Tadesse, Bedassa; Shuk alla, Elias Kedi ; Fayissa, Bichaka
A icle
Laws, aid, and change: The e ec o gende -mains eamed
aid on legal p o isions shaping women's economic
oppo uni ies
Economies
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
MDPI – Mul idisciplina y Digi al Publishing Ins i u e, Basel
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Tadesse, Bedassa; Shuk alla, Elias Kedi ; Fayissa, Bichaka (2025) : Laws, aid, and
change: The e ec o gende -mains eamed aid on legal p o isions shaping women's economic
oppo uni ies, Economies, ISSN 2227-7099, MDPI, Basel, Vol. 13, Iss. 2, pp. 1-26,
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Published: 4 Feb ua y 2025
Ci a ion: Tadesse, B., Shuk alla, E. K.,
& Fayissa, B. (2025). Laws, Aid, and
Change: The E ec o
Gende -Mains eamed Aid on Legal
P o isions Shaping Women’s
Economic Oppo uni ies. Economies,
13(2), 36. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/
economies13020036
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A icle
Laws, Aid, and Change: The E ec o Gende -Mains eamed Aid
on Legal P o isions Shaping Women’s Economic Oppo uni ies
Bedassa Tadesse 1,* , Elias K. Shuk alla 2and Bichaka Fayissa 3
1Depa men o Economics and Heal h Ca e Managemen , Uni e si y o Minneso a Dulu h,
Dulu h, MN 55812, USA
2Depa men o Economics, Siena College, Loudon ille, NY 12211, USA; [email p o ec ed]
3Depa men o Economics and Finance, Middle Tennessee S a e Uni e si y, Mu eesbo o, TN 37132, USA;
[email p o ec ed]
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac : This s udy examines he ela ionship be ween gende - ela ed aid and legal
amewo ks go e ning women’s economic oppo uni ies. Using da a om 116 coun ies
(2009–2022), we analyze how signi ican (SGRA) and p incipal (PGRA) gende - ela ed
aid in luence he Women, Business, and Law (WBL) Index, which measu es women’s
access o employmen , c edi , and en ep eneu ship. Resul s om ixed-e ec s models
show ha SGRA consis en ly imp o es WBL Index componen s, while PGRA signi ican ly
impac s ma iage, pa en hood, and mobili y egula ions, wi h modes e ec s on wo k-
place and en ep eneu ship measu es. PGRA subs an ially a ec s ma iage, pa en hood,
and mobili y egula ions while demons a ing mo e modes impac s on wo kplace condi-
ions and en ep eneu ship measu es. These obse a ions unde sco e he complexi y o
add essing gende inequali y and he necessi y o a ge ed, mul i ace ed app oaches o
o e come legal es ic ions, en enched social no ms, and economic ba ie s. The esea ch
o e s aluable insigh s o policymake s and dono s on he ans o ma i e po en ial o
gende -mains eamed aid ini ia i es in os e ing a mo e equi able wo ld.
Keywo ds: legal e o ms; gende -mains eamed aid; women; economic oppo uni-
ies; change
JEL Classi ica ion: F35; J16; K38; O19; P48
1. In oduc ion
Empowe ing women equi es he esou ces, oppo uni ies, and suppo necessa y
o con ol hei li es and ully pa icipa e in all aspec s o socie y. This includes access o
inancial esou ces, employmen oppo uni ies, quali y educa ion, poli ical pa icipa ion,
and comp ehensi e heal hca e. I also in ol es p omo ing gende equali y h ough equal
legal igh s and p o ec ions and emo ing disc imina o y p o isions ha limi oppo u-
ni ies o women and gi ls a home, in he wo kplace, and ac oss socie y (Kabee ,2005).
Empi ical e idence demons a es ha coun ies wi h gende -sensi i e legal amewo ks
achie e be e ou comes in women’s economic pa icipa ion and o e all de elopmen
(Gonzales e al.,2015;Klugman e al.,2014;Hallwa d-D iemeie & Gajigo,2015).
Signi ican ba ie s con inue o impede women’s economic oppo uni ies globally,
including inadequa e p ope y and inhe i ance igh s, inequi able di o ce and cus ody
laws, and he absence o gua an ees o paid ma e ni y lea e o job p o ec ion. Gende -
disc imina o y laws, such as hose pe pe ua ing unequal pay and occupa ional seg ega ion,
Economies 2025,13, 36 h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/economies13020036
Economies 2025,13, 36 2 o 26
u he exace ba e hese challenges. While esea ch (In e na ional Mone a y Fund (IMF),
2022;Wo ld Bank,2022) highligh s hese ba ie s, he ole o gende -mains eamed aid
in add essing sys emic legal issues emains unde explo ed. This s udy seeks o ill his
gap by analyzing how such aid impac s legal amewo ks shaping women’s economic
oppo uni ies.
The 1995 Uni ed Na ions Fou h Wo ld Con e ence on Women ma ked a signi ican
s ep by emphasizing he in eg a ion o gende pe spec i es in o all aspec s o policy and
p ac ice, including legal and economic sys ems. Gende -mains eamed aid, a key ou come
o his ini ia i e, p o ides inancial and echnical assis ance o add ess s uc u al inequali-
ies and empowe women and gi ls h ough sys emic legal, social, and economic changes.
This includes a ge ed measu es such as legal e o ms, capaci y building, ad ocacy, awa e-
ness campaigns, and ins i u ional s eng hening, alongside b oade p og ams embedding
gende conside a ions (Uni ed Na ions,2017).
Legal e o ms a e pi o al in p omo ing equal pay laws, an i-disc imina ion policies,
and ma e ni y lea e egula ions. They es ablish a o mal amewo k ha sa egua ds
women’s igh s and os e s economic pa icipa ion. The impac o hese e o ms is angible,
as coun ies wi h obus an i-disc imina ion laws o en exhibi highe emale labo o ce
pa icipa ion a es and ma e ni y lea e policies ha enable women o balance wo k and
amily esponsibili ies, inc easing wo k o ce e en ion a es (Kle en e al.,2019;Wo ld
Bank,2020).
Capaci y-building ensu es policymake s, legal p o essionals, and en o cemen agen-
cies ha e he knowledge and skills o implemen gende -sensi i e laws e ec i ely. Fo
example, aining p og ams may help judges and lawye s in e p e and apply gende equal-
i y laws be e , imp o ing legal ou comes o women. Policymake s educa ed abou he
economic bene i s o gende equali y a e mo e likely o p io i ize and implemen ele an
e o ms. Du lo (2012) indica es ha capaci y-building ini ia i es ha e been ins umen al
in equipping policymake s wi h he ools and unde s anding needed o p io i ize gende -
sensi i e e o ms. Fu he mo e, he UNDP’s (2016) e o s in aining legal p o essionals
ha e shown well-in o med en o ce s’ impo ance in ensu ing ha symbolic gende equali y
laws a e ac i ely implemen ed and en o ced.
Ad ocacy and awa eness campaigns can ans o m he socie al a i udes and no ms
ha o en hinde women’s economic oppo uni ies. These campaigns acili a e gende
communica ion by employing a ge ed messaging, media pla o ms, and communi y
engagemen o p omo e gende equali y. By eshaping public discou se, hey c ea e en i-
onmen s suppo i e o e o ms and challenge en enched s e eo ypes. S udies show public
awa eness e o s can shi pe cep ions and os e gende equali y e o ms (Bicchie i & Xiao,
2009). Fo example, NGO ad ocacy in a ious egions has success ully led o adop ing
gende equali y laws, demons a ing he impac o sus ained awa eness campaigns (T ue &
Min om,2001).
Ins i u ional s eng hening helps en o ce gende equali y laws. S ong ins i u ions
a e necessa y o he e ec i e implemen a ion and en o cemen o laws. This includes
no only judicial ins i u ions bu also labo inspec o a es and equali y bodies. In addi ion,
e ec i e ins i u ions ensu e ha laws a e in he books and p ac iced. P o iding esou ces
and aining o hese bodies ensu es ha hey can e ec i ely ca y ou hei manda es
(No h,1990;Eu opean Ins i u e o Gende Equali y (EIGE),2018).
Cognizan o hese bene i s, dono s ha e commi ed signi ican inancial esou ces
o gende - ela ed aid o e he las decade. Indica i e o his commi men , app oxima ely
USD 200 billion in aid aimed a gende equali y ini ia i es has been disbu sed om 2010 o
2020 (OECD,2021). Among o he s, he ou lay in ol es unding ac i i ies ha seek o e o m
legal and egula o y amewo ks ha enhance women’s economic pa icipa ion. Fo example,
Economies 2025,13, 36 3 o 26
in 2020 alone, abou USD 20 billion in gende - ela ed aid was dedica ed o ini ia i es p ima ily
ocused on legal e o ms and ins i u ional s eng hening (OECD,2021).1
The signi ican inancial ou lay unde sco es global ecogni ion o he c i ical ole
ha legal and egula o y amewo ks play in empowe ing women economically and
os e ing inclusi e g ow h. Howe e , an essen ial ques ion emains o policymake s and
de elopmen p ac i ione s: How has gende -mains eamed aid imp o ed he legal and
egula o y en i onmen s ha impac women’s economic oppo uni ies? The p esen s udy
b idges his gap by in eg a ing a heo e ical amewo k wi h an empi ical examina ion o
he ans o ma i e ole o gende -mains eamed aid in shaping hese legal en i onmen s.
To add ess his ques ion, we employ a wo-s ep app oach. Fi s , we de elop a heo e -
ical amewo k ha connec s gende -mains eamed aid (GMA) in lows and he e olu ion
o legal and egula o y p o isions (gende disc e iona y laws) shaping women’s economic
oppo uni ies. Second, we u ilize comp ehensi e da a o empi ically es whe he inc eases
in gende -mains eamed aid in lows lead o measu able imp o emen s in he Women,
Business, and he Law (WBL) Index—a benchma k o assessing p og ess in legal p o i-
sions ha impac women’s economic oppo uni ies. Ou s udy con ibu es o he li e a u e
by o e ing insigh s in o whe he , and o wha ex en , a ge ed aid d i es legal e o ms
ha enhance women’s economic oppo uni ies while os e ing inclusi e economic g ow h.
