Bebe , Be nd; Lakemann, Tabea; Schna s, Regina; Lay, Jann
A icle — Published Ve sion
Employmen E ec s o Skills T ainings in Sub-Saha an
A ica: A Sys ema ic Re iew o Recen Randomized
Con olled T ials
De Economis
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Sp inge Na u e
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Bebe , Be nd; Lakemann, Tabea; Schna s, Regina; Lay, Jann (2024) : Employmen
E ec s o Skills T ainings in Sub-Saha an A ica: A Sys ema ic Re iew o Recen Randomized
Con olled T ials, De Economis , ISSN 1572-9982, Sp inge US, New Yo k, NY, Vol. 173, Iss. 1, pp.
87-120,
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De Economis (2025) 173:87–120
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ORIGINAL PAPER
Employmen E ec s o Skills T ainings inSub‑Saha an
A ica: ASys ema ic Re iew o Recen Randomized
Con olled T ials
Be ndBebe 1 · TabeaLakemann2,3 · ReginaSchna s2,3 · JannLay2,3
Accep ed: 19 Sep embe 2024 / Published online: 8 Oc obe 2024
© The Au ho (s) 2024
Abs ac
This s udy p o ides a comp ehensi e sys ema ic e iew o ecen andomized con-
olled ials (RCTs) o e alua e he employmen e ec s o skills aining p og ams
in sub-Saha an A ica. The e iew ocuses on s udies conduc ed be ween 2019 and
2024, a pe iod ma ked by a signi ican inc ease in he numbe o RCTs o aining
in e en ions in his egion, and we hus ill a gap le by ea lie e iews ha did no
e lec his ecen su ge in expe imen al s udies. We employ he s anda d SPIDER
app oach o de ining sea ch e ms and he PRISMA p ocedu e o sea ch and selec-
ion o sys ema ically analyze he impac o hese aining p og ams on employmen
ou comes. The indings e eal a shi owa ds a mo e op imis ic assessmen com-
pa ed o p e ious analyses, sugges ing ha many ecen skills aining p og ams do
con ibu e o imp o ing employmen - ela ed ou comes.
Keywo ds Sys ema ic e iew· Skills aining· Randomized con olled ials· Sub-
Saha an A ica
JEL Classi ica ion J24· O15· C93· I25
1 In oduc ion
Skills ainings ha a ge indi iduals o small businesses a e an impo an elemen
o con empo a y de elopmen assis ance, and hey a e a equen ea u e o de el-
opmen coope a ion in sub-Saha an A ica. The p incipal eason o his emphasis
on skills de elopmen is he idea ha a ained (and e ained) wo k o ce is mo e
* Be nd Bebe
be [email p o ec ed]
1 RWI – Leibniz Ins i u e o Economic Resea ch, Essen, Ge many
2 Ge man Ins i u e o Global andA ea S udies (GIGA), Hambu g, Ge many
3 Uni e si y o Gö ingen, Gö ingen, Ge many
88
B.Bebe e al.
p oduc i e and can help de eloping coun ies compe e and g ow economically,
especially in an e a o cons an echnological change and an inc easingly global
ma ke o labo .1
Despi e hei p ominence in sub-Saha an A ica, skills ainings in his pa o
he wo ld we e a ely e alua ed wi h andomized con olled ials (RCTs) e en a
decade ago, a ac no ed and lamen ed by ea lie sys ema ic e iews. Howe e , his
has changed d as ically in he las ew yea s, and his sys ema ic e iew se es o
summa ize key insigh s om hese ecen RCTs and iden i y s udy gaps ha emain.
To ou knowledge his is he i s sys ema ic e iew speci ically o ecen RCTs
conduc ed in his esea ch ield in sub-Saha an A ica. We ocus on s udies pub-
lished in he las hal -decade, because se e al sys ema ic e iews and me a-analyses
we e conduc ed in 2019 and be o e, p io o he ecen su ge in expe imen al s udies
implemen ed in sub-Saha an A ica. We will e e ex ensi ely o his p io li e a u e
h oughou his a icle, highligh ing di e ences and new di ec ions.
This pape ocuses on employmen ou comes ha could in p inciple be a ib-
u ed o skills ainings and ela ed de elopmen in e en ions, and hence speaks
o Sus ainable De elopmen Goal (SDG) 8. SDG 8 aims o p omo e sus ained,
inclusi e, and sus ainable economic g ow h, ull and p oduc i e employmen , and
decen wo k o all. One way in which skills ainings a e o en seen as con ibu -
ing o hese objec i es ollows a s aigh o wa d logic: T ainings lead o mo e p o-
duc i i y, which leads o mo e g ow h and be e jobs. Bu his o ically many ain-
ings ha e no ul illed his p omise, and we sugges —as ha e o he e iews— ha
high-quali y and o en mul ip onged p og ams ha a e esponsi e o ma ke demand
pe o m be e . Unlike many p e ious e iews, we see signs o cau ious op imism:
Among ecen igo ously e alua ed ainings in sub-Saha an A ica, posi i e e ec s
on employmen - ela ed ou comes a e ela i ely common, pe haps in pa because o
di e ences and imp o emen s in p og am si ing, concep ion, and deli e y. In his
sense we belie e ou sys ema ic e iew con ibu es o ou unde s anding o how
skills aining can help uel p og ess owa ds achie ing SDG 8, in addi ion o ea lie
e iew s udies.
Me hodologically, we use wo s anda d ools o sys ema ic e iews: he SPIDER
ool o de ining sea ch e ms and he PRISMA p ocedu e o sea ch and selec ion.
Ou sys ema ic sea ch is conduc ed ac oss h ee da abases: Web o Science (WoS)
and he Biele eld Academic Sea ch Engine (BASE) as p incipal sou ces, and Google
Schola as a supplemen a y sou ce o ensu e comp ehensi e co e age. The sc een-
ing p ocess esul ed in he selec ion o 33 epo s and pee - e iewed s udies, co e -
ing esea ch om ou een coun ies wi hin he egion, om an ini ial pool o 2905
eco ds.
We p oceed as ollows. We i s b ie ly lay ou he p incipal heo y o change
associa ed wi h aining p og ams in he li e a u e, in which he c ea ion o human
capi al se es as he link be ween in e en ions and ou comes, and which equi es
high-quali y p og ams, o en wi h mul iple componen s, and esponsi eness o
1 See e.g. he Wo ld Banks desc ip ion o he objec i e o “jobs- ich economic g ow h” o i s ac i i ies
a ound skills and wo k o ce de elopmen a h ps:// www. wo ld bank. o g/ en/ opic/ skill sde e lopme n .
