Chish y, Syed Khus o; Saya i, Sonia
A icle
An empi ical assessmen o online shopping beha io
among Saudi college s uden s: applying SEM
Cogen Business & Managemen
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An empi ical assessmen o online shopping
beha io among Saudi college s uden s: applying
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Syed Khus o Chish y & Sonia Saya i
To ci e his a icle: Syed Khus o Chish y & Sonia Saya i (2024) An empi ical assessmen o
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2024, VoL. 11, no. 1, 2377374
An empi ical assessmen o online shopping beha io among Saudi
college s uden s: applying SEM
syed khus o chish y and sonia saya i
Depa men o Business adminis a ion, College o adminis a i e and Financial sciences, saudi elec onic uni e si y, Jeddah,
saudi a abia
ABSTRACT
Pu pose:in such a ola ile en i onmen , i is di icul o unde s and cus ome beha io ,
especially in online ma ke scena ios, and unde s anding his a ea is c i ical o
de eloping online e aile s’ s a egies. in he kingdom o saudi a abia (ksa), he numbe
o online use s is g owing e y apidly, be o e co id-19 online shopping is a a nascen
s age, bu now i is en e ing a g ow h s age wi h inde ini e lockdowns and es ic ions
g owing wo ldwide. in his scena io, he lack o knowledge ega ding online shopping
beha io makes i e y di icul o measu e i . he e o e, his esea ch is designed o
unde s and online shopping beha io and a he same ime de elop empi ical measu es
o he assessmen o online shopping beha io .
Design/App oach: his s udy u ilizes he ex ended echnology accep ance Model
( aM) o examine he ac o s ha in luence saudi college s uden s’ online shopping
beha io o he assessmen and es ing o hypo heses. s uc u al equa ion Modeling
(seM) was used.
P oposed Findings: he ou comes o his esea ch a e as ollows: Pe cei ed enjoymen ,
pe cei ed ease o use, social no ms, and pe cei ed isk end o ha e signi ican
in luences on online shopping beha io among college s uden s in he kingdom o
saudi a abia (ksa).
O iginali y/Value:as s a ed abo e ha be o e co id-19, online shopping is a a nascen
s age in he kingdom o saudi a abia and is now g owing apidly. o add ess his
esea ch gap, his s udy analyzes he ac o s in luencing cus ome s’ decisions o shop
online h ough a sample o s uden s om saudi uni e si ies. his esea ch makes a
unique con ibu ion o unde s anding, de eloping, and empi ically es ing hese
measu es. his s udy also con ibu es o he empi ical applica ion o he echnology
accep ance model ( aM) o saudi consume s.
1. In oduc ion
in oday’s hype compe i i e ma ke s, o ganiza ions need o be inno a i e and should know how o
a ac and e ain cus ome s. Wi h de elopmen s in he ield o in o ma ion echnology and g ow h in
he in e ne , mo e inno a i e me hods o manage in o ma ion a e being in oduced, and businesses a e
using hese inno a i e me hods o se e hei cus ome s be e . in e ne shopping is also g owing, and
in asia, eu ope, and he Usa, he g ow h o online sales su passes adi ional sales. Mo eo e , i is p e-
dic ed ha his will u he inc ease and he end will con inue. Yang e al. (2007) sugges ha e ail
indus ies ha e obse ed changing cus ome beha io om show ooming o web ooming.
his change has apidly engul ed he ma ke s o de eloping and de eloped na ions due o he powe
o he in e ne and inde ini e lockdowns du ing he pe iod o co id-19. nume ous ac o s a ec con-
sume beha io , such as economic, psychological, physiological, and o he ex e nal ac o s. his beha io
o exploi ing he po en ial o he online ma ke posed esea ch cu iosi y o in es iga e he ac o s ha
impac consume beha io in online ma ke s. gopal and Jindoliya (2016) and heijden (2012) also
© 2024 he au ho (s). Published by in o ma uK Limi ed, ading as aylo & F ancis g oup.
