays, F i, Sa 5 2.5 28 2
Yamoussouk o Taxi Wed, Sun 2 23 28 2
Chu ch Walk Sun 1 0.2 29 2
Field Walk Mo, Tue, Thu sdays, F i, Sa 5 3 29 2
Yamoussouk o Taxi Wed 1 22 29 2
Field Walk Mo, Tue, Thu sdays, F i, Sa 5 1 30 2
Yamoussouk o Taxi Wed 1 23 30 2
Chu ch Mo o Sun 1 7 31 2
Field Walk Mo, Tue, Thu sdays, F i, Sa 5 3 31 2
Za a Mo o Wed 1 7 31 2
Chu ch Walk Sun 1 0.2 32 2
Field Walk Mo, Tue, Thu sdays, F i, Sa 5 1.5 32 2
Chu ch Walk Sun 1 0.3 33 2
Field Walk Mo, Tue, Thu sdays, F i, Sa 5 3 33 2
Field T icycle Mo, Tue, Thu sdays, F i, Sa 5 1 34 2
Yamoussouk o T icycle Wed 1 23 34 2
Field Walk Mo, Tue, Thu sdays, F i, Sa 5 8 35 2
Za a Walk Wed 1 7 35 2
Table 18 (con inued)
1 3
2562

T anspo a ion (2025) 52:2511–2570
SDG Challenges po en ials De ail 1 2345678910†
O he s‡ C Cos o T anspo a ion – ––1–––––– –
Mobili y as a sa e y issue o women 1–––––––– –
Mobili y a ailabili y m ––3 1 –––2 1 –
Mobili y changes due o he ainy season m ––1––––1– –
No d i e ’s license – – – – – – – 2– – –
PEmpowe men h ough independen mobili y m –––––––1– –
Inc ease mobili y be ween illages m ––2–––––– –
Mobili y o de elop illage 2m ––1–––1– – –
1 CPo e y* 2m –––––1– – – –
P Democ a ize mobili y access o s eng hen he ecosys em – – – – – – – – – – x
2CO ganiza ion and comple ion o ag icul u al p ojec s* 2m ––––––––– –
C op insecu i y – – – 1–––––– –
Food was e – ––2–––––1–
P o ide school meals m – – – – 1–––– –
P De elop he ag icul u al sec o by building in as uc u e* 2m ––––––––– –
Imp o e o goods anspo a ion o allow a cheape and be e , decen alized goods exchange – ––––––––– x
3C Cos o heal h se ices – – 2–––––– –
Lack o medical equipmen /s a m – 1– – 1–––– –
Mis us in he heal h ca e sys em* – 11–––––– –
Accessibili y o heal h se ices m – 1– – 1–––– –
Eme gency mobili y – – 2–––––– –
P Expand heal h ca e se ices m – 1––––––– –
VbS se ices as p oposed in Pizzinini e al. (2023) – ––––––––– x
Table 19 E alua ion o SDG indica o s in e sec ing wi h mobili y wi hin he su ey desc ibed in Sec . 3.2.3.
1 3
2563
T anspo a ion (2025) 52:2511–2570
SDG Challenges po en ials De ail 1 2345678910†
4CCos o educa ion* m –––––1– – – –
Bad school acili ies m – – – – 11– – – –
Inadequa e co e age o school access because o esou ces/s a 2m –––––1– – – –
Long dis ances o school and unsa e ou es m ––1–11– – – –
PIn es school acili ies* 3m ––––11– – – –
Es ablish a school bus sys em m – – 1 1 –––1– –
Be e anspo a ion sys em o eache s – ––––––––– x
5CWomen’s associa ions* ––––––––– –
Inequali y be ween women and men ––––––––– –
Mobili y as a sa e y issue o women 1–––––––– –
PGi ing means o mobili y o women –1–2––––1– –
Equal access o mo o ized anspo a ion and sel –d i ing o woman and men – ––––––––– x
6CMain enance o d inking wa e acili ies* m ––1–––––– –
D inking wa e a ailabili y/insecu i y – ––311–––– –
PD inking wa e anspo a ion beyond usual se ices – ––––––––– x
7C Access o ene gy m 1–2–11– – – –
Cos o connec ion o he ene gy g id m – – – – 1–––– –
P Usage o ba e ies – – – 1– – 1––1–
Applica ion and usages o syne gies o BEVs o ene gy supply – ––––––––– x
8CO ganiza ion and comple ion o ag icul u al p ojec s* 2m ––––––––– –
Manual labo * m1–1–––––– –
PDe elop he ag icul u al sec o by building in as uc u e* 2m ––––––––– –
Imp o e wo king condi ions* m1–1–––––– –
Inc ease business p oduc i i y* 2m 1 –––––1– – –
T anspo se ice o ag icul u al machines – – – – – – – – – – x
VbS se ices as p oposed in Pizzinini e al. (2023) – ––––––––– x
Table 19 (con inued)
1 3
2564
T anspo a ion (2025) 52:2511–2570
SDG Challenges po en ials De ail 1 2345678910†
9CSubsidies by he I o ian S a e* 2m –1––––––– –
P De elop he ag icul u al sec o by building in as uc u e* 2m ––––––––– –
Mode n ma ke * m ––––––1– – –
Ma ke goods anspo a ion se ice – ––––––––– x
10 CInequali y be ween you h and elde s* ––––––––– –
Mode choice inequali ies ela ed o income and gende – ––––––––– x
PSubsidies by I o ian S a e* 2m –1––––––– –
Fai anspo a ion se ices ha each e e yone – – – – – – – – – – x
11 C –
PInc ease illage decision–powe on a s uc u al le el* 3m ––1–––1– – –
Mobili y o de elop illage 2m ––1–––1– – –
12 CFood was e* – ––2––––1– –
P Imp o ed goods in e – illage goods anspo ia mo o ized anspo a ion and in as uc u e – – – – – – – – – – x
13 CClima e change* 2m –––1––––– –
C op secu i y* – ––2–––––– –
T anspo a ion issues due o hea y ain – – – – – – – – – – x
PMo e looding secu ed s ee s – ––––––––– x
* no di ec ly connec ed wi h mobili y, bu a he indi ec ly ela ed; † addi ional con en om on-si e obse a ions; ‡ gene al challenges and po en ials men ioned wi hin
he in e iews.