89
Employmen E ec s o Skills T ainings inSub‑Saha an A ica:…
ma ke demands. We hen u n o a desc ip ion o he me hodological app oach we
ake in ca ying ou his sys ema ic e iew o RCTs on skills aining in sub-Saha an
A ica. We p esen he esul s o he e iew, and summa ize key insigh s, while link-
ing back o p io li e a u e and ea lie e iews. Finally, we iden i y a se o esea ch
gaps ha emain.
2 Demand‑Responsi e Human Capi al De elopmen
The p ima y way in which skills aining p og ams end o be linked o imp o e-
men s in employmen and job quali y ou comes ocuses on human capi al
de elopmen .
A he le el o indi idual wo ke s and po en ial employees, many p og ams aim
o imp o e echnical (ha d) skills, which can be ei he gene al (e.g. li e acy, basic
quan i a i e o inancial easoning) o specialized (e.g. ade-speci ic compe encies
o knowledge conce ning p oduc ion p ocesses). Many p og ams addi ionally o
al e na i ely a ge li e (so ) skills such as he abili y o communica e e ec i ely
and wo k well wi h o he s.
A he en ep eneu ial (o i m) le el, p og ams simila ly s i e o imp o e ech-
nical capaci y (e.g. accoun ing echniques, p oduc de elopmen , o ma ke ing) as
well as p ocess and so skills (e.g. decision-making and e ec i e eam leade ship).2
A longs anding conce n is ha “manage ial capi al” is o en missing in de eloping
coun ies and ha subop imal business p ac ices can help explain he p oduc i i y
gap be ween poo and ich coun ies (Bloom e al., 2010), so his is whe e business
aining in e en ions y o make a di e ence.
Mos ainings ha e adi ionally been class oom-based, bu inno a ion and plu-
alism in echniques cha ac e ize he ield oday. Today’s aining p og ams could
ea u e isi s by ole models (La o une e al., 2018), pee lea ning (Dal on e al.,
2019), o indi idual coaching sessions (Ba dasi e al., 2021). Bu hey all ha e in
common ha hey claim o inc ease aluable human capi al, which hen a ec s
employmen - ela ed indica o s. In u n his implies a i s expec a ion o e ec i e
aining p og ams: They mus be o su icien quali y and in ensi y o skills o be
ans e ed o bene icia ies.
Howe e , his is only he i s s ep. Fo job ou comes o imp o e, ans e ed
skills also mus be alued in he labo ma ke , and he alue o newly c ea ed human
capi al o en depends on he speci ic con ex in which bene icia ies ind hemsel es.
Hence, o in e en ions o wo k, implemen e s and pa icipan s mus know local
ma ke s and espond o ma ke demands in iden i ying alue-gene a ing aining
oppo uni ies. Ma ke awa eness and demand- esponsi eness a e c ucial d i e s o
p og am e icacy.
In ac , p og ams can ha e nega i e o no e ec s on economic ou comes e en
i hey success ully and comp ehensi ely ans e a ge skills o bene icia ies (e.g.
Cho e al., 2013). This can be he case i he alue o newly acqui ed skills ails o
2 See McKenzie and Wood u (2014) o an o e iew.
90
B.Bebe e al.
o se any ea nings and ca ee oppo uni ies los du ing he du a ion o he cou se
i sel , o i a cou se induces bene icia ies o swi ch in o a sec o ha u ns ou o
yield in e io ea nings.3 The la e can easily p oduce a si ua ion in which a aining
p og am can be a success in e ms o eaching skills while ailing o c ea e alue o
he indi idual pa icipan .4
These equi emen s—high p og am quali y and in ensi y o e ec i e human cap-
i al de elopmen , and aining con en ha is esponsi e o ma ke demand—in o m
ou eading o he li e a u e summa ized in his sys ema ic e iew, and we e u n o
his heme when we discuss he esul s o he included s udies.5
3 Me hod
In o de o conduc a sys ema ic e iew o ecen s udies, we ollow wo s anda d
se s o p ocedu es: The SPIDER ool o he de e mina ion o sea ch ph ases (Cooke
e al., 2012; Me hley e al., 2014), and he PRISMA sea ch and selec ion p ocedu e
o sys ema ic e iews (Pagee al., 2021).
The pu pose o his pape ’s sys ema ic sea ch is o e iew ecen andomized con-
olled ials o skills ainings on employmen e ec s in sub-Saha a A ica, and we
de i e ou sea ch e ms acco dingly. Fi s , we es ic he sample o he ele an se
o coun ies. Second, he phenomenon o in e es is any kind o aining, skills de el-
opmen , o oca ional educa ion in e en ion. Thi d, we limi his sea ch o s udy
designs ha a e andomized con olled ials o ield expe imen s. Fou h, we a e
only in e es ed in s udies whe e he ou comes o be e alua ed a e b oadly ela ed o
employmen . Fi h, we a e in e es ed in e ec s and es ima es as he cu ency o he
a ge esea ch. Quali a i e esea che s ypically use his las elemen o he SPIDER
ool o decla e hei in e es in “quali a i e” wo k, bu he al e na i e e m “quan i a-
i e” would no o dina ily appea in RCTs, while “es ima e” o “e ec ” would.
We es ic ou sea ch o he i e-yea pe iod om Janua y 1, 2019 o Janua y
1, 2024. A se o well-known e iews was published in 2019 o in he immedia ely
p eceding yea s, wi h he dea h o RCTs in sub-Saha an A ica a key insigh o
hose e iews. Since hen, a subs an ial numbe o p ecisely such RCTs ha e been
published, and we a e se ing ou o e iew his body o wo k.
5 Two seconda y mechanisms linking skills ainings o employmen ou comes ha also ea u e in his
li e a u e and la e in ou e iew a e ce i ica ion and signaling, and access o o mal and in o mal ne -
wo ks. Bo h can help bene icia ies be success ul on he labo ma ke , e en wi hou skills ans e s. They
gene ally s ill equi e ma ke awa eness o know wha is needed o compe e e ec i ely in he labo ma -
ke .
3 This aises he ques ion why indi iduals would join such a cou se o wo k in a job ha ma ches hei
newly acqui ed skills in such a si ua ion in he i s place. One possibili y is ha po en ial bene icia ies
a e unce ain abou he long- e m e u ns o hei labo ma ke decisions and may de e o o he s such as
aining p o ide s ha hey belie e o be be e -in o med (Del Ca pio and Guadalupe 2022).
4 Fo example, No ella e al. (2018) analyze he Chilean Bono T abajado Ac i o (BTA) ouche p o-
g am, which unded aining cou ses o o mally employed indi iduals. They ind ha employmen
p obabili ies and o mal-sec o income a e lowe o hose who en olled in a aining oppo uni y, e en
yea s la e and especially o hose who we e willing o change sec o s.