CONTACT syed Khus o Chish y khus o91@ edi mail.com, [email p o ec ed].sa Depa men o Business adminis a ion, College o
adminis a i e and Financial sciences, saudi elec onic uni e si y, Jeddah 23442, saudi a abia.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/23311975.2024.2377374
his is an open access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons a ibu ion License (h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/), which
pe mi s un es ic ed use, dis ibu ion, and ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed. he e ms on which his a icle has been
published allow he pos ing o he accep ed Manusc ip in a eposi o y by he au ho (s) o wi h hei consen .
ARTICLE HISTORY
ecei ed 28 Decembe
2023
e ised 18 June 2024
accep ed 2 July 2024
REVIEWING EDITOR
e esa Villace, Uni e sidad
ey Juan ca los, Mad id,
spain
KEYWORDS
e-comme ce; online
shopping beha io ;
kingdom o saudi a abia
(ksa), seM; lis el 8.80
SUBJECTS
Business, Managemen
and accoun ing; in e ne
/ Digi al Ma ke ing /
e-Ma ke ing; e ail
Ma ke ing
2 s. k. chish Y anD s. saYa i
concluded his no ion and s a ed ha he con inuous e olu ion o new echnologies is making consume
beha io and esea ch based on hem mo e challenging.
he success o many companies such as amazon, Flipka , and alibaba ha e u ged many o he com-
panies o change hei business models om adi ional o online modes. in his ega d, i is wo h
no ing ha global elec onic e ail sales we e UsD 840 billion in 2014 and a e p edic ed o each UsD
1606 billion in 2022. acco ding o he Mckinsey global ins i u e (2013), only china su passed elec onic
e ail sales o UsD 190 billion in 2012 and is es ima ed o each mo e han 650 billion dolla s in 2022.
his upcoming end shows p omising ma ke po en ial. he esea ch was conduc ed in his ega d in
he con ex o saudi consume s, and i was ound ha he same end p e ailed in he kingdom o saudi
a abia. i was concluded ha lack o awa eness, compu e li e acy, use o he in e ne , cos , and lan-
guage a e he majo ba ie s associa ed wi h he adop ion o online shopping in de eloping coun ies
(ahma e al., 2016). al-Mobai eek (2013) conduc ed a su ey in a ica based on a sample o egyp ian
cus ome s and concluded ha online ac i i ies mainly cons i u e in e ne su ing checking on emails and
online shopping anks las in he lis .
howe e , he numbe o online shoppe s is p edic ed o inc ease wi h he de elopmen o he in e -
ne . he global in e ne pene a ion a e is app oxima ely 60%. he numbe o in e ne use s and online
shoppe s in he kingdom o saudi a abia (ksa) is also apidly inc easing. especially in he e a o co id-19,
he eme gence o many new websi es o online shopping has been wi nessed, especially web cen ic
ones, which y o mee cus ome demand h ough online modes in u bulen imes. he e o e, he e is
a need o in es iga e he ac o s a ec ing he beha io o online cus ome s o p o ide be e
decision-making o companies engaged in online shopping.
conside ing ha online shopping is a a nascen s age in he kingdom o saudi a abia (ksa), he e is a
need o in es iga e he ac o s ha in luence he adop ion o online shopping among saudi s uden s. o ill
his esea ch gap, his s udy u ilizes a sample o g adua e and unde g adua e s uden s s udying a di e en
uni e si ies in he kingdom o ksa. he s udy also u ilizes he echnology accep ance model ( aM) and
empi ically con ibu es o he applica ion o he aM o saudi consume s in o de o enhance he knowledge
o online e aile s abou use accep ance and he ac o s ha d i e consume s owa ds online shopping.
2.Technology accep ance model (TAM): aming li e a u e
o unde s and and measu e consume beha io , he adop ion o in o ma ion sys ems plays a signi ican
ole in heal hy po en ial. howe e , many companies ha e ailed o apply hese sys ems in hei busi-
nesses. Da is (1989) p oposed he echnology accep ance model ( aM) o p edic consume s’ beha io
in adop ing new in o ma ion sys ems. acco ding o his model, pe cei ed use ulness a ec s indi idual
beha io . Pe cei ed use ulness is he endency o a pe son o assume he use ulness o he sys em; pe -
cei ed ease o use (PeOU) is he endency o he sys em ega ding he e o equi ed o use i .
he chance o adop ing any echnology is di ec ly p opo ional o he ease and use ulness o he sys-
em. he echnology accep ance model has been upda ed by many esea che s, and many new a iables
ha e been added. his model is o g ea signi icance and has been applied by many esea che s owing o
i s simplici y (al-adwan e al., 2022; king & he, 2006; lai, 2017; Ma & liu, 2004; schepe s & We zels, 2007).
