Khan, Rashid Pa ez; Gup a, Sau abh; Daum, Thomas; Bi ne , Regina; Ringle ,
Claudia
A icle — Published Ve sion
Le elling he ield: A e iew o he ICT e olu ion and
ag icul u al ex ension in he Global Sou h
Jou nal o In e na ional De elopmen
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John Wiley & Sons
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Khan, Rashid Pa ez; Gup a, Sau abh; Daum, Thomas; Bi ne , Regina; Ringle ,
Claudia (2024) : Le elling he ield: A e iew o he ICT e olu ion and ag icul u al ex ension in
he Global Sou h, Jou nal o In e na ional De elopmen , ISSN 1099-1328, Wiley Pe iodicals, Inc.,
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RESEARCH ARTICLE
Le elling he ield: A e iew o he ICT e olu ion
and ag icul u al ex ension in he Global Sou h
Rashid Pa ez Khan
1
| Sau abh Gup a
2
| Thomas Daum
1
|
Regina Bi ne
1
| Claudia Ringle
3
1
Hans-Ru henbe g-Ins i u e o Ag icul u al
Science in he T opics, Uni e si y o
Hohenheim, S u ga , Ge many
2
Cen e o De elopmen Policy and
Managemen (CDPM), Indian Ins i u e o
Managemen , Udaipu , India
3
Na u al Resou ces and Resilience Uni ,
In e na ional Food Policy Resea ch Ins i u e,
Washing on, DC, USA
Co espondence
Rashid Pa ez Khan, Hans-
Ru henbe g-Ins i u e o Ag icul u al Science
in he T opics, Uni e si y o Hohenheim,
Wollg asweg 43, 70599, S u ga , Ge many.
Email: [email p o ec ed]
Funding in o ma ion
Ge man Fede al Minis y o Economic
Coope a ion and De elopmen (BMZ),
G an /Awa d Numbe : 600250.000.001
520-01-01
Abs ac
In o ma ion and communica ions echnology has e ol ed
signi ican ly o e he las se en decades, beginning wi h
adio and ideo ans and culmina ing in he ise o
sma phones and mobile in e ne in emo e a eas o he
Global Sou h. While ICT is an in eg al pa o ag icul u al
ex ension, li le is known abou how hese changes ha e
in luenced ag icul u al ex ension p ac ices. A e a sys ema ic
e iew o 131 pape s, we ind ha changes in ICT ha e
shaped ag icul u al ex ension, enabling a shi om linea dis-
semina ion and “one-way communica ion” o co-inno a ion
and a me - o- a me lea ning. The esul s indica e he
po en ial o sma phones and mobile in e ne o democ a-
ize ag icul u al ex ension.
KEYWORDS
ag icul u al ex ension, de eloping coun ies, in o ma ion and
communica ions echnology (ICT), mobile in e ne , sma phone,
ideo
1|INTRODUCTION
Ag icul u al ex ension is key o imp o ing u al li elihoods by p o iding in o ma ion on imp o ed ag icul u al p ac-
ices, supply o inpu s, access o ma ke s and wea he o ecas ing, among o he s. The e is no se de ini ion o ex en-
sion, bu i is widely acknowledged ha i e e s o communica ion ha helps people make decisions (Black, 2000).
The ex ension co e s bo h echnical knowledge and he elemen s o communica ion, acili a ion and empowe men
Recei ed: 18 Ma ch 2024 Re ised: 11 July 2024 Accep ed: 6 Augus 2024
DOI: 10.1002/jid.3949
This is an open access a icle unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion License, which pe mi s use, dis ibu ion and
ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed.
© 2024 The Au ho (s). Jou nal o In e na ional De elopmen published by John Wiley & Sons L d.