91
Employmen E ec s o Skills T ainings inSub‑Saha an A ica:…
Table 1 summa izes he sea ch logic. We deploy ou SPIDER sea ch in h ee
engines, and in doing so ollow he ecommenda ions by Gusenbaue and Haddaway
(2020). Fi s , we use he Web o Science (WoS), which includes he Social Sciences
Ci a ion Index (SSCI) in i s co e collec ion.6 Second, we use he Biele eld Academic
Sea ch Engine (BASE).7 Full- ex sea ches in hese wo engines, WoS and BASE,
a e ou p incipal means o iden i y ci a ions.
Thi d, we use Google Schola , as a supplemen a y sou ce, gi en i s e y b oad
co e age. Google is no sui able as a p incipal sou ce o he execu ion o ou SPI-
DER sea ch o wo easons. Fi s , Google does no allow ully a icula ed Boolean
logic, in pa icula nes ing o mul iple OR-g oups be ween di e en AND ope a-
o s.8 Second, he ex en o Google sea ch esul s appea s o a y wi h se e load,
and esul s a e no exac ly eplicable. I is e y unlikely ha his would ha e esul ed
in a missed ele an a icle in ou case, gi en ha sea ches always e u ned esul s
well in excess o hose ac ually ele an , bu i is a eason why Google Schola is no
sui able as he p incipal sou ce o a sys ema ic e iew.9
3.1 Eligibili y C i e ia
We include any English-language pee - e iewed a icle o non- e e eed policy
epo o discussion pape in any kind o se ies, published be ween 2019 and 2024,
ha analyzes a andomized con olled ial o a skills de elopmen o aining in e -
en ion aimed a changing employmen - ela ed ou comes in a sub-Saha an A ican
coun y.
We exclude a icles ha ocus on di e en p ima y ou comes, such as men al
heal h indica o s (E ans e al., 2022), an isocial beha io (Vicen e & Vilela, 2022),
women’s empowe men (Ka imli e al., 2021), o social inclusion (Kimou e al.,
2022), i he pape does no also discuss employmen ou comes. We also exclude
s udies ha ocus on lab-in- he- ield ou comes (such as compe i i eness in he case
o Almås e al., 2020) i hey do no epo ou comes ela ed o ac ual employmen .
In gene al, ou sea ch e ms cas a ai ly wide ne . We do no na ow ou sea ch
o i les o abs ac s o speci ic job- ela ed ou comes such as income bu iden i y any
s udies ha e e o employmen o he wo kplace anywhe e in hei ull ex . Skills
6 We use he ollowing ad anced exac ull- ex sea ch ph ase, cycling h ough all applicable coun y
names: ALL = ("[coun y]" AND (" aining" OR "skills de elopmen " OR " oca ional educa ion") AND
(" andomized con ol*" OR " ield expe imen ") AND ("employmen " OR "job" OR "wo kplace") AND
("e ec *" OR "es ima e")).
7 We use he ollowing sea ch e m in BASE’s ull- ex documen sea ch: "[coun y]" AND (" aining"
OR "skills de elopmen " OR " oca ional educa ion") AND (" andomized con ol*" OR " ield expe i-
men ") AND ("employmen " OR "job" OR "wo kplace") AND ("e ec *" OR "es ima e").
8 Fo Google Schola , we use he ollowing al e na i e sea ch e m o p oduce a esul ha is easonably
speci ic while a he same ime including all ex segmen s shown in Table1: "[coun y]" " aining" " an-
domized con ol*" "employmen " "e ec *" in i le:"[coun y]"|in i le:" aining"|in i le:"skills de elop-
men "|in i le:" oca ional educa ion"|in i le:" andomized con ol*"|in i le:" ield e xpe im en "|in i le:"e
mploymen "|in i le:"job"|in i le:"wo kplace"|in i le:”e ec *"|in i le:"es ima e".
9 No e ha cu en Google Schola sea ches do no appea o unca e sea ches a 256 cha ac e s, as is
widely belie ed, so his is no an ongoing conce n.
92
B.Bebe e al.
ainings need no ocus on echnical skills, bu can in ol e, e.g., so skills such as
sel -e icacy o a “g ow h mindse ” (Mo is e al., 2023). We do equi e ainings o
in ol e some kind o skill ans e , so exclude exe cises like a “sel - aining in e -
en ion “ (Deme ou i, 2023). We also exclude “ eaching” in e en ions i he ea -
men consis s pu ely o an ins ance o in o ma ion p o ision, such as a p esen a ion
o legal ac s (Abe a & Chemin, 2023; Be and & C épon, 2021).
3.2 Sc eening, Selec ion, andC oss‑Ve i ica ion
Figu e1 shows he PRISMA sea ch p ocedu e. We i s e ie e 2905 eco ds wi h
he SPIDER-based elec onic sea ch.10 These we e sc eened based on hei i les and
abs ac s / execu i e summa ies o emo e i ele an o duplica e eco ds.11 A o al
o 44 a icles we e le and ead in mo e de ail, o which 28 s udies ma ched he
inclusion c i e ia and objec i es o his e iew. This includes 17 pee - e iewed a i-
cles, and 11 discussion pape s o echnical epo s.
Table 1 SPIDER speci ica ion
a While a ypical SPIDER sea ch will only equi e (D OR E), we equi e bo h D and E in o de o limi
sea ches o andomized con olled ials
SPIDER ool Sea ch e ms
Sample Angola OR Benin OR Bo swana OR “Bu kina Faso” OR
Bu undi OR Came oon OR “Cape Ve de” OR “Cen al
A ican Republic” OR Chad OR Como os OR Congo OR
“Cô e d’I oi e” OR “I o y Coas ” OR Djibou i OR E i ea
OR Eswa ini OR Swaziland OR E hiopia OR Gabon OR
Gambia OR Ghana OR Guinea OR Kenya OR Leso ho OR
Libe ia OR Madagasca OR Malawi OR Mali OR Mau i ania
OR Mau i ius OR Mozambique OR Namibia OR Nige OR
Nige ia OR Rwanda OR “Sao Tome” OR Senegal OR Sey-
chelles OR “Sie a Leone” OR Somalia OR “Sou h A ica”
OR “Sou h Sudan” OR Sudan OR Tanzania OR Togo OR
Uganda OR Zambia OR Zimbabwe
Phenomenon o In e es “ aining” OR “skills de elopmen ” OR “ oca ional educa ion”
Design “ andomized con ol*” OR “ ield expe imen ”
E alua ion “employmen ” OR “job” OR “wo kplace”
Resea ch Type “e ec *” OR “es ima e”
SPIDER sea ch: S AND P o I AND D AND E AND Ra
10 Google Schola p oduced 2841, WoS 36, and BASE 28 eco ds o be examined. This is no uncom-
mon. Google Schola is highly sensi i e and inclusi e bu can lack p ecision and he e o e equi es mo e
ex ensi e manual il e ing han WoS and BASE (Gius ini and Kamel Boulos 2013).