Addi ionally, he indings p o ide aluable guidance o policymake s and p ac i ione s,
helping hem e ine s a egies and alloca e esou ces e ec i ely o maximize impac .
The panel ixed-e ec s es ima ion esul s demons a e ha gende -mains eamed
aid, lagged by one and wo pe iods, signi ican ly imp o es he WBL Index—a b oad
measu e o he ex en o which legal and egula o y amewo ks suppo women’s economic
pa icipa ion and igh s. No ably, signi ican gende - ela ed aid (SGRA), which inco po a es
gende conside a ions in o b oade de elopmen p ojec s, and p incipal gende - ela ed
aid (PGRA), which explici ly a ge s gende equali y, posi i ely impac legal amewo ks
shaping women’s wo k o ce pa icipa ion and business oppo uni ies. These indings a e
obus ac oss mul iple es ima ion me hods, including mixed-e ec s models wi h andom
in e cep s (spanning six egions and 116 coun ies), andom coe icien s o gende - ela ed
aid a iables, and ins umen al a iable (IV) eg ession analyses, u he ein o cing he
eliabili y o he obse ed e ec s.
These esul s a e pa icula ly ele an in he con ex o subs an ial in es men s in
gende -mains eamed aid and he Uni ed Na ions Sus ainable De elopmen Goals (SDGs),
which emphasize gende equali y and women’s empowe men as co ne s ones o sus ain-
able de elopmen . The SDGs highligh ha empowe ing women and gi ls and ensu ing
hei ac i e pa icipa ion in economic ac i i ies is c i ical o building inclusi e and sus-
ainable economies. The esul s demons a e ha gende -mains eamed aid suppo s hese
global objec i es, se ing as an e ec i e ool o ad ance hem.
The emainde o his pape is s uc u ed as ollows: Sec ion 2b ie ly e iews he
ele an li e a u e. Sec ion 3de elops he heo e ical amewo k unde pinning he empi i-
cal analysis. Sec ion 4p esen s desc ip i e s a is ics o a iables along wi h he empi ical
esul s. Sec ion 5concludes wi h a discussion o he implica ions o he indings o p ac ice
in in e na ional de elopmen and gende equali y.
2. Rela ed Li e a u e
Nume ous s udies emphasize he legal and egula o y ba ie s impac ing women’s
economic pa icipa ion. Gonzales e al. (2015) highligh ha legal es ic ions on women’s
igh s educe hei pa icipa ion in he labo ma ke and en ep eneu ship. Thei c oss-
coun y analysis shows ha coun ies wi h ewe legal ba ie s ha e highe emale labo
o ce pa icipa ion a es. Islam e al. (2020) simila ly in es iga e he impac o disc imina-
Economies 2025,13, 36 4 o 26
o y laws on women’s labo ma ke pa icipa ion using da a om o e 59,000 i ms in 94
economies. They iden i y he ba ie s associa ed wi h gende dispa i ies—such as limi ed
access o inance, p ope y owne ship, and business egis a ion— ha disempowe women
and es ic hei engagemen in he p i a e sec o . Thei indings e eal ha unequal laws
signi ican ly hinde women’s pa icipa ion in he wo k o ce and educe hei chances o
becoming manage s o business owne s.
Annen and Asiamah (2023) in es iga e he ela ionship be ween women in A ican
pa liamen s and o eign aid alloca ions by explo ing he in e sec ion o o eign aid and
women’s poli ical ep esen a ion. They ind a signi ican and s a is ically obus co ela ion:
inc easing he p opo ion o women legisla o s om 15% o 20% is associa ed wi h a
oughly 4% ise in aid lows o e cu en aid le els. The au ho s a ibu e his inc ease o
he dono communi y’s g owing emphasis on gende equali y and women’s empowe men
o e he pas wo decades o he g ea e emale ep esen a ion in pa liamen , which can
enhance policies, legal s uc u es, and ins i u ional amewo ks as women ad oca e o
bene icial e o ms.
The e ec i eness o gende -mains eaming aid in imp o ing heal h and educa ion
ou comes o women and gi ls is ano he a ea o ocus. A nd e al. (2015) ind ha
gende - a ge ed aid signi ican ly imp o es heal h and educa ion ou comes o women
and gi ls, laying he ounda ion o hei economic pa icipa ion. Thei s udy includes a
case analysis o Mozambique, whe e gende -mains eamed aid has subs an ially imp o ed
gi ls’ educa ion and women’s heal h ou comes, enabling women o pa icipa e mo e in
economic ac i i ies. Simila ly, D ehe e al. (2016) p o ide empi ical e idence indica ing
ha a ge ing gende equali y posi i ely impac s gende - ela ed ou comes, including legal
e o ms. They highligh Rwanda, whe e gende - ocused aid has suppo ed implemen ing
p og essi e gende laws and policies, leading o gende pa i y in poli ical ep esen a ion
and signi ican imp o emen s in women’s economic oppo uni ies.
Be lin e al. (2024) in es iga e he impac o o eign aid on emale empowe men
using geo-coded da a om Malawi. Thei s udy e eals ha o eign aid, especially gende -
a ge ed aid, has a posi i e and signi ican e ec on a ious dimensions o emale empow-
e men (e.g., imp o emen s in women’s agencies and a i udes owa ds sexual and e ili y
p e e ences). The e ec s a e less p onounced in pa ilineal communi ies, whe e adi ional
gende no ms cons ain e ec i eness. Thei esea ch unde sco es he impo ance o ailo -
ing o eign aid ini ia i es o he speci ic sociocul u al con ex s o ecipien communi ies o
maximize impac on gende equali y.
Busse e al. (2017) assess he impac o o eign aid on egula o y quali y in de eloping
coun ies. Using da a om 77 coun ies be ween 2002 and 2012, hey ind ha a ge ed and
sec o -speci ic aid, especially Aid o Business, signi ican ly imp o es egula o y quali y,
while gene al aid o aid aimed a b oad go e nance does no ha e he same e ec . Thei
s udy unde sco es he impo ance o ocused aid in e en ions in enhancing egula o y
amewo ks.
The ole o ins i u ional quali y in in luencing he e ec i eness o legal e o ms has
also been a cen al heme in he ela ed li e a u e. Acemoglu e al. (2001) a gue ha
s ong ins i u ions a e essen ial o sus ainable economic de elopmen and he en o ce-
men o laws. Thei hypo hesis sugges s ha legal e o ms may no ansla e in o eal-
wo ld imp o emen s in economic oppo uni ies o women wi hou obus ins i u ions.
Hallwa d-D iemeie e al. (2013) also show ha coun ies wi h be e egula o y quali y
and ins i u ional s eng h end o ha e mo e e ec i e implemen a ion o gende equali y
laws, leading o imp o ed economic ou comes o women.
Donno e al. (2022) discuss he in luence o in e na ional incen i es on e o ms as-
socia ed wi h women’s igh s in au oc acies. They ind ha au oc acies o en implemen
Economies 2025,13, 36 5 o 26
gende - ela ed legisla ion o comply wi h in e na ional no ms, d i en by o eign aid de-
pendence and p essu e om in e na ional NGOs. Howe e , hese egimes a oid mo e
poli ically isky e o ms ela ed o elec ions and poli ical plu alism. The s udy concludes
ha au oc a s s a egically use women’s igh s e o ms o main ain powe while signaling
compliance wi h in e na ional expec a ions.
The e ec o socie al a i udes and no ms in shaping gende equali y is also well
documen ed. Fe an e al. (2014) no e ha deep- oo ed cul u al no ms impede he p og ess
o gende equali y, e en wi h a o able laws. Hence, hey emphasize he impo ance o
ad ocacy and awa eness campaigns in changing socie al a i udes owa ds gende oles.
Based on a de ailed examina ion o India, whe e cul u al no ms ha e adi ionally es ic ed
women’s economic pa icipa ion, he au ho s no e ha a ge ed awa eness campaigns a e
g adually changing public pe cep ions and imp o ing gende equali y. Jayachand an
(2015) simila ly highligh s how social no ms and gende biases can es ic women’s
economic ac i i ies and how in e en ions o change hese no ms can ha e signi ican
posi i e impac s.
Obse a ions om hese s udies unde sco e he impo ance o add essing legal, ins i-
u ional, and cul u al ba ie s ha limi women’s economic oppo uni ies. By le e aging
gende -mains eamed aid o a ge speci ic a eas o in e es , coun ies may c ea e an inclu-
si e en i onmen ha suppo s women’s pa icipa ion in he economy, he eby d i ing
o e all economic g ow h and de elopmen . Al hough hey highligh he c i ical ole o
gende -mains eamed aid and obus ins i u ions, he a ailable s udies a ely de elop a
heo e ical model ha pe mi s gende -mains eaming aid in lows wi h imp o emen s in he
legal and egula o y amewo ks ha cha ac e ize he en i onmen unde which women
li e and wo k. This s udy aims o ill he oid by p o iding a heo e ical amewo k linking
gende -mains eaming aid o enhanced legal p o ec ions o women and he mechanisms
guiding mo e e ec i e policy in e en ions.
3. Theo e ical F amewo k and Empi ical Model
3.1. Theo e ical Model
U ili y Maximiza ion F amewo k: Conside a ep esen a i e woman who chooses be-
ween wo k and leisu e, wi h he u ili y de i ed om consump ion (C) and leisu e (L).