J. In . De . 2025;37:1–21. wileyonlinelib a y.com/jou nal/jid 1
(Da is e al., 2018). Ag icul u e ex ension is de ined as ‘a sys em which assis s a a m h ough educa ional p oce-
du es, in imp o ing a ming me hods and echniques, inc easing p oduc ion e iciency and income, be e ing hei
le els o li ing and li ing he social and educa ional s anda ds o u al li e’(Maunde , 1972, p. 3). Ag icul u al
ex ension has e ol ed o e nea ly 4,000 yea s (Allanson, 1988; Jones & Ga o h, 1994). The i s known example o
“ adi ional”in o ma ion dissemina ion ool is clay able s bea ing insc ibed ins uc ions on wa e ing c ops o add ess
a a p oblem in Mesopo amia (Ahmed, 1982). Simila ly, he Han Dynas y in Impe ial China (25–220 AD) used
ag icul u al in o ma ion se ices. Du ing he Sung and Yuan dynas ies (960–1,368), he in en ion o woodblock
p in ing acili a ed he p omo ion o ag icul u al ex ension h ough p ac ical handbooks (Jones & Ga o h, 1994). In
Eu ope, ag icul u al ex ension can be aced back o he Renaissance, bu he bi h o mode n ag icul u al ex ension
ook place only in he 19 h cen u y (Boon, 2010; Ponniah e al., 2008; Swanson e al., 1997).
1
O e ime, wo k on
ex ension has ma u ed and b oadened, especially in he Global No h. Wi h he onse o decoloniza ion in he Global
Sou h ollowing he end o Wo ld Wa II, he scope o ag icul u al ex ension also expanded in many low- and
middle-income coun ies (LMICs). Hence, i is pa icula ly in e es ing o s udy ex ension p ac ices o e he las se en
decades om he pe spec i e o he Global Sou h (Ande son & Fede , 2007).
A de ining ea u e o ag icul u al ex ension has been i s cons an enewal in andem wi h ad ances in in o ma-
ion and communica ions echnology (he ea e ICT). Ag icul u al in o ma ion sys ems ha e e ol ed signi ican ly
o e he las se en decades, s a ing wi h ools such as newspape and adio, expanding o ele ision and ideo, and
mo e ecen ly, cell phones, sma phones and mobile in e ne . The e is a g owing in e es among u al de elopmen
agencies and p o essionals o unde s and he ole o ICT in shaping and enhancing ag icul u al ex ension. This is
especially ue as ag icul u e aces he challenges o g owing clima e unce ain ies, con inued gende inequali ies
and ecu en ag a ian c ises in de eloping coun ies. T adi ional ICT such as newspape s, adio and ele ision, which
we e popula un il he end o he las cen u y, we e la gely limi ed o he one-way ans e o in o ma ion and
we e he e o e plagued by in o ma ion asymme y (Fu & Ak e , 2016; Islam & G önlund, 2011). As such, adi ional
ICT s uggled o mee he a me s' in o ma ion needs and o deli e imely, accu a e and cus omized in o ma ion
(Gao e al., 2020; R. Singh e al., 2023).
ICT has ad anced d ama ically since he beginning o he 21s cen u y, pa icula ly as mobile phone subsc ip-
ions inc eased (Nakasone e al., 2014). A guably, mode n ICT can help in imp o ing he pe o mance o ag icul u al
ex ension (Duncombe, 2016; Nakasone & To e o, 2016). Cell phones and sma phones p omise o suppo a me s
wi h imely and loca ion-speci ic in o ma ion and help in he adop ion o mo e knowledge-in ensi e p oduc ion
and ma ke ing p ac ices (Emeana e al., 2020; Ka anasios & Sla o a, 2019; N. Khan e al., 2020; Mbuyisa &
Leona d, 2017). Wi h a me s able o eques in o ma ion, cell- and sma phones ha e also demons a ed hei sui -
abili y in add essing in o ma ion asymme ies (Ali & Kuma , 2011; de Sil a e al., 2009; Fa champs & Min en, 2012;
Gandhi e al., 2007; Mi al & Meha , 2012; Mu o & Yamano, 2009). In ad anced economies, hese ools ha e
become a pa o li e o many a me s, helping o democ a ize he gene a ion and dissemina ion o ag icul u e
in o ma ion. Democ a iza ion o ag icul u al ex ension can be unde s ood as an in o ma ion exchange among
a me s by sha ing hei own pho os, ex messages, oice eco dings o ideos on issues ela ing o ag icul u e
h ough sma phones and social media pla o ms. As he pene a ion o sma phones and a o dable mobile in e ne
is inc easing apidly in he u al a eas o he Global Sou h, i is wo h examining he po en ial o mode n ICT ools in
democ a izing messaging in ag icul u al ex ension, he main ocus o his e iew pape .