11 Reco ds we e e ie ed and sc eened by one coau ho , sc eening esul s e iewed by a second coau-
ho , and each o he emaining ull- ex a icles was inspec ed and assessed o eligibili y by a leas wo
coau ho s.
93
Employmen E ec s o Skills T ainings inSub‑Saha an A ica:…
Addi ionally, and o minimize he chance ha we omi ele an s udies ha a e
insensi i e o ou sea ch speci ica ion, we c oss- e i ied ou esul s agains h ee
ela ed collec ions o s udies, each o which pa ially o e laps wi h ou e iew in
empo al o hema ic scope.12 This p ocess yielded six addi ional a icles, as indi-
ca ed in Fig.1.
The inal se o s udies co e s in e en ions in ou een di e en coun ies:
Uganda (7 s udies), Rwanda (5), Tanzania (4), E hiopia (4), Togo (2), Nige ia (2),
Libe ia (2), Cô e d’I oi e (1), Ghana (1), Kenya (1), Senegal (1), Sou h A ica (1),
Sie a Leone (1), and Mozambique (1).
Table2 summa izes key ea u es o he s udies ha mee ou inclusion c i e ia
and a e RCTs o skills aining in e en ions a ge ing employmen ou comes in sub-
Saha a A ica. We show key sample cha ac e is ics, a b ie desc ip ion o he in e -
en ion, summa ize ou comes and main e ec s, and indica e he e ogeneous e ec s
ha he s udy may epo .
The included a icles co e a wide ange o p og ams and con ex s, bu wi h no a-
ble a eas o concen a ion:
• Regional dis ibu ion Ou lis includes 21 s udies ha we e implemen ed in Eas
A ica, 10 in Wes A ica, 2 in Sou he n A ica, and none in any Cen al A ican
coun ies—an ob ious gap in he e idence base.
• Ta ge popula ions Mos commonly s udies ocus on you hs (19 a icles), and
in pa icula you hs ha a e desc ibed as disad an aged in one o m o ano he
(10) and you hs in u ban a eas only (8). A second la ge se o s udies wo ks wi h
business owne s/en ep eneu s o small- and medium-sized i ms (13). T ainings
o non-you h wo ke s a e a ely s udied, as a e ainings o indi iduals ha a e
highly educa ed al eady (such as coding p og ams o uni e si y g adua es).
• In e en ion ypes Technical/ oca ional aining p og ams (12 s udies) o app en-
iceship p og ams (3) a e he modal in e en ion o you hs and o he wo ke s,
as a e business ainings o en ep eneu s/ i ms (12). Li e skills/so skills mod-
ules ea u e in 13 s udies, o en in andem wi h o he aining componen s. O he
complemen a y elemen s such as cash g an s (4), inancial li e acy cou ses (4),
ne wo king/men o ship oppo uni ies (2), digi al skills ins uc ion (2), o job
placemen ou side o app en iceships (2) a e ela i ely less common. Teache
ainings and ins uc ions on collec i e ba gaining/labo law a e he ocus o one
s udy each.
12 Fi s , Kempe e al. (2022) e iew a o al o 89 expe imen al and quasi-expe imen al s udies on “ oca-
ional aining” om 1990–2020, which o e laps in pa wi h ou empo al scope. We ind ha o sub-
Saha an A ica and he ele an yea s 2019 and 2020, wo a icles a e included in bo h hei and ou
se s o s udies, one s udy is included only in hei e iew, and se en s udies a e included only in ou
sea ch ou pu , gi en ou b oade ocus on skills ainings. Second, J-PAL (2023) p o ides an o e iew
o 28 s udies on app en iceships and oca ional aining p og ams, six o which all wi hin ou empo al
and geog aphic scope, including h ee addi ional s udies no ye included he e (and again wi h a la ge
numbe o s udies ha we e ie ed no included in he J-PAL o e iew). Thi d, we compa e ou lis o
ele an s udies ci ed in Ca anza and McKenzie (2024) ecen o e iew a icle on job ainings in de el-
oping coun ies, which yielded one addi ional a icle o include, o a o al o i e addi ional s udies.
94
B.Bebe e al.
• S udy ou comes Income/ea nings a e he mos common me ic o p og am e ec-
i eness, oge he wi h pa icipan ’s employmen s a us and hou s wo ked. These
a e ollowed by in es men s/sa ings/asse s, en ep eneu ship/sel -employmen ,
pe o mance/p oduc i i y, li e sa is ac ion/physical o psychosocial wellbeing,
and aspi a ions/sel -e icacy. In equen ly s udied ou comes include job sea ch
beha io , consump ion, e ili y, and unioniza ion le els. A he business le el,
s udies end o ocus on e enue and p o i s, managemen p ac ices, and i m su -
i al. No ably ew s udies conside he numbe o wo ke s employed by a busi-
ness.
4 Empi ical E idence
4.1 P ima y Resul s
We now u n o a desc ip ion o e ec es ima es, i s wi h an o e all assessmen , ol-
lowed by a mo e de ailed discussion o he in e en ion ype ha appea s mos p om-
ising—high-quali y, mul ip onged p og ams ha a e esponsi e o local demand—
and impo an e ec he e ogenei ies. In each case, we will ela e esul s om his
Fig. 1 PRISMA lowcha o sea ch p ocedu e
101
Employmen E ec s o Skills T ainings inSub‑Saha an A ica:…
Table 2 (con inued)
Re e ence Coun y Sample In e en ion Ou comes and main e ec s He e ogeneous e ec s
Chioda e al. (2021) Uganda 4400 high school s uden s a
he end o seconda y edu-
ca ion, om 200 schools
ac oss Uganda
Ha d-skills mini-MBA (ca.
75% ha d skills, 25%
so skills), compa ed o
so skills p og am (ca.
25% ha d skills, 75% so
skills), and con ol
La ge inc ease in ea nings
o bo h ypes o ain-
ings, highe likelihood
o en e p ise s a and
su i al. So skills ain-
ing linked o imp o emen s
in sel -e icacy, pe suasion,
nego ia ion
None epo ed
C aw o d e al. (2021) Nige ia Abou 4000 ma ginalized
you hs in he no he n
s a es o Kaduna, Kano,
Ka sina, and Jigawa
Ma i a p og am, wi h ei he
app en iceships wi h
mas e c a pe sons o
oca ional/ echnical ain-
ing (including li e acy,
nume acy, and business-
ela ed so skills ainings)
a skills de elopmen
cen e s
App en iceships: Inc eased
sel -employmen , wage
employmen , business
p o i s, a emp s o s a
business, job sea ch
beha io , household asse s,
consump ion. No sig-
ni ican e ec on li e acy,
nume acy, o non-ma e ial
ou comes. Skills de elop-
men cen e s: Simila
inc eases in employmen ,
p oduc i i y, en ep eneu -
ship beha io , consump-
ion, household asse s.