Wages and non-wage ac o s, such as cul u al, legal, and ins i u ional en i onmen , shape
he labo ma ke decisions.2
The u ili y unc ion Uis de ined as
U=U(C,L,Js,Jq,D)(1)
Cis consump ion, Lis leisu e, Js ep esen s job secu i y and sa e y, Jq e lec s job
quali y (e.g., pa en al lea e policies, lexible wo king condi ions), and D ep esen s he
absence o wo kplace disc imina ion and ha assmen .
Budge Cons ain : Consump ion is inanced by wages ea ned om wo king hou s (h),
and he o al ime endowmen is no malized o 1, such ha
L+h=
1. The woman aces
he ollowing budge cons ain :
C=w·h+T(2)
whe e wis he wage a e o women and Tis non-labo income.
Wage De e mina ion Func ion: We de i e he wage equa ion as a unc ion o se e al
a iables ha a ec women’s wages in he labo ma ke . These include human capi al
(H), he legal en i onmen (
Φ
), and labo ma ke cha ac e is ics (M). Thus, we speci y he
wage as
w= (H,Φ,M)(3)
Economies 2025,13, 36 6 o 26
whe e His human capi al (e.g., educa ion, skills),
Φ
ep esen s he s eng h and quali y o
legal amewo ks (e.g., an i-disc imina ion laws, equal pay laws, ma e ni y igh s), and M
e e s o labo ma ke condi ions (e.g., labo demand, employmen a es). We conside ha
Φ
, ep esen ing he legal amewo k, di ec ly in luences wage a es by ensu ing gende
equali y and educing disc imina o y p ac ices. S onge legal p o ec ions (highe
Φ
)
should inc ease wages o women by le eling he playing ield in he labo ma ke .
Non-Wage Fac o s In luencing Labo Fo ce Pa icipa ion: Besides wages, job secu i y,
sa e y, and quali y, wo kplace condi ions d i e women’s wo k o ce pa icipa ion. Thus, we
in oduce an employmen quali y index (Q):
Q=Q(Js,Jq,D)(4)
The index cap u es job cha ac e is ics such as secu i y (Js)— he s abili y and assu ance
ha he job will be a ailable in he long e m, educing he isk o sudden unemploymen ;
job quali y (Jq)— ac o s such as access o bene i s (e.g., pa en al lea e, heal h insu ance),
wo k-li e balance, and oppo uni ies o ca ee ad ancemen ; and he absence o disc imi-
na ion and ha assmen (D)—policies ha gua an ee employees a e ea ed ai ly and wi h
espec in he wo kplace, ee om ha assmen o biased ea men , which can signi ican ly
a ec hei well-being and job sa is ac ion.
Labo Supply Decision: Gi en he wage wand employmen quali y Q, he woman
maximizes u ili y by choosing he op imal numbe o labo hou s (h):
max
hUC,Js,Jq,D
Subjec o C=w·h+Tand L=1−h(5)
The i s -o de condi ion o his maximiza ion p oblem gi es he op imal labo supply
decision h∗:
h∗=g(w,Q)=g( (H,Φ,M),Q(Js,Jq,D)) (6)
The model p esen s labo o ce pa icipa ion
h∗
as a unc ion o wages (in luenced
by he legal amewo k,
Φ
), and non-wage ac o s cap u ed by he employmen quali y
index Q.
Inco po a ing Gende -Mains eamed Aid: We hypo hesize ha by suppo ing legal e-
o ms, ad ocacy, and en o cemen o gende -equal laws, gende -mains eamed aid (A)
leads o imp o ed legal amewo ks. Thus, he s eng h o he legal amewo k,
Φ
depends
on gende - ela ed aid (A) and o he ac o s such as go e nmen e ec i eness (G) and
cul u al no ms (C):
Φ=Φ(A,G,C)(7)
whe e Ais gende -mains eamed aid, Gis go e nmen e ec i eness (e.g., capaci y o
implemen and en o ce laws), and C ep esen s cul u al no ms ha may suppo o hinde
gende equali y.3
Role o Media ing Fac o s: The e ec s o gende -mains eamed aid on legal e o ms
a e no uni o m ac oss con ex s as hey a e likely o be media ed by ins i u ional and
cul u al ac o s. Fo example, co up ion can limi aid e ec i eness by di e ing esou ces
o weakening he en o cemen o e o ms, unde mining p og ess owa d s onge legal
amewo ks (Minasyan & Mon inola,2022;Bagade e al.,2022). Simila ly, en enched
cul u al no ms ha de alue gende equali y may esis e o m e o s e en when laws a e
s eng hened. These media ing ac o s in luence how aid ansla es in o meaning ul legal
and ins i u ional changes p omo ing women’s economic pa icipa ion.
Economies 2025,13, 36 7 o 26
To e lec hese dynamics, he empi ical model includes key a iables such as he
Ins i u ional Quali y Index, which cap u es go e nance s eng h and co up ion, and
Cul u al Globaliza ion, which p oxies o openness o in e na ional no ms, including hose
p omo ing gende equali y. These a iables ensu e ha he b oade ins i u ional and
cul u al en i onmen is accoun ed o in he analysis, p o iding a obus ounda ion o
in e p e ing he esul s.
3.2. The Empi ical Model
Based on he heo e ical model, we cons uc a educed- o m empi ical model ha
enables us o es whe he he gende -mains eamed aid (A) in low ha a coun y ecei es,
condi ional on a ec o o con ol a iables (Z), in luence he WBL index.
WBLi =β0+β1Ai +θ′
iZi +ϵi (8)
whe e
WBLi
is he Women, Business and Law sco e in coun y
i
a ime ,
Ai
is he
amoun o gende -mains eamed aid ecei ed by he gi en ecipien ,
Zi
is a ec o o
con ol a iables (e.g., economic de elopmen , educa ional a ainmen , poli ical s abili y,
cul u al no ms), and
ϵi
is an independen ly and iden ically dis ibu ed e o e m. To
add ess po en ial e e se causali y be ween gende - ela ed aid (A
i
) in low and he Women,
Business, and Law Index (WBLi ), we use a wo-pe iod lagged alue o aid (Ai -2).4
We es ima e he pa ame e s using he s anda d panel ixed-e ec s and quan ile ixed-
e ec s eg ession app oaches. The panel ixed-e ec s model accoun s o unobse ed
coun y-speci ic ac o s ha could bias he esul s i omi ed, ensu ing ha ime-in a ian
he e ogenei ies ac oss coun ies do no dis o he obse ed ela ionship be ween gende -
mains eamed aid and WBL ou comes. The quan ile ixed-e ec s app oach allows o us o
explo e how he impac o gende -mains eamed aid a ies ac oss di e en le els o he
WBL Index dis ibu ion, p o iding a be e unde s anding o i s e ec s.
We u ilize he mul ile el model (mixed-e ec s andom coe icien app oach) and
ins umen al a iable (IV) eg ession me hods o obus ness checks. The mixed-e ec s
andom coe icien app oach accommoda es po en ial a ia ions in he ela ionship be-
ween gende -mains eamed aid and WBL Index ou comes ac oss coun ies, sys ema ically
modeling he e ogenei y in aid e ec i eness. The IV eg ession app oach was employed o
add ess po en ial endogenei y conce ns, le e aging ma e nal mo ali y as an ins umen o
gende - ela ed aid. Ma e nal mo ali y, a widely ecognized indica o o gende dispa i ies,
is co ela ed wi h aid alloca ion decisions (Pickbou n & Ndikumana,2016) bu does no
di ec ly a ec he WBL Index, ensu ing he alidi y o he ins umen . This app oach en-
hances he obus ness o ou indings by mi iga ing bias om e e se causali y o omi ed
a iable e ec s.
4. Empi ical Resul s
4.1. Desc ip i e S a is ics
The de e minan s o he legal and egula o y en i onmen ha women o en na iga e
h ough hei wo king li es a e mul i ace ed, encompassing poli ical, economic, social,
cul u al, and ins i u ional ac o s. Table 1p esen s he panel desc ip i e s a is ics o he
a iables in he empi ical model.
The p ima y dependen a iable o in e es is he WBL sco e, a composi e me ic
anging om 0 o 100, wi h highe alues e lec ing he a ailabili y o be e legal and
egula o y amewo ks acili a ing women’s economic oppo uni ies. The sco e is de i ed
om eigh indica o s: Mobili y (assesses eedom o mo emen ); Wo kplace (examines
employmen egula ions); Pay ( ocuses on equali y in emune a ion); Ma iage (e alua es
Economies 2025,13, 36 8 o 26
igh s wi hin ma iage and a e di o ce); Pa en hood (conside s he impac o laws on
wo k pos -childbi h); Business o En ep eneu ship (add esses cons ain s on business
owne ship; Asse s, sc u inizing p ope y, and inhe i ance igh s; and Pension (co e s
pension en i lemen s). Da a a e sou ced om he Wo ld Bank (2024).
Table 1. Panel desc ip i e s a is ics.