This pape examines he e olu ion o ICT o e he las se en decades, ha is in di e en phases o ag a ian
change, and explo es how his a ec ed ag icul u al ex ension based on an ex ensi e e iew o he li e a u e.
Re iewing how his o ical changes in ICT ha e shaped ag icul u al ex ension, and assessing how e ec i e echnology
has been in mee ing a me s' ex ension demands o e ime allows us o be e unde s and and con ex ualize he
po en ial and challenges o mode n ICT in p o iding ag icul u al in o ma ion. This will also help in e alua ing i and
how he la es ICT ools can ca e o he a me s' in o ma ion needs is-à- is he g and challenges o he 21s
cen u y, including bu no es ic ed o add essing clima e change and eaching ou o women a me s (Issahaku
e al., 2018). Wi h he help o he ollowing guiding ques ions, we conduc he e iew:
2KHAN ET AL.
•How has he ICT o ag icul u al ex ension e ol ed and changed o e ime?
•Wha ha e been he ad an ages and challenges o di e en ypes o ICT ools in dissemina ing ag icul u al
in o ma ion o a me s? To wha ex en has he changing na u e o ICT led o he democ a iza ion o messaging
o ag icul u al ex ension?
The pape is s uc u ed as ollows: Sec ion 2in oduces a concep ual amewo k ha uses a his o ical pe spec i e o
explain he changing na u e o ICT o ag icul u al ex ension, while Sec ion 3p esen s he me hodology used o he
e iew. Sec ions 4and 5p esen he esul s o a e iew o he li e a u e on ICT o ag icul u al ex ension, ocusing
on he o igins and changing na u e o ex ension se ices. The discussion in sec ion 6 ocuses on he la es inno a-
ions in ag icul u al in o ma ion sys ems and he concluding sec ion summa izes he key indings om he e iew.
2|CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
The li e a u e e iew is guided by a concep ual amewo k (Figu e 1). The au ho s adop a his o ical pe spec i e in
e alua ing he capabili y o he dominan ICT ools co esponding o he di e en phases o ag icul u al ex ension
se ices and explain he changing na u e o ag icul u al ex ension om he 1950s o he p esen imes. The ame-
wo k shows h ee pa allel s eams, which –as we will show –g ea ly in luence each o he : he dominan ex ension
pa adigm, he ypes o ag icul u e p ac ices and he main ICT ools and hei capabili ies.
In he 1950s and 1960s, ag icul u e ex ension p ac ices we e es ic ed o one-way, op-down in o ma ion
dissemina ion om esea che s and go e nmen s o a me s mainly engaged in subsis ence ag icul u e (Boon, 2010;
Jones, 1986). This pa adigm is e e ed o as “ ans e o echnology”(Ande son e al., 2006; Cook e al., 2021;
Piccio o & Ande son, 1997). In he 1960s, many de eloping coun ies such as India wi nessed massi e ood c ises,
which igge ed he G een Re olu ion ha aimed o in ensi y ag icul u e and achie e ood sel -su iciency using
high-yielding a ie ies o seeds, chemical e ilize s, pes icides and secu ed i iga ion (Umali-Deininge , 1997).
FIGURE 1 ICT and ag icul u al ex ension. Sou ce: Au ho s' own compila ion.
KHAN ET AL.3
Adop ion o hese ag icul u al echnology-based p ac ices equi ed ad anced skills and knowledge and he messag-
ing emained one-way and op-down (B iones & Felipe, 2013). Du ing he 1970s and 1980s, in o ma ion dissemina-
ion on ag icul u al p ac ices inc eased in complexi y, necessi a ing new app oaches o an ex ension, exempli ied in
he “ aining and isi ”ex ension sys em whe e ex ension agen s demons a e he use o hese echnologies h ough
weekly isi s. Howe e , he in o ma ion low emained supply-d i en (Fe oni & Zhou, 2012). In he 1990s and ea ly
2000s, due o he g owing comme cializa ion o ag icul u e, whe e a ms inc easingly specialized in ewe commodi-
ies and g owing sha es o a m p oduc s we e sold, p i a e playe s also s a ed o p o ide ex ension se ices, mainly
o la ge, sales-o ien ed a me s in speci ic egions. Ex ension sys ems lacked pa icipa ion and accessibili y, and as in
p e ious decades, la gely emained op-down (Wes e mann e al., 2015).