Mo eo e , he model has been used widely and has gained popula i y o in es iga ing he adop ion
o echnology in he con ex o online shopping cus ome s in bo h de eloped and de eloping coun ies
(alba q, 2014; Faqih, 2013; heijden, 2012; Jin e al., 2015; Yang e al., 2007). howe e , many s udies ha e
ad oca ed ha a close examina ion is needed when applying his model o di e en con ex ual and
cul u al se ings (al-ha ami e al., 2023; gopal & Jindoliya, 2016; lim & ing, 2012; Wei e al., 2018; Yada
& Maha a, 2019; Zhou e al., 2007).
2.1. The p oposed model and hypo hesis de elopmen
2.1.1. Pe cei ed use ulness (PU)
Pe cei ed use ulness (PU) is a cen al concep in he echnology accep ance Model ( aM) p oposed by
Da is (1989). i e e s o he deg ee o which a pe son belie es ha using a pa icula sys em would
cOgen BUsiness & ManageMen 3
enhance hei job pe o mance. in he con ex o online shopping, PU can be unde s ood as he ex en
o which consume s belie e ha online shopping imp o es he e iciency and e ec i eness o hei
shopping expe ience. esea ch by kim e al. (2004) and Za ad and Debabi (2012) highligh s ha he
ease o sea ching o in o ma ion, compa ing p ices, and placing o de s online con ibu es signi ican ly
o he pe cei ed use ulness o online shopping. s udies ha e consis en ly shown ha PU posi i ely in lu-
ences consume s’ a i udes and in en ions owa ds online shopping, hus suppo ing he hypo hesis ha
PU has a di ec in luence on ac ual online shopping beha io (aOsB). he e o e, he ollowing hypo he-
ses we e es ed:
h1. he e is a di ec in luence o PU on ac ual online shopping beha io (aOsB)
2.1.2. Pe cei ed ease o use (PEOU)
Pe cei ed ease o use (PeOU) is a c i ical concep in unde s anding consume beha io in he con ex o
online shopping. PeOU e e s o he deg ee o which consume s belie e ha engaging in online shop-
ping will equi e minimal e o , implying ha no addi ional aining o specialized skills a e necessa y o
comple e he p ocess. his pe cep ion signi ican ly in luences consume s’ willingness o adop and use
online shopping pla o ms.
esea ch has consis en ly demons a ed a posi i e ela ionship be ween PeOU and ac ual online shop-
ping beha io (aOsB). Joha and awalludin (2011), o example, ound ha consume s a e mo e likely o
shop online i hey pe cei e he p ocess o be s aigh o wa d and use - iendly. simila ly, kim (2012)
highligh ed ha he simplici y and ease o na iga ion on online shopping pla o ms play a pi o al ole
in encou aging epea pu chases and os e ing cus ome loyal y. li (2016) u he suppo ed hese ind-
ings by illus a ing ha an in ui i e and accessible online shopping expe ience can signi ican ly enhance
consume s’ sa is ac ion and inc ease hei likelihood o engaging in online shopping.
he unde lying a ionale o his ela ionship is g ounded in he echnology accep ance Model ( aM),
which posi s ha PeOU is a undamen al de e minan o use s’ accep ance o echnology. acco ding o
aM, when consume s pe cei e ha using an online shopping pla o m is easy and equi es minimal
e o , hey a e mo e likely o de elop a posi i e a i ude owa ds i , leading o inc eased usage in en-
ions and ac ual beha io .
in ligh o his heo e ical ounda ion and empi ical e idence, he ollowing hypo hesis is p oposed o
examine he impac o PeOU on aOsB:
h2: he e is a di ec in luence o PeOU on ac ual online shopping beha io (aOsB).