Va iables Mean S d. De . Min Max Obse a ions
Dependen a iable(s):
WBL Sco e o e all 68.96 15.70 26.25 96.88 N = 1418
be ween 15.42 26.88 94.95 n = 116
wi hin 3.58 52.33 92.43 T = 11.7328
Dimensions o WBL:
Mobili y o e all 84.15 25.60 0.00 100.00 N = 1418
be ween 25.33 0.00 100.00 n = 116
wi hin 4.52 50.81 107.22 T = 11.7328
Wo kplace o e all 71.68 31.64 0.00 100.00 N = 1418
be ween 29.54 0.00 100.00 n = 116
wi hin 12.19 21.68 123.60 T = 11.7328
Pay o e all 54.39 29.29 0.00 100.00 N = 1418
be ween 28.25 0.00 100.00 n = 116
wi hin 7.51 8.24 100.54 T = 11.7328
Ma iage o e all 71.59 30.24 0.00 100.00 N = 1418
be ween 29.35 0.00 100.00 n = 116
wi hin 6.49 44.93 105.44 T = 11.7328
Pa en hood o e all 45.63 27.01 0.00 100.00 N = 1418
be ween 26.45 0.00 100.00 n = 116
wi hin 7.08 1.01 101.01 T = 11.7328
Business o e all 79.52 14.66 0.00 100.00 N = 1418
be ween 15.23 0.00 100.00 n = 116
wi hin 5.13 10.29 102.60 T = 11.7328
Asse s o e all 78.21 26.34 0.00 100.00 N = 1418
be ween 26.20 0.00 100.00 n = 116
wi hin 3.45 41.28 111.54 T = 11.7328
Pension o e all 66.55 26.10 0.00 100.00 N = 1418
be ween 25.22 21.15 100.00 n = 116
wi hin 7.38 21.10 108.86 T = 11.7328
Independen Va iable(s):
To al GRA (TGRA) o e all 203.54 274.53 0.52 2308.42 N = 1418
be ween 246.18 0.79 1632.63 n = 116
wi hin 112.63 −452.86 1087.57 T = 10.9652
Signi ican GRA (SGRA) o e all 177.45 243.81 0.52 2149.84 N = 1418
be ween 218.36 0.60 1485.26 n = 116
wi hin 100.85 −392.87 842.04 T = 10.9652
P incipal GRA (PGRA) o e all 26.21 41.10 0.00 339.07 N = 1418
be ween 34.68 0.06 162.01 n = 116
wi hin 20.74 −93.07 203.27 T = 10.8783
Con ol Va iables:
Yea s o Schooling o e all 7.16 2.86 1.02 13.34 N = 1418
be ween 2.86 1.45 12.65 n = 116
wi hin 0.48 5.38 9.45 T = 11.7241
Pe Capi a Income o e all 9013.26 6565.73 715.98 40,284.54 N = 1418
be ween 7166.38 781.42 39,596.13 n = 116
wi hin 1313.60 −1243.36 17,398.35 T = 11.7328
Ins i u ional Quali y o e all 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.04 N = 1418
be ween 0.01 0.00 0.04 n = 116
wi hin 0.00 −0.01 0.01 T = 11.7328
Cul u al Globaliza ion o e all 43.95 15.95 9.58 83.00 N = 1418
be ween 16.04 9.70 80.69 n = 116
wi hin 3.05 30.83 55.53 T = 11.7328
Economic Globaliza ion o e all 56.57 9.93 32.34 81.06 N = 1418
be ween 9.88 36.52 79.83 n = 116
wi hin 1.90 48.18 63.15 N = 1418
The panel o desc ip i e s a is ics conce ning he Women, Business, and Law (WBL) In-
dex and i s componen dimensions p esen ed in Table 1p o ide a comp ehensi e o e iew
o he legal and egula o y amewo ks impac ing women among he 116 coun ies in his
s udy. The o e all mean sco e o he WBL Index is 68.964, wi h a s anda d de ia ion
Economies 2025,13, 36 15 o 26
0.260 o 0.316, sugges ing ha coun ies wi h highe economic globaliza ion le els ha e
imp o ed legal and egula o y en i onmen s o women. Using he esul s in column (c),
we obse e ha a 1% inc ease in economic globaliza ion leads o a 0.316% inc ease in he
WBL Index, a c i ical depic ion o he global economic in eg a ion’s ole in imp o ing he
legal amewo ks de ining oppo uni ies o women. Highe Cul u al Globaliza ion has a
posi i e and signi ican e ec (p< 0.10) in mos models, indica ing ha he mo e cul u ally
in eg a ed coun ies a e wi h he es o he wo ld, he highe hei WBL Index sco es.
Tu ning o he main a iables o in e es , a ise in gende - ela ed aid in low a he
agg ega e (TGRA) and disagg ega e le els (SGRA and PGRA) is associa ed wi h s a is ically
disce nible imp o emen s in he WBL Index. Fo example, he esul in column (a) indica es
ha a 1% inc ease in he TGRA in lows yields a 0.017% inc ease, on a e age, in he WBL
sco e a yea la e . While a 1% inc ease in he SGRA yields a 0.0169% (column b) inc ease
in he WBL Index, a p opo iona e inc ease in PGRA yields a much lowe bu s a is ically
signi ican 0.00662% inc ease in he WBL Index, on a e age. When con olling o he
po en ial e ec s o bo h componen s o gende - ela ed aid in lows, wi hou (column d)
and wi h in e ac ion e ec s (column e), in addi ion o each componen main aining hei
s a is ical signi icance, indica ing ha a ge ed in e en ions a e e ec i e in enhancing
he legal p o ec ions o women, hey ha e a s a is ically signi ican posi i e in e ac ion
e ec . The obse a ion highligh s he syne gy in he aid s a egies add essing bo h p ima y
and seconda y gende - ela ed objec i es, ein o cing each o he o p oduce subs an ial
imp o emen s in legal and egula o y amewo ks o women. Fo policymake s and
dono s, his would mean ha alloca ing esou ces o bo h b oad and speci ic gende - ela ed
ini ia i es can signi ican ly enhance women’s empowe men and legal p o ec ions.
4.3. Dimensional Va ia ions in he Obse ed E ec s
While he abo e esul s p o ide aluable insigh s in o he e ec i eness o gende -
ela ed aid on legal and egula o y amewo ks a ec ing women’s li es, a meaning ul
and policy- ele an unde s anding equi es a de ailed examina ion o i s e ec s ac oss he
di e en dimensions o he o e all index (WBL), as aid could be highly e ec i e in ce ain
a eas while po en ially less impac ul in o he s.8
Table 4p esen s es ima es o he e ec s o each TGRA, SGRA, and PGRA in low ex-
ac ed om 24 di e en panel ixed-e ec speci ica ions using each o he eigh componen
dimensions o he WBL Index. The esul s highligh ha gende - ela ed aid signi ican ly
impac s he agg ega e WBL Index, bu i s e ec i eness a ies ac oss he di e en dimen-
sions o he index. Fo ins ance, o al gende - ela ed aid (TGRA) signi ican ly imp o es
he legal cons ain s ela ed o ma iage (0.0299%) and laws a ec ing women’s wo k a e
ha ing child en, i.e., pa en hood (0.0303%) wi h a high deg ee o s a is ical signi icance
(
p< 0.01
), indica ing ha aid posi i ely in luences legal amewo ks ha a ec hese a eas.
Howe e , i has a weake and s a is ically insigni ican impac on he wo kplace, laws
a ec ing women’s decisions o wo k (0.0192), and business o en ep eneu ship, imposing
cons ain s on women’s abili y o s a and un businesses (0.00712). Hence, aid in hese
a eas may equi e mo e a ge ed in e en ions, o o he ac o s may be a play.
The weake e ec s o gende - ela ed aid on wo kplace and business (en ep eneu ship)
dimensions may indica e he p esence o s uc u al ba ie s ha go beyond he scope o
legal and egula o y e o ms. These a eas likely equi e complemen a y in e en ions such
as capaci y-building p og ams o enhance women’s pa icipa ion in he wo k o ce and
suppo business (en ep eneu ship) ini ia i es. Fo ins ance, capaci y-building p og ams
could ocus on imp o ing women’s access o inancial esou ces, business ne wo ks, and
en ep eneu ial aining. Fu he mo e, add essing deeply en enched socie al no ms ha
limi women’s economic pa icipa ion may necessi a e a ge ed awa eness campaigns and
Economies 2025,13, 36 16 o 26
ad ocacy e o s. These measu es could s eng hen he impac o aid in a eas whe e legal
e o ms alone may no be su icien o o e come exis ing ba ie s.
Table 4. Coe icien es ima es o he e ec s o TGRA, SGRA, and PGRA on componen dimensions o
he Women, Business, and Law Index ex ac ed om panel ixed e ec s es ima ions.
Componen Dimension Sco es (in Logs) Used as Dependen Va iable
VARIABLES
Mobili y Wo k Pay Ma iage Pa en hood Business Asse Pension
TGRA( -2) 0.0125 * 0.0192 0.0162 0.0299 *** 0.0303 *** 0.00712 0.00609 * 0.0171 **
(0.00739) (0.0128) (0.0121) (0.0108) (0.0108) (0.00460) (0.00332) (0.00748)
SGRA( -2) 0.0109 * 0.0218 * 0.0217 0.0261 *** 0.0264 ** 0.00757 * 0.00408 0.0117
(0.00576) (0.0126) (0.0134) (0.00977) (0.0102) (0.00437) (0.00318) (0.00737)
PGRA( -2) 0.00398 0.00928 0.0104 0.0114 ** 0.0103 * 0.000788 0.00568 ** 0.0183 ***
(0.00336) (0.00925) (0.00642) (0.00542) (0.00587) (0.00181) (0.00285) (0.00672)
Obse a ions
1353 1353 1242 1274 1134 1353 1353 1353
See oo no e on Table 3.
Simila ly, signi ican gende - ela ed aid (SGRA), which inco po a es gende conside a-
ions in o b oade de elopmen p ojec s, shows posi i e and signi ican e ec s on mobili y
(cons ain s on women’s eedom o mo emen ) (0.0109%, p< 0.10), legal cons ain s e-
la ed o ma iage (0.0261%, p< 0.01), and pa en hood (laws a ec ing women’s wo k a e
ha ing child en) (0.0264%, p< 0.05). SGRA’s in luence on laws and egula ions a ec ing
women’s compensa ion (i.e., pay) (0.0217) and business (0.00757) is less p onounced and
only ma ginally signi ican o no signi ican .
P incipal gende - ela ed aid (PGRA), which explici ly a ge s gende equali y, has a
s a is ically signi ican e ec on ewe componen s, no ably on ma iage (0.0114%,
p< 0.05
),
pa en hood (0.0103%, p< 0.10), and on laws and egula ions a ec ing he size o a woman’s
pension (0.0183%, p< 0.01). Howe e , i s impac on o he dimensions, like mobili y (0.00398)
and business (0.000788), is no s a is ically disce nible.