O e he las decade o so, co-inno a ion and pa icipa o y o ms o ex ension sys ems ha e become mo e com-
mon. The co-inno a ion o m o he ex ension sys em is a pa o he ag icul u al knowledge and inno a ion sys em
(AKIS), which includes di e en s akeholde s, i.e., public ex ension p o ide s, p i a e agencies, NGOs, a me g oups,
coope a i es and a me s (Bo ha e al., 2017). These s akeholde s a e in ol ed in all s eps, om he co-design phase
o de eloping ex ension p ac ices o he inal deli e y o he in o ma ion o he a me s (F iede ichsen e al., 2013).
AKIS pu s emphasis no only on ac o s bu he in luence o ins i u ions and in as uc u e ha include o ganiza ions
beyond ex ension sys ems and ag icul u al esea ch. All he ac o s play an impo an ole in he inno a ion p ocesses
by inno a ing, changing and lea ning (Kle kx e al., 2012). O all he ac o s, a me s' local knowledge and i s in eg a-
ion wi h mode n ag icul u e p ac ices is cen al in b idging he gap be ween adi ional knowledge sys ems and
mode n ag icul u e p ac ices (Kle kx e al., 2016; Robe s e al., 2023; U e e al., 2021). Fa me s sha e local knowl-
edge o imp o e ag icul u e p ac ices and echniques. I is an i e a i e p ocess whe e a me s collabo a e wi h o he
s akeholde s o suppo changes in a ming p ac ices and adop new echnology o imp o ing p oduc i i y (Lau ens
e al., 2023).
These phases o ag icul u al ex ension app oaches we e accompanied by pa allel changes in ICT. Ea lie o ms o
ICT such as newspape s and adio we e used o con ey gene ic ag icul u al in o ma ion on c op husband y p ac ices
as well as p ice de elopmen s and wea he o ecas s (Ake , 2011). A echnological shi in ICT use led o he eme -
gence o ele ision and ideo demons a ions, which enabled o con ey mo e complex messages o a me s. I com-
plemen ed he need o such messages due o changes in a ming wi h he ise o he G een Re olu ion. Howe e ,
wi h such ICT, in o ma ion p o ision emained supply-d i en and one-way. Tele ision and ideo ans o demons a-
ion lacked eedback loops necessa y o wo-way communica ion be ween he agen s and a me s. The a i al o
cellula phones a he u n o he 21s cen u y and he eme gence o sma phone usage o e he las ew yea s has
c ea ed new possibili ies o add essing he impe ec in o ma ion lows be ween a me s, esea che s, ex ension
agen s, ade s and scien is s (S einke e al., 2020). Wi h he ad en o sma phones and a o dable in e ne se ices,
he po en ial o wo-way communica ion be ween a me s and esea che s has inc eased (Ballan yne, 2009).
Fa me s can now wa ch ideos on new ag icul u e p ac ices on social media pla o ms like YouTube and sha e ex ,
pic u es, ideos and audio iles wi h ellow a me s h ough Wha sApp Messenge , suppo ing a me - o- a me
communica ion wi h la ge g oups o a me s acing simila challenges (Kuma , 2023). Fa me s can hus communica e
wi h hei pee s and ex ension agen s ins an ly and ecei e eal- ime eedback on he challenges hey expe ience
(Gaya i & A unachalam, 2016; Singh Nain e al., 2019). The abili y o new ICT such as sma phones and he use o
social media apps like Wha sApp, YouTube and Facebook migh hus suppo he democ a iza ion o ag icul u al
ex ension. The ollowing sec ion p esen s he me hodology adop ed o he e iew o he li e a u e on which his
pape is based.
3|RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The concep ual amewo k (see Figu e 1) helped us iden i y and classi y he li e a u e based on e e ences o he
e olu ion o ag icul u al ex ension and ICT o e he las se en decades. The li e a u e was e iewed be ween
4KHAN ET AL.
02 Augus 2020 and June 2024 using Wiley Online, Taylo and F ancis, Sp inge collec ion, Science Di ec , Eme ald,
JSTOR, P oQues , Sage Collec ion, Wo ld Bank e-lib a y and AGRIS da abases. The s udy ocused on pape s publi-
shed om 1950 (a ailable in Scopus om 1959) o June 2024.