2.1.3. Pe cei ed enjoymen (PE)
Pe cei ed enjoymen (Pe) e e s o he le el o pleasu e and sa is ac ion a cus ome expe iences du ing
he online pu chase p ocess h ough an online shopping po al. i is a c i ical ac o in in luencing con-
sume beha io in he con ex o e-comme ce. When consume s ind he online shopping expe ience
enjoyable, hey a e mo e likely o spend addi ional ime on he websi e, explo e mo e p oduc s, and
consequen ly, inc ease hei likelihood o making a pu chase. his posi i e expe ience can lead o highe
cus ome e en ion and inc eased sales o he online e aile .
he concep o pe cei ed enjoymen is suppo ed by he wo k o se e al esea che s. Fo ins ance,
kim (2012) highligh ed ha when cus ome s pe cei e an online shopping expe ience as enjoyable, i
signi ican ly enhances hei engagemen and willingness o make pu chases. simila ly, li (2016) ound
ha he enjoymen de i ed om shopping online di ec ly in luences consume s’ a i udes owa ds he
shopping po al, he eby a ec ing hei ac ual online shopping beha io (aOsB).
esea ch indica es ha pe cei ed enjoymen can be a s onge p edic o o online shopping beha io
han o he ac o s like pe cei ed use ulness o ease o use. his is because enjoymen adds an emo ional
componen o he shopping expe ience, which can c ea e a mo e p o ound and las ing impac on cus-
ome beha io . When cus ome s enjoy hei shopping expe ience, hey a e likely o de elop a posi i e
a i ude owa ds he online s o e, leading o epea ed isi s and pu chases.
he e o e, he hypo hesis o his ela ionship can be s a ed as ollows:
h3: he e is a di ec in luence o Pe cei ed enjoymen (Pe) on ac ual Online shopping Beha io (aOsB).
4 s. k. chish Y anD s. saYa i
2.1.4. Pe cei ed isk (PR)
i is also belie ed ha online shopping in ol es isk and unce ain y, and consume s a e mo e ulne able
o hese isks han adi ional modes o shopping. consume s pe cei e isk i hey ace nega i e ou -
comes, unce ain y, o nega i e consequences (kim e al., 2009). he e a e nume ous isks in ol ed in
online shopping ansac ions, which a e well classi ied by li and huang (2009). he e a e isks associa ed
wi h he ansac ions, known as ansac ion isk, which is ela ed o p oduc s o se ices and a ises when
hey do no p o ide in ended bene i s o emain undeli e ed. he e a e isks associa ed wi h online
ansac ions, as hey in ol e c edi ca d usage and he misuse o pe sonal da a. all hese isks a e impo -
an and should be conside ed.
he e o e, his s udy includes all ypes o isk in ol ed, as i is belie ed ha i he isk is highe , cus-
ome s y o a e online shopping and y o mo e o adi ional modes o pu chase. he e o e, choi
and lee (2003), Dab ynin and Zhang (2019), and kim (2012), concluded ha pe cei ed isk hu s cus om-
e s’ online shopping beha io . his s udy also hypo hesized he same ela ionship be ween pe cei ed isk
and online shopping beha io . he e o e, he ollowing hypo hesis is p oposed:
h4. he e is a nega i e in luence o P on ac ual online shopping beha io (aOsB)
2.1.5. Subjec i e no ms (SN)
subjec i e no ms (sn) e e o he in luence o social p essu e ha indi iduals pe cei e om hei social
en i onmen ega ding whe he hey should engage in a pa icula beha io . hese no ms a e based on
he belie s abou how people impo an o he indi idual, such as amily, iends, and colleagues, iew
and judge he beha io in ques ion. When i comes o online shopping, subjec i e no ms encompass he
pe cei ed expec a ions o o he s ega ding he use o online shopping pla o ms.
subjec i e no ms play a c ucial ole in shaping indi idual beha io s because humans a e inhe en ly
social beings who o en seek app o al and accep ance om hei pee s. he pe cep ion o wha o he s
hink can signi ican ly impac decision-making p ocesses. Fo ins ance, i a pe son belie es ha hei
pee s iew online shopping posi i ely, hey a e mo e likely o engage in online shopping hemsel es.