These obse a ions sugges ha he impac (s a is ical and p ac ical) a ies ac oss
dimensions. Thus, policymake s and dono s mus conside hese a iances when designing
aid p og ams, ensu ing ha esou ces a e alloca ed e ec i ely ac oss di e en a eas o
maximize imp o emen s in he legal and egula o y amewo ks a ec ing women. As
indica ed ea lie , comp ehensi e s a egies a ge ing gende equali y as a p ima y and
seconda y objec i e can syne gize, leading o b oade and mo e subs an ial imp o emen s
in women’s legal p o ec ions and economic oppo uni ies.
4.4. Dis ibu ional Impac Va ia ions
The luence may also a y among coun ies a di e en s ages (dis ibu ion) o he
legal and egula o y de elopmen . Thus, analyzing he a ia ion in he obse ed e ec s
o gende - ela ed aid ac oss coun ies si ua ed a di e en loca ions on he WBL Index
dis ibu ion can help iden i y whe e aid is mos bene icial and in o m a mo e a ge ed and
s a egic alloca ion o esou ces.
Acco dingly, Table 5p esen s esul s ob ained using he Machado and Sil a (2019)
panel ixed e ec s quan ile eg ession es ima ion app oach. By depic ing he e ec o a
pe cen age inc ease in he gi en a iable o in e es on he WBL Index, compa ed o he
panel ixed e ec s esul s in Tables 3and 4, he quan ile eg ession esul s pe mi a mo e
comp ehensi e examina ion o he e ec i eness o gende - ela ed aid ac oss coun ies.
This is pa icula ly aluable when dealing wi h he e ogeneous da a such as he WBL
Index, whe e he ela ionship be ween he p ima y a iables o in e es may di e among
coun ies a a ious poin s in he dis ibu ion.9
Economies 2025,13, 36 17 o 26
Table 5. Quan ile ixed e ec s es ima ion o he e ec s o gende - ela ed aid on he WBL Index
(in logs).
Panel A: Signi ican Gende -Rela ed Aid, SGRA; N = 1551
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) ( ) (g) (h) (i) (j)
Va iables q5 q15 q25 q35 q45 q55 q65 q75 q85 q95
Mean Yea s o
School 0.253 *** 0.246 *** 0.241 *** 0.237 *** 0.233 *** 0.227 *** 0.222 *** 0.218 *** 0.214 *** 0.205 ***
(0.052) (0.040) (0.033) (0.029) (0.026) (0.026) (0.030) (0.035) (0.040) (0.056)
Pe Capi a
Income 0.043 0.037 * 0.033 * 0.030 * 0.026 * 0.021 0.017 0.014 0.011 0.003
(0.023) (0.018) (0.015) (0.013) (0.012) (0.012) (0.014) (0.016) (0.018) (0.025)
Ins i u ional
Quali y Index 4.125 * 3.905 ** 3.764 *** 3.643 *** 3.497 *** 3.324 *** 3.170 *** 3.053 ** 2.934 * 2.650
(1.636) (1.263) (1.054) (0.911) (0.807) (0.817) (0.945) (1.093) (1.272) (1.762)
Cul u al
Globaliza ion 0.032 0.027 0.025 0.032 0.042 * 0.046 ** 0.043 ** 0.039 * 0.691* 0.004
(0.045) (0.035) (0.029) (0.025) (0.022) (0.022) (0.021) (0.030) (0.035) (0.048)
Economic
Globaliza ion 0.329 ** 0.319 *** 0.312 *** 0.306 *** 0.299 *** 0.291 *** 0.284 *** 0.278 *** 0.272 ** 0.259 *
(0.113) (0.088) (0.073) (0.063) (0.056) (0.057) (0.066) (0.076) (0.088) (0.122)
Lagged SGRA 0.012 * 0.014 *** 0.015 *** 0.015 *** 0.016 *** 0.017 *** 0.018 *** 0.019 *** 0.020 *** 0.022 ***
(0.005) (0.004) (0.003) (0.003) (0.002) (0.002) (0.003) (0.003) (0.004) (0.005)
Panel B: P incipal Gende -Rela ed Aid, PGRA; N = 1486
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) ( ) (g) (h) (i) (j)
VARIABLES q5 q15 q25 q35 q45 q55 q65 q75 q85 q95
Mean yea s o
school 0.262 *** 0.254 *** 0.250 *** 0.245 *** 0.240 *** 0.234 *** 0.229 *** 0.225 *** 0.221 *** 0.212 ***
(0.057) (0.044) (0.038) (0.032) (0.027) (0.026) (0.028) (0.033) (0.038) (0.052)
Pe capi a
Income 0.046 ** 0.038 ** 0.034 ** 0.029 * 0.024 ** 0.018 0.017 * 0.009 0.005 −0.004
(0.023) (0.019) (0.017) (0.015) (0.012) (0.012) (0.011) (0.015) (0.017) (0.024)
Ins i u ional
Quali y Index 4.338 4.258 4.211 * 4.165 * 4.103 ** 4.045 ** 3.995 ** 3.952 * 3.913 * 3.817
(2.929) (2.276) (1.935) (1.638) (1.373) (1.324) (1.457) (1.676) (1.929) (2.664)
Cul u al
Globaliza ion 0.035 0.030 0.028 0.025 0.029 ** 0.039 *** 0.046 * 0.049 * 0.612 * 0.067 **
(0.051) (0.039) (0.034) (0.028) (0.014) (0.013) (0.022) (0.029) (0.031) (0.032)
Economic
Globaliza ion 0.291 * 0.298 ** 0.303 *** 0.307 *** 0.313 *** 0.319 *** 0.324 *** 0.328 *** 0.332 *** 0.341 **
(0.125) (0.097) (0.083) (0.070) (0.059) (0.056) (0.062) (0.071) (0.082) (0.114)
Lagged PGRA 0.010 ** 0.009 ** 0.008 *** 0.008 *** 0.007 *** 0.006 *** 0.006 ** 0.005 * 0.004 0.003
(0.004) (0.003) (0.003) (0.002) (0.002) (0.002) (0.002) (0.002) (0.003) (0.004)
See oo no e on Table 3.
Panel A ( he uppe pa ) o Table 5p esen s esul s om he speci ica ion in which
only he SGRA componen en e s he model. In con as , Panel B ( he bo om pa o
he able) p esen s he co esponding esul s when PGRA is he only gende - ela ed aid
componen ha en e s he model.
10
Gi en ha he obse ed e ec s o mos o he a iables
emain consis en wi h he esul s ob ained om he panel ixed e ec eg ession esul s, o
b e i y, we limi he discussion o he b eakdown o he main a iables o in e es : SGRA
and PGRA.
The coe icien s o SGRA (Panel A) a e posi i e and s a is ically signi ican ac oss all
quan iles (q5 o q95), wi h he magni ude o he obse ed e ec o a 1% inc ease in SGRA
g adually inc easing om 0.012% (q5) o 0.022% (q95). While he consis en ly signi ican
coe icien s ac oss all quan iles es ablish he obus ness o he impac o SGRA on he WBL
Index a all le els, he ise in he obse ed e ec s unde sco es ha as SGRA inc eases, he
WBL Index, indica ing be e condi ions o women in business and law, also imp o es.
Economies 2025,13, 36 18 o 26
The PGRA (Panel B) coe icien s a e also posi i e and s a is ically signi ican om he
lowe end o he dis ibu ion ( he 5 h qua ile o he 75 h qua ile), anging om 0.010 a
he 5 h qua ile o 0.005 a he 75 h qua ile. Howe e , he coe icien s become s a is ically
insigni ican a he uppe ends o he WBL dis ibu ion ( he 85 h o 95 h qua iles). This
indica es ha PGRA posi i ely impac s he WBL Index, pa icula ly a he lowe and
middle le els, bu i s e ec diminishes a highe le els. The e o e, while PGRA imp o es
condi ions o women, i s impac is less p onounced a he highe quan iles o he WBL
Index.
The dimensional and dis ibu ional analyses highligh ha while gende - ela ed aid
has an o e all posi i e impac , i s e ec i eness a ies ac oss legal and egula o y con ex s.
This obse a ion sugges s ha aid p og ams should be ailo ed o add ess he unique
needs o coun ies a di e en s ages o legal and egula o y de elopmen . Fo ins ance,
coun ies wi h lowe WBL sco es may bene i om ounda ional legal e o ms, while hose
wi h highe sco es may equi e complemen a y measu es, such as p og ams ha ocus on
shi ing socie al no ms o enhancing he en o cemen o exis ing laws.
Compa ing he obse ed e ec , while inc eased SGRA and PGRA in lows posi i ely
a ec he WBL Index, SGRA has a mo e consis en and mo e conside able impac , especially
a he highe end o he quan iles. Fo ins ance, a he 95 h qua ile, a 1% inc ease in
he SGRA is associa ed wi h a 0.022% inc ease in he WBL Index. The co esponding
e ec o PGRA is no s a is ically disce nible, indica ing ha SGRA is mo e e ec i e o
comp ehensi e imp o emen s in gende - ela ed business and law condi ions a ec ing
women. Con e sely, he obse a ion ha PGRA signi ican ly impac s he WBL Index a
he lowe o middle quan iles indica es ha pe haps complemen a y measu es a e needed
o enhance i s e ec i eness ac oss coun ies a a ious ends o he legal and egula o y
con ex s. To aid isual obse a ion o he pa e ns o he obse ed e ec s, Figu e 1p esen s
he isualiza ion o he coe icien s o he SGRA and PGRA along wi h ha o mean yea s
o schooling and pe capi a income.
Economies 2025, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 o 28
o enhance i s effec i eness ac oss coun ies a a ious ends o he legal and egula o y
con ex s. To aid isual obse a ion o he pa e ns o he obse ed effec s, Figu e 1 p e-
sen s he isualiza ion o he coefficien s o he SGRA and PGRA along wi h ha o mean
yea s o schooling and pe capi a income.