3.1 |Sea ch s a egy
The keywo ds used o he sea ch a e as ollows: (“ag icul u e* ex ension”) AND (“ICT ag icul u e* ex ension”) AND
(“ adio ag icul u e* ex ension”) AND (“TV OR Tele ision ag icul u e* ex ension”) AND (“ ideo ag icul u e* ex ension”)
AND (“mobile OR cell OR phone OR sma phone ag icul u e ex ension”) AND (“social media ag icul u e* ex ension”).
These keywo ds we e used o sea ching in he Scopus da abase. The sea ch p oduced 686 s udies. The sea ch was
u he expanded o da abases such as Wiley Online, Taylo and F ancis, Science Di ec and Sage Collec ion, which
yielded 459 a icles. We also explo ed o he da abases such as he Wo ld Bank e-lib a y, AGRIS, CGIAR, CABI,
IDEAS, IEEE Xplo e and IFPRI da abase, which yielded 22 mo e a icles which o med a cumula i e o 1,167 a icles.
3.2 |S udy selec ion c i e ia
Inclusion and exclusion c i e ia a e lis ed in Table 1. In addi ion o he s udy pe iod and he opic a hand, pape s had
o be a ailable in English and ocus on ou key LMIC egions: Sou h Asia, Sou heas Asia, Sub-Saha an A ica, La in
Ame ica and he Ca ibbean. The o iginal 1,145 s udies we e educed o 398 s udies by applying he ull se o
inclusion and exclusion c i e ia. They we e hen educed o 131 s udies a e excluding s udies ha did no ac ually
e e o he e olu ion o ICT o ag icul u al ex ension, i s po en ial and limi a ions and he use o mode n ICT in
add essing he complex ag icul u al p ac ices o cu en imes (see Table 2).
TABLE 1 Inclusion and exclusion c i e ia.
Inclusion c i e ia (IC)
IC1 Pape s published be ween 1950 and 2024
IC2 Pape s ela ed o ag icul u al ex ension and ICT and ag icul u al ex ension
IC3 Pape s ha co e Sou h Asia, Sou heas Asia, La in Ame ica, he Ca ibbean and he Sub-Saha an A ica egion
Exclusion c i e ia (EC)
EC1 Duplica e publica ions om mul iple sou ces
EC2 Pape s wi hou ull ex ha canno be accessed om da abases
TABLE 2 O e iew o he li e a u e sea ch esul .
Sou ce Re ie ed Included Selec ed
Scopus 686 167 68
Wiley Online 30 14 9
Taylo and F ancis 140 76 17
Science Di ec 230 84 12
Sage 59 57 4
O he s
a
22
To al 1,145 398 131
a
Wo ld Bank e-lib a y, AGRIS, CGIAR, CABI, IDEAS, IEEE Xplo e, IFPRI da abase.
KHAN ET AL.5
A coding scheme was applied o code all 131 a icles. A icles we e coded o iden i y he his o ical e olu ion and
ag icul u al p ac ices du ing he 1950s and 1960s, he 1970s and 1980s, he 1990s and 2000s and he 2010s o he
p esen ime. We also coded a icles ha ocused on ICT and ag icul u al ex ension o iden i y he use o ICT, includ-
ing he capabili y and limi a ions o he echnology in he di e en pe iods. We also coded he use o inno a i e ICT
such as ideo-based messaging, mobile phone usage and hei capabili y o communica e complex ag icul u al
p ac ices. Inno a i e ICT e e s o communica ing ex ension messages o a me s wi h no o limi ed li e acy and
con eying echnical in o ma ion simply h ough oice, o ideo messages. This me hodology allowed us o map he
his o ical e olu ion o ex ension and he changing na u e o ICT and o assess how e ec i e echnology has been in
mee ing a me s' ex ension demands. I also allowed us o assess he capabili y o mode n ICT (mobile in e ne ,
sma phones, social media apps) in communica ing in o ma ion ela ed o complex ag icul u al p ac ices such as
clima e-sma ag icul u e and ecologically sus ainable ag icul u e. These 131 a icles we e used o de elop he key
hemes desc ibed in Figu e 1and a e analysed in g ea e dep h in he ollowing sec ions. The nex sec ion desc ibes
he his o y o ag icul u al ex ension.