con e sely, i he social ci cle iews online shopping nega i ely, he indi idual may be discou aged om
engaging in i , despi e pe sonal p e e ences.
nume ous s udies ha e es ablished a s ong di ec ela ionship be ween subjec i e no ms and online
shopping beha io . Fo example, schepe s and We zels (2007) and Yu and Wu (2007) ound ha subjec-
i e no ms signi ican ly in luence an indi idual’s in en ion o shop online. hese s udies sugges ha
when indi iduals pe cei e posi i e opinions and suppo om hei social ci cle ega ding online shop-
ping, hey a e mo e likely o pa icipa e in i .
he unde lying mechanism can be unde s ood h ough he lens o social in luence heo y, which
posi s ha indi iduals con o m o he expec a ions o o he s o gain social app o al o a oid social dis-
app o al. his con o mi y is pa icula ly e iden in online shopping beha io s whe e social alida ion and
he ea o missing ou (FOMO) can d i e consume ac ions.
gi en he s ong empi ical e idence suppo ing he in luence o subjec i e no ms on online shopping
beha io , he ollowing hypo hesis is p oposed:
h5. he e is a di ec in luence o subjec i e no ms (sn) on ac ual Online shopping Beha io (aOsB).
2.1.6. In e ne expe ience (IE)
he concep o in e ne expe ience (ie) has ga ne ed signi ican a en ion in he ealm o echnology
accep ance and online beha io esea ch. Venka esh and Bala (2008) in eg a ed ie in o he ex ended
echnology accep ance Model ( aM) as a mode a ing a iable ha in luences he ela ionship be ween
pe cei ed ease o use and pe cei ed use ulness. hei wo k posi s ha indi iduals wi h g ea e in e ne
expe ience a e likely o ind echnology easie o use and mo e use ul, hus enhancing hei o e all
accep ance and u iliza ion o online sys ems.
Fu he mo e, he signi icance o ie ex ends beyond he con ex o echnology accep ance o encom-
pass online shopping beha io . amo oso and hunsinge (2009) highligh ed ha indi iduals wi h ex en-
si e ie a e mo e adep a na iga ing online shopping pla o ms, which in u n posi i ely in luences hei
cOgen BUsiness & ManageMen 5
shopping beha io s and decisions. simila ly, Za ad and Debabi (2012) co obo a ed hese indings,
emphasizing ha a highe le el o ie equips use s wi h he necessa y skills and con idence o engage
mo e equen ly and e ec i ely in online shopping ac i i ies.
he co ela ion be ween ie and online shopping beha io can be a ibu ed o se e al ac o s.
expe ienced in e ne use s a e gene ally mo e amilia wi h a ious online shopping in e aces, unde -
s and he p ocedu es o secu e ansac ions, and a e mo e com o able wi h he digi al en i onmen .
his amilia i y educes he pe cei ed isks and ba ie s associa ed wi h online shopping, he eby os e -
ing a mo e posi i e a i ude owa ds i .
in ligh o hese insigh s, i is hypo hesized ha :
h6: he e is a di ec in luence o in e ne expe ience (ie) on ac ual Online shopping Beha io (aOsB)
2.1.7. Fo eign si es ole (FS)
he in luence o o eign websi es on online shopping beha io is a c i ical ac o in unde s anding con-
sume beha io , pa icula ly in a ab de eloping na ions. al-Mobai eek (2013) epo ed ha one o he
signi ican bo lenecks p e en ing widesp ead adop ion o online shopping in hese egions is he sca -
ci y o success ul a abic websi es. ins ead, mos online shopping pla o ms a e o eign and ope a e p e-
dominan ly in o he languages, which poses a subs an ial ba ie o local consume s.
in de eloping a abic coun ies, he language o a websi e plays an ins umen al ole in shaping online
shopping beha io . consume s in hese egions ypically p e e o engage wi h websi es ha a e w i en
in a abic. his p e e ence is la gely due o he limi ed p o iciency in o eign languages among he gen-
e al popula ion. When online pla o ms a e no a ailable in he na i e language, i c ea es a sense o
discom o and mis us , discou aging po en ial shoppe s om making pu chases. he lack o a abic con-
en can lead o misunde s andings abou p oduc de ails, ansac ion p ocesses, and cus ome se ice
policies, u he de e ing consume s om engaging in online shopping.