No signi ican e ec on
li e acy, nume acy. Mixed
e idence on non-ma e ial
ou comes, wi h highe sub-
jec i e well-being, a i udes
on emale empowe men
Fo women, la ge inc eases
in sel -employmen and
income, and small inc eases
in sel -es eem, p o essional
ne wo ks ( o women in
app en iceships) o subjec-
i e well-being ( o women
in skills de elopmen
cen e s)
102
B.Bebe e al.
Table 2 (con inued)
Re e ence Coun y Sample In e en ion Ou comes and main e ec s He e ogeneous e ec s
C épon and P emand (2019) Cô e d’I oi e 1842 you hs aged 18–24 and
731 i ms in se en u ban
a eas
Fo mal app en iceships
wi h a mon hly subsidy o
30,000 FCFA, dual ain-
ing wi h on- he-job and
heo e ical componen s,
and ce i ica ion
Sho - e m e ec s on you hs:
No signi ican impac on
o al income, wi h dec ease
in labo ea nings o se
by subsidy. Medium- e m
e ec s on you hs: Inc ease
in o al ea nings, highe
in ol emen in complex
asks, inc eased ce i ica-
ion. Fi m e ec s: Limi ed
subs i u ion, so subsidized
o mal app en ice implies
¾ o a new posi ion
None epo ed
Damme and Nansamba
(2023)
Libe ia Abou 570 en ep eneu s
wi h small businesses
S anda d business aining,
in e pe sonal skills ain-
ing, o bo h
Ei he aining led o be e
cus ome se ice, imp o ed
business pe o mance,
ewe cus ome s los . No
addi ional gains om com-
bined aining. No impac
on cus ome sa is ac ion
None epo ed
Dimi iadis and Koning
(2022)
Togo Abou 300 en ep eneu s
in Lomé, wi h businesses
ha ing been in ope a ion
o a leas one yea
Two-hou social skills ain-
ing as pa o a wo-day
ma ke ing p og am
Inc eased mon hly p o i s,
alue-gene a ing pa ne
in e ac ions, collabo a i e
pe cep ions, in o ma ion
exchange, ela ionships
o med. Lowe e hnic
concen a ion in new
ela ionships o med
None epo ed
103
Employmen E ec s o Skills T ainings inSub‑Saha an A ica:…
Table 2 (con inued)
Re e ence Coun y Sample In e en ion Ou comes and main e ec s He e ogeneous e ec s
Ha dy e al. (2019) Ghana 3928 you h p og am appli-
can s aged 15–30 ac oss 32
dis ic s and all egions
Access o app en iceships
wi h small in o mal sec o
i ms in ades such as
ga men making, cosme ol-
ogy, ca pen y, welding,
and mason y
Modes inc eases in p ob-
abili y o s a ing and com-
ple ing an app en iceship,
in aining du a ions, and
in shi s om wage wo k o
sel -employmen . No sig-
ni ican sho - un inc ease
in sel -employmen p o i s
E ec s a y by gende and
ade, e.g., women in cos-
me ology mo e esponsi e
han men in cons uc ion.
Highe ea nings associa ed
wi h mo e expe ienced o
p o i able aine s
Hi onen e al. (2023) E hiopia Bene icia ies o he P oduc-
i e Sa e y Ne P og am
(PSNP)
G adua ion p og amming
ha includes inancial
li e acy aining, p omo ion
o new income gene a ion
ac i i ies, nu i ion in e -
en ions and consump ion
suppo
No epo ed, ocuses on
e ec s condi ional on
d ough
P og am mode a ed d ough
e ec s, p o ec ed agains
nu i ional de ici s, wi h sa -
ings as mechanism
La o une e al. (2022) Rwanda S uden s a 159 high schools Six-week gami ied online
en ep eneu ship aining
Signi ican inc eases in busi-
ness owne ship, pa icipa-
ion in school business
clubs, employmen , ea n-
ings, and hou s wo ked
Simila e ec s by gende ,
s onge e ec s o public
schools
104
B.Bebe e al.
Table 2 (con inued)
Re e ence Coun y Sample In e en ion Ou comes and main e ec s He e ogeneous e ec s
McIn osh and Zei lin (2022) Rwanda 1848 unde employed
men and women aged
15–30yea s in he dis ic s
o Rwamagana, Muhanga,
and Nyamagabe
Wo k o ce aining p og am,
cash ans e s o a ying
amoun s, o a combina-
ion o aining and cash
ans e
T aining: Inc eased hou s,
asse s, sa ings, subjec i e
well-being, and business
knowledge. Cos -equi a-
len cash: Also inc eased
hou s, asse s, sa ings,
subjec i e well-being, plus
consump ion, income,
weal h. Minimal addi ional
bene i s wi h highe ans-
e amoun s. Combined
p og am: No compelling
e idence o complemen-
a i y
Limi ed e idence o he e o-
genei y, and impac s la gely
simila ac oss gende s,
baseline consump ion le els,
and local labo ma ke
condi ions
Mensmann and F ese (2019) Togo 912 non-ag icul u al en e-
p eneu s in Lomé, wi h
ewe han 50 employees
Pe sonal ini ia i e aining Pe sonal ini ia i e inc eased
pos - aining bu dec eased
o e ime. No signi ican
e ec on well-being
Pe sonal ini ia i e gains o e
ime con ingen on “need o
cogni ion”
Mo is e al. (2023) Tanzania 165 en ep eneu s, ec ui ed
h ough a go e nmen
agency o en ep eneu -
ship aining
“G ow h mindse ” psycho-
logical aining in addi ion
o echnical skills aining,
compa ed o echnical
skills aining only
G ow h mindse aining
esul ed in signi ican ly
highe en ep eneu ial
sel -e icacy and g ea e
numbe o en ep eneu ial
ac ions
None epo ed
Nkonya e al. (2019) Uganda 1235 indi iduals om a me
g oups ac oss 9 dis ic s
Full- o hal -dose o C ea i e
Capaci y Building (CCB)
ainings, ocused on
ha nessing indigenous
knowledge in echnology
inno a ion p ocesses
T aining inc eased economic
ou pu and imp o ed ool
epai capaci y, bu no
obus posi i e e ec on
household income and no
e ec on household asse s
None epo ed
105
Employmen E ec s o Skills T ainings inSub‑Saha an A ica:…
Table 2 (con inued)
Re e ence Coun y Sample In e en ion Ou comes and main e ec s He e ogeneous e ec s
Rosas e al. (2022) Sie a Leone Mo e han 3000 u ban
you hs aged 15–35, wi h
a leas some seconda y
educa ion
Technical/business skills
aining, in combina ion
wi h cash injec ions
Imp o ed employmen and
en ep eneu ship oppo -
uni ies, and p o ec ed
household consump ion
and in es men s agains
he backd op o he Ebola
c isis
Posi i e en ep eneu ship,
labo impac s wi h high
ini ial non-cogni i e skills.