4|EVOLUTION OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION IN DEVELOPING
COUNTRIES
The e olu ion o ag icul u al ex ension in de eloping coun ies can be summa ized unde di e en phases: a) ag icul u e
ex ension as echnology ans e in he 1950s and 1960s; b) he aining and isi sys em in he 1970s and 1980s; c)
p i a e and supply-d i en sys em in he 1990s and ea ly 2000s; d) co-inno a ion ex ension sys em in he ecen imes.
Ag icul u al ex ension as echnology ans e (1950s and 60s).
A e independence, mos de eloping coun ies ollowed he ‘s a is model’o de elopmen , whe e he go e n-
men con olled all sec o s, including ag icul u e and he ex ension sys em h ough cen alized, s a e-owned ins i u-
ions (Ca ney, 1998). Top-down planning and in o ma ion p o ision esul ed in a linea and p esc ip i e p ocess wi h
a me s a he end o he in o ma ion chain and no possibili y o eedback (Bi ne & Ande son, 2007; Cook
e al., 2021; Ragasa e al., 2013). In many de eloping coun ies, commodi y-o ien ed echnical guidance was p o ided
du ing colonial imes o a me s p oducing comme cial c ops, bu na ional ag icul u al ad iso y se ices we e no
o mally es ablished un il he 1950s and 1960s (Ande son, 2008). Newly independen coun ies in Asia and A ica,
and some in La in Ame ica ocused on inc easing na ional ood p oduc ion h ough ad anced a ming p ac ices
(Da Ros, 2012; Kaimowi z, 1993). High-yielding a ie ies o ood c ops, e ilize s, pes icides and i iga ion sys ems
we e in oduced in he la e 1960s o achie e ood secu i y and sel -su iciency, pa icula ly in Asia. Ag icul u al ech-
nology packages we e complemen ed by go e nmen suppo o expand a ming sys em co e age (Landini, 2015;
Pinei o & T igo, 2019; Ros, 2012a; Wu & Bu z, 2004). The ex ension co e age ocused on ans e ing echnology
om esea che s o adop e s. Howe e , a me s and esea che s la e c i icized he echnology ans e model
because i was linea and no e ec i e o esou ce-poo a me s (Ande son, 2008; Boon, 2010).
4.1 |T aining and isi ex ension sys em (1970s and 80s)
Like he ag icul u e p ac ices in he 1950s and 1960s, he T aining and Visi ’(T&V) sys em sponso ed by he Wo ld
Bank in he 1970s and 80s ocused on yield imp o emen and inc easing ood p oduc ion (Beno & Ha ison, 1977).
Du ing bo h pe iods, ag icul u e inpu s and imp o ed ag icul u e p ac ices played an impo an ole. In he T&V ex en-
sion sys em, ex ension agen s ained con ac a me s, ypically p og essi e la ge-scale a me s (Ce nea, 1981;Hussain
e al., 1994), who we e expec ed o adop new ag icul u al p ac ices hemsel es and dissemina e hem among o he
a me s in he illage (Fede e al., 1986). Howe e , iden i ying he app op ia e con ac a me s was di icul
(Moo e, 1984). Many we e a luen , educa ed, well-connec ed and male and he e we e ew emale con ac a me s
6KHAN ET AL.
and ex ension agen s (Beno e al., 1984;Mundial,1982; Taylo & Bhasme, 2018). O he challenges included weak
di ec linkages wi h a me s (Bi ne & Ande son, 2007). Fo example, ex ension messages gi en o con ac a me s we e
o en no communica ed o a me s in he neighbou ing illages (Lühe, 1991). As a supply-d i en sys em, app oaches
p omo ed by T&V we e de eloped by esea ch scien is s wi h a ew inpu s om a me s (Fe oni & Zhou, 2012). Mo e-
o e , insu icien a en ion was paid o inpu a ailabili y, which o en limi ed he ele ance o he in o ma ion p o ided
o a me s (Ande son, 2006). Due o he limi a ions o he T&V sys em, he ‘Fa ming Sys ems App oach o Resea ch
and Ex ension (FSR-E)’eme ged in he ea ly 1980s. This app oach was mo e pa icipa o y, in ol ing he pa icipa ion
o a me s, u iliza ion o local esou ces and use o adi ional knowledge.