Su eyee g oup numbe s align wi h he en y posi ions o he g oups in Table 8. Fo ca ego ies con aining jus one gende , only he numbe o indi iduals s a ing he
in o ma ion a e lis ed. Mixed g oups include gende in o ma ion (male: m, emale: ).
Table 19 (con inued)
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T anspo a ion (2025) 52:2511–2570
Supplemen a y In o ma ion The online e sion con ains supplemen a y ma e ial a ailable a h p s : / / d o i . o g
/ 1 0 . 1 0 0 7 / s 1 1 1 1 6 - 0 2 5 - 1 0 6 7 1 - 0 .
Acknowledgemen s This esea ch was conduc ed wi h unding om he Ge man Fede al Minis y o Eco-
nomic Coope a ion and De elopmen (BMZ). The au ho s decla e no con lic o in e es be ween unding
and he p esen ed esea ch app oach.
Au ho con ibu ions The i s au ho , D.Z., de ised he idea o his publica ion and d a ed he esea ch
p oposal; D.Z. supe ised and conduc ed he ield esea ch oge he wi h C.P. and P.R.; M.K., S.G., and V.R.
conduc ed hei heses du ing ield esea ch unde he supe ision o D.Z. and con ibu ed wi h esul s o his
pape ; D.Z. analyzed he da a, d a ed he s o yline, w o e he majo i y o he con en , and illus a ed he ig-
u es; M.K. con ibu ed con en o he Indi idual T a el Mo i s, Roadside In e iews, and Communi y T a el
Mo i s sec ion; S.G. and V.R. con ibu ed con en o he Pe sonal In e iews and Impac on Sus ainable
De elopmen sec ion; P.R. con ibu ed con en o Vehicle GPS Logging and T anspo Elec i ica ion Model-
ing Conside a ions sec ion; C.P. and P.R. con ibu ed aluable hough s o he publica ion and e iewed he
pape c i ically; D.Z. and P.R. e ised he publica ion; M.L. made an essen ial con ibu ion o he concep ion
o he esea ch p ojec . He c i ically e ised he pape o i s impo an in ellec ual con en ; M.L. ga e inal
app o al o he e sion o be published and ag eed o all aspec s o he wo k.
Funding Open Access unding enabled and o ganized by P ojek DEAL. This esea ch was conduc ed wi h
unding om he Ge man Fede al Minis y o Economic Coope a ion and De elopmen (BMZ).
Da a a ailabili y We p o ide a supplemen a y da ase ha includes all ip in o ma ion o he logged acks,
desc ibed in Sec ion 3.1.1. Raw GPS coo dina es a e excluded, and da es, acking IDs, o igins, and des ina-
ions a e anonymized in his da ase o p o ec he pa icipan s’ p i acy.
Decla a ions
Con lic o in e es The au ho s decla e no con lic o in e es be ween unding and he p esen ed esea ch
app oach.
E hical app o al No applicable.
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which pe mi s use, sha ing, adap a ion, dis ibu ion and ep oduc ion in any medium o o ma , as long as
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Re e ences
Acheampong, R. A., Lucas,K., Poku-Boansi,M., Uzondu, C.: T anspo and Mobili y Fu u es in U ban
A ica. 1s ed. 2022. The U ban Book Se ies. Cham: Sp inge In e na ional Publishing and Imp in
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Balke, G., Adenaw, L.: Hea y comme cial ehicles mobili y: da ase o ucks anonymized eco ded d i ing
and ope a ion (DT-CARGO). Da a B ie 48, 109246 (2023). h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.dib.2023.109246.
Beh ens, R., McCo mick, D., M inanga, D.: Pa a ansi in A ican Ci ies: Ope a ions, Regula ion and
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