Figu e 1. Rela i e impac s o he con ol a iables on ules and egula o y amewo ks affec ing
women. Resul s om he quan ile eg ession model.
Compa ing he pa e ns o he obse ed effec s o mean yea s o schooling and pe
capi a income in bo h speci ica ions, while he yea s o schooling exhibi simila i ies o
ha o SGRA (wi h posi i e and signi ican coefficien s ac oss all quan iles), he impac o
pe capi a income is mo e nuanced (posi i e and signi ican a lowe quan iles, bu dimin-
ished impac s a he highe end o he dis ibu ion), indica ing ha income imp o emen s
ha e a mo e subs an ial effec a lowe le els o he WBL Index.
4.5. Robus ness Checks
To ensu e he obus ness o he esul s, we also employ wo al e na i e es ima ion
app oaches: he andom in e cep s ( o six egions and 116 coun ies) and andom coeffi-
cien s ( o he gende - ela ed aid a iables) mixed effec s model, and he ins umen al
a iable (IV) eg ession me hods. The mixed-effec s model add esses unobse ed he e o-
genei y by including andom in e cep s o egions and coun ies, cap u ing baseline di -
e ences in he Women, Business, and he Law (WBL) Index ac oss con ex s. I also in-
cludes andom coefficien s o gende - ela ed aid, allowing o a ia ion in aid effec i e-
ness ac oss coun ies.
We use ma e nal mo ali y as an ins umen o add ess he po en ial endogenei y o
he main a iable o in e es , gende - ela ed aid.11 Ma e nal mo ali y is s ongly co e-
la ed wi h gende dispa i ies, which in luences aid alloca ion decisions bu does no di-
ec ly affec he WBL Index (Bhalo a e al., 2023; Bagade e al., 2022; Came on e al., 2019).
The WBL Index e lec s legal and ins i u ional e o ms ela ed o women’s economic pa -
icipa ion, which a e unlikely o be di ec ly impac ed by ma e nal mo ali y, a heal h
Figu e 1. Rela i e impac s o he con ol a iables on ules and egula o y amewo ks a ec ing
women. Resul s om he quan ile eg ession model.
Economies 2025,13, 36 19 o 26
Compa ing he pa e ns o he obse ed e ec s o mean yea s o schooling and pe
capi a income in bo h speci ica ions, while he yea s o schooling exhibi simila i ies o ha
o SGRA (wi h posi i e and signi ican coe icien s ac oss all quan iles), he impac o pe
capi a income is mo e nuanced (posi i e and signi ican a lowe quan iles, bu diminished
impac s a he highe end o he dis ibu ion), indica ing ha income imp o emen s ha e a
mo e subs an ial e ec a lowe le els o he WBL Index.
4.5. Robus ness Checks
To ensu e he obus ness o he esul s, we also employ wo al e na i e es ima ion ap-
p oaches: he andom in e cep s ( o six egions and 116 coun ies) and andom coe icien s
( o he gende - ela ed aid a iables) mixed e ec s model, and he ins umen al a iable
(IV) eg ession me hods. The mixed-e ec s model add esses unobse ed he e ogenei y
by including andom in e cep s o egions and coun ies, cap u ing baseline di e ences
in he Women, Business, and he Law (WBL) Index ac oss con ex s. I also includes an-
dom coe icien s o gende - ela ed aid, allowing o a ia ion in aid e ec i eness ac oss
coun ies.
We use ma e nal mo ali y as an ins umen o add ess he po en ial endogenei y o
he main a iable o in e es , gende - ela ed aid.
11
Ma e nal mo ali y is s ongly co ela ed
wi h gende dispa i ies, which in luences aid alloca ion decisions bu does no di ec ly a ec
he WBL Index (Bhalo a e al.,2023;Bagade e al.,2022;Came on e al.,2019). The WBL
Index e lec s legal and ins i u ional e o ms ela ed o women’s economic pa icipa ion,
which a e unlikely o be di ec ly impac ed by ma e nal mo ali y, a heal h ou come.
12
Resul s om he co esponding es ima ion app oaches— he andom coe icien mixed-
e ec s model and he IV eg ession model (when using wo-pe iod lagged alues o he
gende - ela ed aid a iables)—a e p esen ed in Tables 6and 7.
Table 6. Mixed e ec s model es ima ion o he de e minan s o he WBL Index.
Dependen Va iable: WBL Index
Va iables (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
Mean Yea s o School 0.193 *** 0.195 *** 0.192 *** 0.198 *** 0.196 ***
(0.0191) (0.0188) (0.0187) (0.0189) (0.0188)
Pe Capi a Income 0.0339 ** 0.0340 ** 0.0284 * 0.0339 ** 0.0334 **
(0.0147) (0.0144) (0.0146) (0.0147) (0.0147)
Ins i u ional Quali y
Index 0.00687 * 0.00692 * 0.00643 0.00551 0.00475
(0.00413) (0.0040) (0.0040) (0.0041) (0.0041)
Cul u al Globaliza ion 0.0432 ** 0.0476 ** 0.0335 0.0418 ** 0.0430 **
(0.0212) (0.0207) (0.0218) (0.0209) (0.0209)
Economic Globaliza ion 0.233 *** 0.225 *** 0.269 *** 0.181 *** 0.175 ***
(0.0557) (0.0543) (0.0561) (0.0543) (0.0545)
TGRA( −2)0.0193 ***
(0.00503)
SGRA( −2)0.0196 *** 0.0178 *** 0.0122 **
(0.00538) (0.00530) (0.00576)
PGRA( −2)0.00824 *** 0.00409 * −0.00694
(0.00306) (0.00239) (0.00558)
SGRA ( −2)×
PGRA( −2)0.00295 **
(0.00132)
Cons an 2.254 *** 2.262 *** 2.273 *** 2.463 *** 2.516 ***
(0.234) (0.230) (0.235) (0.233) (0.234)
Obse a ions 1302 1302 1238 1238 1238
No. o Coun ies 116 116 115 115 115
Log-Likelihood 1683 1705 1643 1698 1700
Chi-Squa e 298.4 *** 303.9 *** 277.7 *** 278.7 *** 285.8 ***
Fixed E ec s (Coun y;
Yea ) YES YES YES YES YES
See oo no e on Table 3.
Economies 2025,13, 36 20 o 26
Table 7. Panel ixed e ec s ins umen al a iable es ima ion o he de e minan s o he WBL Index.
Dependen Va iable: WBL Index
Va iables (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
Mean Yea s o School 0.2668 * 0.2605 * 0.2786 ** 0.2783 * 0.295 **
(0.166) (0.168) (0.1229) (0.119) (0.1213)
Pe Capi a Income 0.0955 * 0.0557 ** 0.0541 ** 0.0748 ** 0.0482 **
(0.0513) (0.0209) (0.0228) (0.0369) (0.0209)
Ins i u ional Quali y Index 05661 *** 0.05830 *** 0.05611 ** 0.06124 *** 0.06994 ***
(0.02372) (0.02214) (0.02101) (0.02132) (0.02132)
Cul u al Globaliza ion 0.528 *** 0.513 *** 0.2068 *** 0.0138 ** 0.01369 **
(0.0538) (0.0544) (0.0524) (0.0501) (0.0418)
Economic Globaliza ion 0.264 *** 0.283 *** 0.2503 *** 0.301 *** 0.715 ***
(0.0328) (0.0349) (0.0353) (0.0338) (0.0354)
TGRA( −2)0.0281 **
(0.0140)
SGRA( −2)0.0282 * 0.0311 * 0.0136 ***
(0.0146) (0.0136) (0.00236)
PGRA( −2)0.0157 *** 0.0655 *** 0.00153
(0.0032) (0.0324) (0.00223)
SGRA ( −2)×PGRA( −2)0.0264 ***
(0.00819)
Cons an 3.443 *** 3.812 *** 15.90 3.674 *** 3.754 ***
(0.823) (1.009) (165.4) (0.909) (0.588)
Fi s -S age F-S a is ic (Gen
de -Rela ed Aid ~ MMR)
15.68 *** 14.73 *** 14.30 *** 14.52 *** 15.27 ***
(0.001) (0.0012) (0.0054) (0.0051) (0.0043)
Residual Co ela ion wi h
WBL Index
0.017 0.015 0.013 0.012 0.014
(0.830) (0.865) (0.113) (0.112) (0.127)
R-Squa ed (wi hin) 0.26 0.21 0.26 0.22 0.20
Obse a ions 1302 1302 1238 1238 1238
No. o Coun ies 116 116 115 115 115
Fixed E ec s (Coun y; Yea ) Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
S anda d e o s in pa en heses: *** p< 0.01, ** p< 0.05, * p< 0.1. Endogenous: TGRA, SGRA, and PGRA.
Exogenous: ma e nal mo ali y a e (MMR). All a iables excep o ins i u ional quali y index a e in log.
Es ima ion esul s om bo h he mixed-e ec s andom coe icien s model and he
IV eg ession app oaches, p esen ed in Tables 6and 7, show ha he coe icien o mean
yea s o schooling is posi i e and s a is ically signi ican . This indica es ha highe le els
o educa ional a ainmen in a coun y a e s ongly associa ed wi h imp o emen s in he
legal and egula o y amewo ks ha in luence women’s economic oppo uni ies. Pe
capi a income also main ains a consis en posi i e and signi ican e ec on he WBL Index
ac oss mos speci ica ions. The coe icien s emain signi ican a he 5% le el in models
(a), (b), (d), and (e). In compa ison, column (c) shows signi icance a only he 10% le el,
indica ing ha inc eased p o ec ions o women also esul om income imp o ed income
le els. Howe e , he e ec size diminishes sligh ly in column (c), consis en wi h he esul s
ob ained om he quan ile eg ession models. The s abili y o hese coe icien s ac oss
speci ica ions in columns (a) o (e) unde sco es he obus ness o he p ima y indings.