2
Howe e , he deb c isis and a neo-libe al
consensus on “ olling back he s a e”led o unde inancing o public ex ension, s a ing sho ages and he con ac ion
o ex ension se ices in many coun ies ac oss Asia, A ica and La in Ame ica (Amano & Fa ing on, 1991).
4.2 |Plu alis ic ex ension sys em ( om he 1990s onwa ds)
The ailu e o he T&V ex ension sys em and he con ac ion o public ex ension led o he eme gence o plu alis ic
ex ensions wi h mul iple ac o s. Plu alis ic ex ension combined ex ension se ices om he public Minis ies o Ag i-
cul u e and Ru al De elopmen , p i a e companies and NGOs. The go e nmen , p i a e i ms and dono s inanced
he ex ension sys em which lessened he T&V sys em's inancial bu den (Swanson & Rajalah i, 2010). In con as o
he supply-d i en ans e o he echnology model, he plu alis ic ex ension sys em was b oad-based and demand-
d i en (Bueh en e al., 2019). I was a wo-way in o ma ion deli e y sys em, whe e he a me s de e mined hei
needs, which we e ei he p o ided by public, p i a e, NGO o a me -based o ganiza ions (Da Ros, 2012; No on &
Alwang, 2020). Howe e , he en y o p i a e ac o s like ag ibusiness i ms, educa ed eli es and people om he
indus ial sec o led o a ocus on p o i able, high- alue a ming sys ems whe e a me s could pay o he se ices
(Babu e al., 2016; Zhou 2016). Though ela i ely good o highe - alue c ops/comme cial c ops, i es ic ed he
low o in o ma ion and inc eased social dispa i y (Singh & Na ain, 2016). P i a e ac o s ocused on la ge a me s
ha ing la ge a eas (Rohi e al., 2017). Fo example, in India, p i a e playe s ocused on pa icula egions and com-
me cial c ops, whe e maximum p o i could be ea ned (Benson & Ja y, 2013). Fa me s who ocused mo e on subsis-
ence ag icul u e and hose a ming in less a ou ed a eas ecei ed li le suppo and less a en ion o imp o ing
hei condi ion (Sai o & Weidemann, 1990). Fa me s access also depended on gende , cas e and poli ical alignmen
(Mee a e al., 2004; T einen & Van De Els ae en, 2017). Ano he challenge o he plu alis ic sys em was o o m a
mix o ex ension se ices ha could add ess local ag icul u e issues (Fe oni & Zhou, 2012).
4.3 |Co-inno a ion –inno a i e, pa icipa o y and engaging (2000s o he p esen )
The d awbacks o he T&V sys em include a lack o in-dep h engagemen wi h a me s because illage agen s did
no ollow a egula isi schedule. The illage agen s p e e ed in e ac ing wi h la ge-scale a me s and he equen
ainings ha we e o ganized we e expensi e (Ande son, 2006). To add ess his p oblem, u he change in ex ension
app oaches became appa en du ing he 2000s, wi h g ea e emphasis on pa icipa o y aspec s and plu alism o
app oaches (Bo ha e al., 2017; Ganpa e al., 2010; Gow e al., 2020; Kle kx e al., 2016; Paschen e al., 2021). Ag i-
cul u al p ac ices p omo ed unde he co-inno a ion ex ension sys em include bo h adi ional and mode n a ming
p ac ices (Doglio i e al., 2014). Co-inno a ion is an app oach whe e he esea che wo ks wi h s akeholde s,
policymake s and end-use s o co-c ea e o de elop solu ions.