Imp o ed skills, consump-
ion, bu no sa ings wi h
low non-cogni i e skills
Ta ekegne e al. (2023) E hiopia 440 smallholde a me s Th ee-week aining p og am
ocusing ei he on a high-
o a low-in ensi y e sion
o he Comp ehensi e
Compe ence‐Based T ain-
ing (CCBT)
High-le el aining led o
g ea e imp o emen in
bo h compe ence de elop-
men and ag icul u al
pe o mance, including
highe yield gains
None epo ed
Wheele e al. (2022) Sou h A ica 1638 young, disad an aged
indi iduals seeking wo k,
ec ui ed om exis ing job
eadiness p og ams in la ge
Sou h A ican ci ies
Fou hou s o LinkedIn
aining du ing hei job
eadiness p og am
Signi ican inc ease in end-
o -p og am employmen
a e, wi h e ec pe sis ing
a leas a yea
Employmen e ec smalle
o hose who al eady had
LinkedIn accoun s, la ge o
hose wi h low ini ial com-
munica ion skills
106
B.Bebe e al.
cu en e iew back o insigh s om p e ious s udies and me a-analyses.13 Ou co e
con ibu ions is-à- is hese o he e iews a e wo old: Fi s , in e ms o co e age,
we summa ize a se o ecen RCTs ha ha e no p e iously been e iewed sys em-
a ically. Second, in e ms o subs an i e insigh , we ind eason o be ela i ely mo e
op imis ic abou he po en ial o skills ainings o con ibu e o SDG8 objec i es,
wi h one possible explana ion o his being di e ences and p og ess in p og am
implemen a ion, a leas o ainings ha all wi hin he scope o ou e iew.
E ec i eness in ecen skills aining RCTs O e all, he s udies summa ized he e
appea no ably mo e op imis ic on a e age han p io me a-analyses ha e been. Fo
ele en o he e alua ions o echnical/ oca ional aining o app en iceship p og ams
o you hs and o he wo ke s ha a e included he e, we a e able o see i hey had
a posi i e e ec o e all ei he on a measu e o employmen (b oadly speaking, any
measu e o he ex en o in ensi y o income-gene a ing ac i i ies) o on a measu e
o income o bo h. Six o he ele en s udies iden i y posi i e e ec s on bo h o hese
dimensions.14 We see posi i e e ec s on one o he o he dimension in ou s udies
(Bandie a e al., 2020; Ha dy e al., 2019; McIn osh & Zei lin, 2022; Nkonya e al.,
2019) and jus one s udy wi hou a posi i e e ec on ei he o hese pa icula ou -
come ypes (Alcid e al., 2023).
Fo business and en ep eneu ship ainings, he pic u e ha eme ges is simila ly
encou aging. We can obse e an o e all e ec on a measu e o en ep eneu ial ac i -
i y o pe o mance in en s udies, and we see se en o hem epo a leas one el-
e an signi ican posi i e e ec ,15 while h ee do no (Ba dasi e al., 2021; Bjo a n
e al., 2020; Mensmann & F ese, 2019).
This p omising summa y o ecen e alua ions s ands in con as o a bleake
se o olde esul s. O e all, hose e iews ound ha he majo i y o s and-alone
aining p og ams appea o ha e weak o no a e age e ec s on employmen and
job quali y ou comes (Be che man e al., 2004; Ca d e al., 2011; G imm & Pa -
hausen, 2015; J-PAL, 2017; McKenzie & Wood u , 2014). Klu e e al., (2017,
2019) obse ed posi i e e ec s on employmen a es o ea nings in only abou one
in h ee you h employmen p og ams. Bla man and Rals on (2015) concluded ha
pe haps de elopmen ini ia i es should shi om a ocus on ainings o a ocus on
13 P e ious e iews o e lap bu a e no exac ly cong uen wi h each o he o wi h ou e iew in e ms o
hei geog aphic scope, a ge popula ions, ypes o in e en ions, ou comes, and included s udy designs.
Fo example, Klu e e al., (2017, 2019) co e 113 coun e ac ual impac e alua ions o a wide ange o
employmen p og ams, including skills aining and en ep eneu ship p og ams, o you hs in bo h high-
and low-income coun ies, wi h a ocus on ea nings and employmen as p incipal ou comes. Cho and
Hono a i (2014) include 37 expe imen al o quasi-expe imen al s udies o en ep eneu ship p og ams,
including echnical skills ainings ele an o sel -employmen , o indi iduals in de eloping coun ies,
wi h income/p o i s, labo ma ke ac i i ies, and inancial beha io and a i udes as ou comes. G imm
and Pa hausen (2015) conside 53 e alua ion s udies o en ep eneu ship ainings and o he in e en-
ions a ge ed a mic o-en ep eneu s in LMICs, wi h employmen as he p incipal ou come o in e es .
While common hemes eme ge, indings om any one e iew also e lec i s scope.
14 In his g oup, we place C épon and P emand (2019), Al onsi e al. (2020), Bandie a e al. (2023),
A kin e al. (2021), C aw o d e al. (2021), and Rosas e al. (2022).
15 He e we see A aa e al. (2019), Alzua e al. (2020), Chioda e al. (2021), Blalock e al. (2022), Dimi-
iadis and Koning (2022), La o une e al. (2022), Damme and Nansamba (2023).
107
Employmen E ec s o Skills T ainings inSub‑Saha an A ica:…
capi al-in ensi e p og ams, whe he in he o m o cash ans e s o small business
loans.
Explana ions o ecen de elopmen s A decade ago, McKenzie and Wood u
(2014) cau ioned ha well-powe ed s udies (wi h la ge enough samples and a su i-
cien numbe o pa icipan s) emained ela i ely a e a he ime, especially in low-
income con ex s, so some o he shi owa d de ec ably posi i e esul s could sim-
ply be he esul o esea che -side imp o emen s. Bu as Ca anza and McKenzie
(2024) ecen ly poin ed ou , policy-side e o s ha e also been unde way o imp o e
aining p og ams, “in pa due o he e idence om he i s wa es o igo ous ain-
ing e alua ions”. These e o s ha e la gely aken wo o ms.