Tu ning o ou main a iables o in e es , in Table 6, column (a), he coe icien o
TGRA is 0.0193 and signi ican (p< 0.01), sugges ing a 1% inc ease in o al gende - ela ed aid
is associa ed wi h app oxima ely a 0.019% imp o emen in he WBL Index, demons a ing
he o e all e icacy o such aid. In column (b), he coe icien o SGRA is 0.0196 and
signi ican (p< 0.01), indica ing ha a 1% inc ease in SGRA leads o a 0.0196% imp o emen
in he WBL Index, highligh ing he subs an ial posi i e e ec o a ge ed gende - ela ed
ini ia i es. The e ec o PGRA is also signi ican (p< 0.01), indica ing a 1% inc ease in
PGRA esul s in an app oxima ely 0.0.0824% imp o emen in he WBL Index.
In Table 7, he coe icien o TGRA, SGRA, and PGRA a e, espec i ely, 0.0281 (p< 0.01),
0.0282 (p< 0.01), and 0.0157 (p< 0.01), indica ing ha a 1% inc ease in gende - ela ed aid
Economies 2025,13, 36 21 o 26
in low (agg ega e, signi ican , and p incipal), d i en by changes in he ma e nal mo ali y
a e, is associa ed wi h a 0.281%, 0.282%, and 0015% inc ease in he WBL Index. This
indica es a causal ela ionship whe e inc eased gende - ela ed aid in low leads o posi i e
changes in he disc e iona y egula o y laws a ec ing women’s economic pa icipa ion, as
measu ed by he WBL Index.13
The indings also unde sco e he impo ance o a mul idimensional app oach o
aid design. The signi ican posi i e in e ac ion e ec s be ween p incipal and signi ican
gende - ela ed aid sugges ha in eg a ed s a egies a ge ing bo h p ima y and seconda y
gende objec i es a e pa icula ly e ec i e. Fo dimensions like wo kplace and business
(en ep eneu ship), whe e weake impac s a e obse ed, policymake s may conside com-
bining legal e o ms wi h a ge ed capaci y-building and ad ocacy e o s o enhance
women’s pa icipa ion and o e come socie al ba ie s.
O e all, he esul s om bo h es ima ion app oaches ( he mixed-e ec s models wi h
andom coe icien s and he IV eg ession) co obo a e he p ima y indings, sugges ing
ha gende - ela ed aid has a signi ican and bene icial impac on enhancing he legal
amewo ks ha a ec women’s abili y o pa icipa e in he economy.
5. Conclusions and Implica ions
This s udy p o ides empi ical e idence on he e ec i eness o gende - ela ed aid in
enhancing legal and egula o y p o ec ions o women ac oss 116 coun ies om 2009 o
2022. The indings e eal ha inc eased in lows o gende - ela ed aid a e associa ed wi h
s a is ically signi ican imp o emen s in he Women, Business, and Law (WBL) Index, a
key measu e o he legal en i onmen impac ing women’s economic oppo uni ies.
A he agg ega e le el, an inc ease in TGRA is linked o imp o emen s in he o e all
WBL Index sco e. When disagg ega ed, bo h he SGRA componen , which emphasizes
gende conside a ions in b oade de elopmen p ojec s, and he PGRA componen , explic-
i ly a ge ing gende equali y, exhibi posi i e and s a is ically signi ican e ec s on he
WBL Index. No ably, he impac o SGRA appea s mo e consis en and subs an ial ac oss
coun ies a di e en le els o WBL de elopmen .
The analysis u he indica es ha while gende - ela ed aid posi i ely impac s he
agg ega e WBL Index, i s e ec i eness a ies ac oss he dimensions cons i u ing i . TGRA
and SGRA s ongly a ec aspec s like ma iage, pa en hood, and mobili y bu ha e ela-
i ely weake e ec s on wo kplace condi ions and en ep eneu ship. In compa ison, PGRA
signi ican ly in luences ma iage, pa en hood, and pension- ela ed legal p o isions.
Resul s om he quan ile eg ession analysis u he e eal s a k dis ibu ional di -
e ences in he e ec s o gende - ela ed aid on he WBL Index. The impac o SGRA is
consis en ly posi i e and signi ican ac oss all quan iles o he WBL dis ibu ion, wi h
i s magni ude inc easing owa d he highe quan iles. In con as , he e ec o PGRA is
signi ican a he lowe and middle quan iles bu weakens a he uppe end o he dis-
ibu ion. This obse ed he e ogenei y sugges s ha SGRA is pa icula ly e ec i e in
d i ing comp ehensi e legal e o ms ac oss coun ies a di e se s ages o de elopmen .
Howe e , PGRA appea s mo e impac ul in coun ies wi h less ad anced legal amewo ks,
indica ing he need o complemen a y measu es o ampli y i s e ec i eness in con ex s
whe e gende - ela ed legal e o ms a e al eady ela i ely well es ablished.
These indings ca y se e al impo an implica ions o policymake s, dono s, and
de elopmen p ac i ione s wo king owa d gende equali y and women’s economic em-
powe men . Fi s , de elopmen agencies should s a egically balance in es men s in
SGRA and PGRA o ha ness hei complemen a y e ec s. Second, aid s a egies mus
align wi h a coun y’s WBL Index le el, p io i izing PGRA o ounda ional e o ms in
lowe -sco ing na ions and SGRA o add essing ins i u ional ba ie s in highe -sco ing con-
Economies 2025,13, 36 22 o 26
ex s. Thi d, a ge ed in e en ions in wo kplace condi ions and en ep eneu ship, coupled
wi h s eng hened en o cemen mechanisms and p o essional aining, a e essen ial o
maximizing he impac o legal e o ms.
Addi ionally, dono s should inco po a e speci ic ac ionable s eps ailo ed o s akehold-
e s. Fo ins ance, ecipien go e nmen s could be encou aged o in eg a e gende - ocused
legal amewo ks in o na ional de elopmen plans. NGOs may ocus on ad ocacy cam-
paigns ha eshape socie al a i udes and p omo e gende equali y. Dono s hemsel es
could implemen moni o ing and e alua ion amewo ks o ensu e aid e ec i eness.
The indings also align closely wi h he Sus ainable De elopmen Goals (SDGs), pa -
icula ly Goal 5: achie e gende equali y and empowe all women and gi ls. Highligh ing
he need o con ex -sensi i e and in eg a ed app oaches, he indings om his esea ch
unde sco e he ans o ma i e po en ial o gende -mains eamed aid. Fu u e s udies should
in es iga e he mechanisms h ough which each ype o GMA in luences legal e o ms and
explo e how cul u al and ins i u ional ac o s media e hese e ec s. By ad ancing e idence-
based s a egies, policymake s and p ac i ione s can op imize aid p og ams o accele a e
p og ess owa d gende equali y and women’s economic empowe men wo ldwide.
Au ho Con ibu ions: Concep ualiza ion, B.T.; me hodology, B.T.; so wa e, B.T.; alida ion, E.K.S.
and B.F.; o mal analysis, B.T.; in es iga ion, E.K.S. and B.F.; o mal analysis, B.T.; esou ces, E.K.S.
and B.F.; da a cu a ion, B.T.; w i ing—o iginal d a p epa a ion, B.T.; w i ing— e iew and edi ing,
E.K.S. and B.F.; isualiza ion, B.T. All au ho s ha e ead and ag eed o he published e sion o he
manusc ip .
Funding: This esea ch ecei ed no ex e nal unding.
In o med Consen S a emen : No applicable.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen : The o iginal con ibu ions p esen ed in he s udy a e included in he
a icle. Fu he inqui ies can be di ec ed o he co esponding au ho .
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic o in e es .
Appendix A
Table A1. Desc ip i e s a is ics o WBL Index and i s componen s by egional loca ion o he coun ies
in his s udy.
Va iables Eas Asia &
Paci ic
Eu ope &
Cen al Asia
La in Ame ica
& Ca ibbean
Middle Eas &
N. A ica Sou h Asia Sub-Saha an
A ica All Regions
Wbl Index 71.24 79.86 79.12 45.10 57.63 68.86 69.63
(10.44) (7.069) (9.153) (13.96) (14.03) (13.65) (15.68)
Mobili y 88.38 100 93.95 51.04 87.62 80.01 84.48
(16.14) (0) (13.13) (38.76) (22.26) (23.93) (25.28)
Wo kplace 75.96 81.43 80.88 44.79 73.51 72.25 73.09
(27.57) (22.42) (28.27) (32.77) (26.65) (33.05) (31.27)
Pay 58.76 45.60 68.95 35.76 39.36 59.43 55.22
(21.72) (31.91) (22.80) (22.64) (34.16) (29.09) (29.45)
Ma iage 80.76 94.76 84.63 23.47 68.51 68.02 72.42
(21.94) (8.814) (17.15) (21.46) (26.88) (29.74) (30.15)
Pa en hood 40.25 74.86 52 34.44 20.40 41.81 46.50
(28.19) (14.38) (23.92) (23.23) (14.69) (24.63) (27.02)
Business 84.87 90.24 81.84 77.78 72.77 75.11 80.09
(12.26) (12.23) (13.49) (7.884) (9.420) (16.51) (14.71)
Asse s 84.71 100 96.91 40 54.06 72.37 78.41
(20.27) (0) (10.69) (0) (17.79) (26.28) (26.28)
Pension 56.21 52.02 73.77 53.47 44.80 81.90 66.86
(25.58) (15.04) (22.56) (29.36) (21.01) (21.00) (26.05)
Obse a ions 157 210 285 144 101 464 1361
Economies 2025,13, 36 23 o 26
No es
1
Nume ous dono - unded ini ia i es ha e suppo ed gende - ocused legal and egula o y e o ms legal and egula o y amewo ks
ha impac women’s igh s and oppo uni ies wo ldwide. Examples include Sou h A ica’s USD 100 million p og am o comba
gende -based iolence (2010–2017), Nepal’s USD 50 million o women’s legal igh s and poli ical pa icipa ion (2010–2018),
and he Paci ic Islands’ USD 75 million o gende - esponsi e clima e policies (2012–2017). Mexico and Kenya ecei ed USD 80
million (2010–2016) and USD 150 million (2008–2014), espec i ely, o women’s sa e y and heal h e o ms. Addi ional e o s
include Bangladesh’s USD 300 million Educa ion o All ini ia i e (2000–2015) and E hiopia’s USD 200 million o empowe
women a me s (Food and Ag icul u e O ganiza ion,2016;Kenya Na ional Bu eau o S a is ics,2015;Uni ed Na ions,2017;
Wo ld Bank,2019). These ini ia i es align wi h na ional s a egies o p omo e gende pa i y and women’s empowe men .