3
I equi es unde s anding adi ional knowledge
sys ems and emb acing new knowledge (Robe s e al., 2023). Fa me s a e engaged om he s a o he end o he
co-c ea ion o he ag icul u al p ac ice. Unlike he o he sys ems discussed abo e, his sys em is mo e “demand-
d i en”(Chipe a, 2006), wi h a ocus on g oup-based lea ning and a me empowe men . Ea lie o ms o ex ension
lacked he esou ces equi ed o adequa ely add ess he di e si y o a me s' needs h ough con en ional
KHAN ET AL.7
ex ension app oaches (Ballan yne, 2009; S einke e al., 2020). The co-inno a ion ex ension sys em bene i s om
in eg a ing analogue and digi al communica ion channels (Bi ne & Ande son, 2007; Rasheed, 2012). In summa y, he
ag icul u e ex ension sys em has wi nessed a apid change om p esc ip i e o mo e pa icipa o y o ms o ex en-
sion se ices. The ex ension sys em has e ol ed om being supply-d i en o demand-d i en, whe e a me s wo k
along wi h esea che s o add ess issues in ag icul u e. In he nex sec ion, we e iew he pa allel changes in he
de elopmen o ICT o add essing he ex ension needs o he a me s.
5|EVOLUTION OF ICT FOR AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION
De elopmen in ag icul u al ex ension app oaches has been accompanied by changes in in o ma ion and communi-
ca ions me hods and channels. The ollowing sec ions desc ibe he use o hese ools du ing he di e en phases o
ag icul u al ex ension.
5.1 |Newspape and adio
T adi ional ICT like newspape s and adio se ed as he p ima y sou ces o in o ma ion o a me s du ing he 1950s
and 1960s. Howe e , newspape s we e p ima ily concen a ed in u ban a eas, had limi ed ou each, and we e inac-
cessible o he illi e a e popula ion in mos LMICs (Ake , 2011; Rehman e al., 2011). Ex ension se ices used p in ed
ma e ials such as newsle e s, lea le s, b ochu es and pic u es o dissemina e ag icul u al in o ma ion (Manda, 2002).
E en i pic o ial messages we e seen as e ec i e in communica ing wi h illi e a e popula ions, hey had limi ed each
and accessibili y (Abdul ahimzai, 2011). In compa ison, adio had wide accessibili y. One o he ea lies uses o adio
o ag icul u al in o ma ion was he Fa m Radio Fo um, which s a ed in Canada in 1941 and was in oduced in India
in 1956 and in Ghana in 1964 (Nwae ondu & Thompson, 1987). Radio was an essen ial mechanism o dissemina ing
knowledge and in o ma ion in di e en languages and o ma s, especially o he poo and illi e a e
(A unachalam, 2004; Gi a d, 2003; Hudson e al., 2017; IIboudo, 2003).
The Fa m Radio Fo um was s uc u ed as a lis ene s g oup, whe e membe s go oge he in one o he 's homes,
o lis en o and discuss he adio b oadcas (Neu a h, 1962). The o um membe s we e suppo ed wi h illus a ed
ma e ial and a discussion guide by he adio s a ion in ad ance ha would aid hem in unde s anding he ex ension
message. Each o um had 20 membe s who me wice a week and lis ened o a 30-minu e p og am (M
a hu a &
Neu a h, 1959; Neu a h, 1960). Neu a h (1962) ound ha o um membe s lea ned much mo e han non- o um
membe s. Simila s udies conduc ed in Benin and Ghana showed ha adio clubs we e an e ec i e ins umen in
in o ming and educa ing a me s (Abell, 1968; Anyanwu, 1978). Howe e , such adio expe imen s la gely ca e ed o
male a me s and did no accommoda e he demands and schedules o women a me s. Mo eo e , while adio had a
massi e each ac oss u al a eas, i s monologic way o in o ma ion deli e y means ha i could only p o ide a limi ed
ange o in o ma ion and be used o one-way communica ion (Agwu e al., 2008; Chapman e al., 2003;
Opa a, 2008). Poo ecep ion quali y, inadequa e a ea co e age and inapp op ia e b oadcas ime we e some o he
d awbacks o adio (Ozowa, 1995). Al hough p in media and adio con inued as p ima y in o ma ion se ice
p o ide s, i was hen complemen ed by ele ision and ideo-based in o ma ion dissemina ion.
5.2 |Tele ision and ideo demons a ion
In o ma ion dissemina ion h ough ele ision and ideo demons a ions enables he combina ion o sigh , sound and
mo ion. Tele ision was conside ed o be mo e e ec i e han p in media and adio in helping a me s lea n
and unde s and ag icul u al p ac ices and in ans e ing new ag icul u e echnology o hem (M. Ahmad e al., 2007;
8KHAN ET AL.
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