Fi s , unde s ha e wo ked o imp o e implemen a ion quali y and e ec i e p o-
g am in ensi y, o example h ough sus ained moni o ing o se ice p o ide s and
bene icia y p og ess and app op ia ely incen i ized con ac s wi h se ice p o ide s
ha ensu e dependable p og am deli e y.16
These kinds o quali y pa ame e s a e di icul o obse e, bu one help ul p oxy
o implemen a ion in ensi y may be whe he p og ams a e designed o be mul i-
p onged, in ol ing p o ide s and bene icia ies in mo e han one ype o p og am-
ma ic in e ac ion. And when we again look a he lis o s udies included in ou
e iew, we see ha i e o he six echnical aining o app en iceship p og ams
wi h posi i e e ec s on bo h a measu e o employmen and a measu e o income
a e indeed mul i-componen in e en ions, combining echnical ainings wi h cash
g an s o subsidies (C épon & P emand, 2019; Rosas e al., 2022), so skills coach-
ing (C aw o d e al., 2021), o job placemen (A kin e al., 2021), and so on.17 In
ac , he gloomy ou look o p e ious e iews conce ned s and-along ainings in
pa icula . Al eady hen skills aining had been success ully combined wi h place-
men se ices (Chak a a y e al., 2016) o o maliza ion suppo (Benhassine e al.,
2018), and some bes -p ac ice guides we e ecommending ha aining in e en-
ions should be mul ip onged i possible (Da a e al., 2018).
The second policy adjus men obse ed by Ca anza and McKenzie (2024) and
o he s is a u n owa d “demand-d i en” p og ams. This could mean he in ol emen
o p i a e sec o i ms a he cu iculum de elopmen s age o ensu e ha aining
con en is con ex ually sui able, o he addi ion o a p og am in a pa icula sec o
i a ma ke s udy iden i ies an unme demand o skilled labo in his a ea. Again,
mul ip onged in e en ions may be he sa es be o achie e some deg ee o demand
esponsi eness, simply because some aining elemen may u n ou o be alued in
he labo ma ke — he bucksho logic o e ec i e mul icomponen skills ainings.
17 We do no necessa ily see ha mul icomponen ea men s wi hin he same p og am ou pe o m
esul s in a aining-only condi ion (Bandie a e al., 2023; McIn osh and Zei lin 2022), al hough i could
be ha a mul icomponen design as such is an indica o o implemen a ion (and implemen e ) in ensi y
ac oss condi ions.
16 P og am in ensi y also depends on aining du a ions (Escude o e al., 2019; McKenzie and Wood-
u 2014), al hough du a ion e ec s may a y ac oss con ex s and p og am objec i es. Fo example,
Hi shlei e e al. (2014) sugges ha o oca ional aining cou ses in Tu key longe p og ams ha e
less impac on employmen han sho e ones, pe haps because longe cou ses lea e less ime o job
sea ches.
108
B.Bebe e al.
One poin o con usion is ha demand esponsi eness gene ally en ails he
in ol emen o p i a e sec o i ms and an in e es in hei needs bu does no nec-
essa ily imply ha ma ke demand is in ac op imally me by ha ing p i a e sec-
o i ms engaged in p og am implemen a ion. This may help explain why esul s
o app en iceship p og ams end o be ela i ely mixed. Among he s udies
included in ou e iew, C épon and P emand (2019) show las ing posi i e e ec s
o a dual app en iceship p og am in Cô e d’I oi e, C aw o d e al. (2021) ind ha
hose assigned o app en iceships in a s udy in Nige ia a e no be e o han hose
ained—mo e cos -e ec i ely—in skills de elopmen cen e s, and Ha dy e al.
(2019) sees a shi om wage wo k o sel -employmen among hose assigned o
app en iceships, bu wi h newly sel -employed bene icia ies on a e age unable o
ealize enough p o i s o o se hei los wage income. Al onsi e al. (2020) o e a
pa icula ly help ul illus a ion o how p i a e sec o in ol emen does no equa e
esponsi eness o ma ke demands. They assign you hs o ei he oca ional aining
o i m-p o ided aining and ind ha bo h a e e ec i e ehicles o skills ans-
e s. Bu only hose assigned o oca ional aining saw sus ained wage inc eases
because hey ecei ed ce i ied skills. He e, i m-p o ided p og am implemen a ion
an coun e o ac ual ma ke demand.18
4.2 E ec He e ogenei ies
F equen ly, s udies epo e ec he e ogenei ies. We b oadly highligh h ee ac-
o s: Mac o-le el economic condi ions; po e y and disad an age a he bene icia y
le el; and gende . One eason o ocus on hese h ee ac o s is ha hey may explain
some po ion o he disc epancy be ween pessimis ic ea lie e iews and he mo e
hope ul esul s we ha e p esen ed he e. B oadly speaking, skills ainings end o
be mo e e ec i e—and ha e his o ically been mo e e ec i e—in less de eloped
con ex s, wi h poo e pa icipan s and emale bene icia ies, a p o ile ha he ecen
s udies included in his e iew a e mo e likely o i han s udies ha in o med
ea lie e iews, many o which we e implemen ed in de eloped coun ies. While
skills ainings ha e a guably go en be e abou being implemen a ion-in ense and
demand- esponsi e, we suspec his shi in who is being a ge ed is one eason o
he dis ance be ween ou summa y o esul s and hose o ea lie sys ema ic e iews.
Regional o coun y-speci ic economic condi ions His o ically e iews ha e
shown ha p og am e ec s a y wi h he de elopmen le el o a coun y. Despi e
he gene ally mode a e impac s, Klu e e al. (2017) ind sys ema ic e idence o
la ge aining e ec s on employmen and ea nings ou comes in low- and middle-
income coun ies han in high-income coun ies. In ad anced economies, demand
o skilled labo is high and coho s a e o e all ela i ely well-educa ed o s a wi h,
so a limi ed-du a ion skills in e en ion a ge ing disad an aged wo ke s migh no
be enough o help hem ca ch up wi h hei pee s.
18 We see mixed e idence conce ning app en iceships in p e ious li e a u e oo. Fo example, Alzúa
e al. (2016) epo posi i e e ec s om a i m-linked aining p og am in A gen ina, while Cho e al.
(2013) ind no labo ma ke impac s o an app en iceship aining p og am in Malawi.