2
Women’s wo k o ce pa icipa ion is shaped by ac o s beyond wages, including wo kplace condi ions, legal p o ec ions, social
no ms, job secu i y, and pa en al lea e policies (Wo ld Bank,2023). Codazzi e al. (2018) emphasize how hese non-wage elemen s
signi ican ly impac emale labo o ce engagemen . Dahl e al. (2016) show he posi i e e ec o paid ma e ni y lea e on women’s
wo k o ce a achmen . Saha and Singh (2024) no e ha labo ma ke dynamics like employe disc imina ion and job secu i y can
p omo e o hinde emale pa icipa ion, especially o highly educa ed women.
3
The de i ed heo e ical ela ionships show ha wages (w) o women depend on human capi al, he legal amewo k (
Φ
), and
labo ma ke condi ions; legal amewo ks (
Φ
) a e in luenced by gende -mains eamed aid (A) and o he ins i u ional and
cul u al ac o s; and labo o ce pa icipa ion (h) is in luenced by wages and non-wage ac o s ela ed o job quali y. Thus,
gende -mains eamed aid impac s emale labo o ce pa icipa ion h ough i s e ec on legal amewo ks, a ec ing wages and
employmen condi ions.
4
By doing so, we ensu e ha he cu en alue o he WBL Index (WBL
i
)—which e lec s he legal amewo k—does no di ec ly
in luence he gende - ela ed aid ecei ed in he same pe iod. In o he wo ds, using A
i -2
helps p e en he possibili y o he
p e ailing legal amewo k o i s imp o emen s o ming he basis o a coun y ecei ing highe aid. We also employ he
ins umen al a iable (IV) eg ession app oach o obus ness check.
5
Appendix ATable A1 p esen s he b eakdown o he co esponding measu es o legal and egula o y en i onmen s acing women
by he egional loca ion o he coun ies in his s udy. Coun ies in Eu ope and Cen al Asia, La in Ame ica, and he Ca ibbean
ha e he highes WBL Index sco es o 79.86 and 79.12, espec i ely, indica ing mo e a o able legal and egula o y en i onmen s
o women. In con as , he Middle Eas and No h A ica sco e he lowes a 45.10, highligh ing egions whe e women ace
mo e challenging condi ions. Sou h Asia also sco es ela i ely low a 57.63, while Eas Asia, he Paci ic, and Sub-Saha an A ica
ha e mode a e sco es o 71.24 and 68.86, espec i ely. The o e all a e age o all egions is 69.63, e lec ing a wide ange o
expe iences and legal en i onmen s impac ing women wo ldwide. Fu he dispa i ies ac oss he egions can also be gleaned
om he componen s. Mobili y is highes , on a e age, among coun ies in Eu ope and Cen al Asia, sco ing a pe ec 100, wi h
hose in he Middle Eas and No h A ica sco ing signi ican ly lowe a 51.04. Wo kplace condi ions also a y, wi h Eu ope and
Cen al Asia sco ing 81.43 and he Middle Eas and No h A ica ailing a 44.79. Pay equi y also di e s, wi h La in Ame ica
and he Ca ibbean a 68.95 and he Middle Eas and No h A ica a 35.76. Ma iage- ela ed legal condi ions a e mos a o able
in Eu ope and Cen al Asia (94.76) and leas a o able in he Middle Eas and No h A ica (23.47). Pa en hood sco es show
Eu ope and Cen al Asia leading a 74.86, while Sou h Asia sco es he lowes a 20.40. Business (En ep eneu ship) and asse
owne ship igh s a e highes in Eu ope and Cen al Asia (90.24 and 100, espec i ely), wi h Sou h Asia, he Middle Eas , and
No h A ica sco ing lowe . Pension sco es also a y conside ably, wi h he lowes sco e, 44.8, obse ed in Sou h Asia. These
a ia ions unde sco e he di e se legal and egula o y landscapes a ec ing women’s economic oppo uni ies ac oss di e en
egions.
6
By con olling o he c oss-sec ional dimension, we accoun o ime-in a ian cha ac e is ics unique o each coun y, including
geog aphical ac o s, cul u al aspec s, and ins i u ional amewo ks cha ac e ized by slow changes. This helps o isola e he
e ec s o ou a iable o in e es om he unobse ed ac o s. Con olling o he ime dimension enables us o accoun o global
ends and e en s (e.g., economic cycles, in e na ional policies, o echnological ad ancemen s) ha migh in luence all coun ies
in his s udy.
7
We also ob ain esul s using con empo aneous alues o gende - ela ed aid o help di e en ia e be ween he immedia e and
lagged e ec s and p o ide a mo e comp ehensi e unde s anding o how such aid in luences changes in legal and egula o y
p o ec ions o women o e ime. Howe e , o b e i y, we limi ou discussion o esul s ob ained om he lagged alues o
gende - ela ed aid.
8
An imp o emen in he o e all WBL Index does no necessa ily imply uni o m p og ess ac oss all i s componen s and all
coun ies. Fo example, India made no able s ides in i s WBL Index sco e, imp o ing om 95 h in 2010 o 117 h in 2020, mainly
due o legisla i e e o ms such as he Ma e ni y Bene i (Amendmen ) Ac o 2017, which ex ended paid ma e ni y lea e and
manda ed c èche acili ies (IASPOINT,2024;Wo ld Bank,2020). Despi e hese ad ancemen s in he pa en hood indica o , India
s ill aces signi ican challenges in a eas such as ma iage and asse s, whe e disc imina o y laws and p ac ices pe sis (Wo ld
Economies 2025,13, 36 24 o 26
Bank,2020). Simila ly, in Saudi A abia, e o ms ha e led o signi ican imp o emen s in he WBL Index. The coun y imp o ed i s
sco e om 31.1 in 2010 o 70.6 in 2020 ollowing comp ehensi e legal e o ms o inc ease women’s wo k o ce pa icipa ion. These
e o ms included li ing he ban on women d i ing and changes o gua dianship laws, which enhanced women’s mobili y and
wo kplace oppo uni ies; howe e , despi e hese imp o emen s, women con inue o ace challenges in a eas such as ma iage
and pa en hood due o deeply oo ed cul u al no ms and legal es ic ions ha limi women’s ull economic pa icipa ion (Wo ld
Bank,2020).
9
Fo ins ance, coun ies wi h lowe ini ial WBL sco es migh expe ience di e en impac s om gende - ela ed aid han hose a
he uppe end o he WBL sco e. By p o iding insigh s in o how aid impac s coun ies a he di e en loci o he WBL Index, he
analysis may help ailo policies and in e en ions mo e o e ec i ely add ess he speci ic needs and condi ions o coun ies a
di e en s ages o legal and egula o y de elopmen .
10
Apa om he di e ence in he es ima ion app oach ( he quan ile ixed e ec s), he speci ica ions co espond wi h hose
p esen ed in columns (b) and (c) o Table 3.
11
Fo ins ance, unobse ed ac o s ha in luence legal and ins i u ional e o ms e lec ed in he WBL Index, such as changes in
poli ical s abili y, shi s in cul u al no ms, o he eme gence o ad ocacy mo emen s, may simul aneously a ec he alloca ion o
gende - ela ed aid.
12
To add ess he e iewe ’s sugges ion ega ding he exclusion es ic ion assump ion, i s we eg essed ma e nal mo ali y a es
( he sole ins umen ) on all con ol a iables in ou model (excluding he gende - ela ed aid a iables) using con empo aneous
alues and a ixed-e ec s panel eg ession. Residuals om his eg ession we e hen es ed o hei co ela ion wi h he WBL
Index. The analysis e eals no signi ican co ela ion (co ela ion = 0.017, p= 0.830), sugges ing ha ma e nal mo ali y a es a ec
he WBL Index exclusi ely h ough hei impac on gende - ela ed aid. To u he s eng hen he exogenei y o he ins umen ,
we epea ed his analysis using wo-pe iod lagged alues o ma e nal mo ali y a es ( -2). The esul s we e consis en , showing
no signi ican co ela ion (co ela ion > 0.012, p> 0.113) be ween he esiduals and he WBL Index in ei he case. Combined
wi h he s ong i s -s age eg ession esul s (F-s a is ic > 14.6, p< 0.001), hese indings p o ide obus e idence suppo ing he
alidi y o ma e nal mo ali y a es as an ins umen .
13
One limi a ion o he IV app oach is i s eliance on he exclusion es ic ion assump ion, which canno be o mally alida ed wi h
a single ins umen . To add ess his, we es ed he assump ion by eg essing ma e nal mo ali y a es on all con ol a iables
(excluding gende - ela ed aid) and examining he co ela ion be ween he esiduals and he WBL Index. The esul s showed no
signi ican co ela ion (e.g., co ela ion = 0.017, p= 0.830 o con empo aneous alues) o o wo-pe iod lags ( -2), suppo ing he
alidi y o he ins umen .
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