109
Employmen E ec s o Skills T ainings inSub‑Saha an A ica:…
Bo h wi hin and be ween de eloping coun ies, he pe o mance o aining p o-
g ams should a y wi h labo demand condi ions and he ex en o which p og ams’
a ge skills ma ch local ma ke demand. Indeed, Iba a án e al. (2019) documen
g ea e e u ns o aining in es men s in egions wi h highe demand o skilled
labo in he case o a aining p og am in he Dominican Republic. Mo e gene ally,
Escude o e al. (2019) ind mo e p onounced posi i e e ec s o aining p og ams
on labo ma ke ou comes in imes o economic expansion in a me a-analysis o 296
impac e alua ions o ac i e labo ma ke p og ams in La in Ame ica and he Ca ib-
bean. An expanding, inno a ing economy o en sees demand o skilled wo ke s ise
(Vi a elli, 2014).19 We do no see any ob ious pa e n o his ype eme ging om
ou sys ema ic e iew, bu he numbe o RCTs is s ill small and e ec i ely co e s
jus a small and non- andom subse o sub-Saha an A ica’s many labo ma ke s.
Bene icia y-le el disad an age and po e y Following a simila logic, p io
e iews ha e sugges ed ha p og am ac i i ies a ge ed a pa icula ly disad an-
aged, poo bene icia ies end o p oduce he la ges e ec s. T aining in e en ions
a e o en na ow in scope and du a ion, so hey migh no mo e he needle much
o be e -o indi iduals, bu hey can make a di e ence o hose s a ing ou wi h
mo e limi ed skill se s. Abebe e al. (2017), o example, de ec he mos subs an ial
e ec s o an in e en ion including a job applica ion wo kshop and anspo subsi-
dies in E hiopia among he mos disad an aged pa icipan s. In hei me a-analysis
o in e en ions in La in Ame ica and he Ca ibbean, Escude o e al. (2019) ind ha
aining p og ams inc ease employmen a es and ea nings in pa icula when hey
explici ly a ge poo indi iduals. Klu e e al., (2017, 2019) also ind ha disad an-
aged, low-income indi iduals bene i mos in hei me a-analysis o you h employ-
men in e en ions. We also see hese pa e ns in ou sys ema ic e iew (Beaman
e al., 2021) bu no nea ly as commonly as one migh expec . This could be a unc-
ion o only a su p isingly small sha e o s udies epo ing he e ogeneous e ec s o
his kind o begin wi h.
Gende He e ogenei y by gende is by a he mos commonly es ima ed and
epo ed ype o he e ogeneous e ec , in ea lie s udies and also in he se o RCTs
in ou sys ema ic e iew. Ea lie e iews indica ed ha , i any hing and on a e age,
women bene i sligh ly mo e om skills aining han men. Escude o e al. (2019)
ind his di e gence in hei me a-analy ic s udy o p og ams in La in Ame ica and
he Ca ibbean. Bla man and Rals on (2015) no e ha you h echnical and oca-
ional ainings seem o posi i ely a ec women bu no men, al hough business skill
p og ams appea o ha e simila e ec s o bo h. And Klu e e al. (2017) obse e
ha e ec sizes wi h espec o employmen and ea nings may be la ge o young
women han young men, bu cau ion ha his should no be aken o imply ha p o-
g ams a ge ing women will gene ally hold g ea e p omise.
The e is in ac emendous a ia ion in how gende in e ac s wi h in e en ions
ac oss s udies, and he ex en o which bene icia ies o one gende ou pe o m o he s
may be hea ily dependen on con ex . In many ea lie s udies, women appea o be
19 Hi shlei e e al. (2014) no e ha he links be ween con ex ual economic indica o s—in hei case
egional unemploymen a es—and demand o skilled labo can be ambiguous.
110
B.Bebe e al.
be e se ed by a gi en in e en ion. Fo example, Chak a a y e al. (2016) show
ha women gained employmen o a g ea e ex en han men ollowing a you h skills
aining and job placemen p og am in Nepal, and A anasio e al. (2011) ind la ge
e ec s on employmen and ea nings o women only a e a aining p og am in
Colombia.20 Bu in o he s udies, e ec s a e obse ed o male bu no emale pa ic-
ipan s. Iba a án e al. (2019) ind an e ec o you h ainings on o mal employmen
o men only in he Dominican Republic. So do Alzúa e al. (2016) o a oca ional
aining p og am including skills aining and p i a e sec o in e nships in A gen-
ina as well as Hi shlei e e al. (2014) in he con ex o sho - e m oca ional skills
p og ams in Tu key, wi h he la e also epo ing an e ec o men only on hou s
wo ked. In Yemen, McKenzie e al. (2016) oo ind an e ec o a sho skills aining
and subsequen in e nship placemen p og am on hou s wo ked o men only.
In he s udies included in ou sys ema ic e iew, he e ogeneous e ec s ac oss
gende s a e ela i ely equen ly epo ed, and he e oo women appea o bene i
sligh ly mo e han men on a e age (A kin e al., 2021, C aw o d e al., 2021, and
women in some ades in Ha dy e al., 2019). Howe e , coun e examples exis as
well: A aa e al. (2019) shows ha male-owned MSEs see g ea e e enue gains in
an in e en ion ea u ing imp o ed c edi access and skills aining o pe sonnel.
The eason why women bene i mo e om aining in e en ions in some con ex s
could be ha hey ha e mo e o gain, as hey usually s a ou wi h wo se ou comes
han men. In o he con ex s, cons ain s may s ill be binding. Cho e al. (2013), o
ins ance, sugges ha emale pa icipan s su e disp opo iona ely om c edi con-
s ain s and ex e nal shocks (p egnancy, illness o inju y in he household, o he
amily obliga ions), which make sus ained in es men s in hei own human capi al
di icul . E en i an e ec is p esen o bo h men and women, di e en mechanisms
could be unde pinning each. Fo example, Kugle e al. (2015), a s udy in Colombia,
ound ha pa icipan s in a aining cou se we e mo e likely o be en olled in e -
ia y educa ion p og ams mo e han a decade la e . Fo women, oca ional aining
appea s o ha e elaxed c edi cons ain s. Fo men, aining imp o ed hei ield-
speci ic unde s anding o he e u ns o e ia y educa ion. Fu he un angling gen-
de -speci ic mechanisms ac oss con ex s emains a ask o u u e esea ch.
20 No e ha Chak a a y e al. (2016) obse e ha e ec s on employmen ype, hou s wo ked, and ea n-
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men s a ed a a much highe le el o employmen and i was easie o women o make la ge ma ginal
gains, o could s em om women’s cou se choices as employmen e ec s we e p ima ily obse ed in
adi ionally emale-domina ed aining ields. A anasio e al. (2011) epo no gende di e ence in p o-
g am impac on a es o o mal employmen , bu wa n ha he e ec o men could be a ibu able o
a i ion bias.
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ics, 14(2), 101–125.
Publishe ’s No e Sp inge Na u e emains neu al wi h ega d o ju isdic ional claims in published maps
and ins i u ional a ilia ions.