Mo eo e , he cul u al con ex also con ibu es o his beha io . language is closely ied o cul u al
iden i y, and consume s end o g a i a e owa ds websi es ha e lec hei cul u al no ms and alues.
Fo eign websi es, e en when accessible, may no esona e cul u ally wi h he local consume s, hus
a ec ing hei shopping decisions. his cul u al disconnec can esul in a lowe pe cei ed us wo hi-
ness and ele ance o he o eign websi es.
o add ess his challenge, i is c ucial o e-comme ce pla o ms aiming o pene a e he a ab ma ke s o
in es in c ea ing a abic-language con en and cul u ally ele an use in e aces. his adap a ion can signi i-
can ly enhance he use expe ience, build us , and ul ima ely d i e highe engagemen and con e sion a es.
gi en hese insigh s, i is hypo hesized ha :
h7: he e is a di ec in luence o Fo eign si es (Fs) on ac ual Online shopping Beha io (aOsB).
3. Resea ch me hodology
3.1. Da a collec ion and da a alida ion
P e ious esea ch in his a ea emphasizes he impo ance o demog aphics in de e mining online shop-
ping beha io . esea che s ha e concluded ha online shopping cus ome s a e mos ly younge , weal h-
ie , and mo e educa ed (li & Zhang, 2002). he younge gene a ion in any na ion has a g ea e endency
o accep changes in echnology; he e o e, hey a e mo e awa e o hei bene i s. he e o e, i is assumed
ha young saudi college s uden s ha e mo e accep ing a i udes owa ds online shopping.
he e o e, i was decided ha he sample consis ed o young and educa ed people. Fu he mo e, a
s uc u ed ques ionnai e was de eloped using google Fo ms. he esea ch ins umen was designed and
adminis e ed o g adua e and unde g adua e s uden s a a ious uni e si ies in he kingdom o saudi
a abia. he ques ions we e based on 5-poin like ’s scale. he esea ch ins umen was sen in July 2021
and he su ey was open o almos six mon hs. a o al o 450 esponses we e collec ed; o e 4000
s uden s we e con ac ed based on con enience sampling, and a esponse a e o app oxima ely 10.7%
was achie ed. Va ious me hods sugges ed by a i e al. (2012) applied eminde s and many eminde s
and sen hem as ollow-up mail.
6 s. k. chish Y anD s. saYa i
all esponde s’ iden i ies we e kep p i a e du ing his s udy, and a co e le e was sen o le hem
know ahead o ime abou he con iden iali y and pu pose o he da a. he ollowing g ounds led he
e hics commi ee o o ego he e hical app o al.
• Unde he Da a P o ec ion ac , e hical e iews would no be necessa y o pe sonal da a.
• s udies u ilising de-iden i ied eco ds and da a se s ha a e accessible o he gene al public, such as
hose om he Uk Da a a chi e o he O ice o na ional s a is ics, whe e he necessa y au ho iza-
ions ha e al eady been secu ed and he da a makes i impossible o iden i y speci ic indi iduals.
• Pu ely obse a ional (non-in usi e, non-in e ac i e) s udies o public ac i i y, unless he eco ded
obse a ions iden i y people (names, images), which may pu hem a dange o damage, s igma, o
punishmen Why s udies in which subjec s a e no classi ied as " ulne able" and in ol emen won’
esul in unnecessa y psychological s ess o wo y when using insensi i e, ully anonymous educa-
ional assessmen s and su eys
• consume accep abili y s udies include assessmen s o as e and ood quali y, p o ided ha he ood
is ea en unadul e a ed o con ains ag icul u al, chemical, o en i onmen al con aminan s o a pu -
pose and a a le el deemed sa e by he applicable na ional ood sa e y agency. Ucl (2024).
Fo he assessmen o desc ip i e analysis sPss 22.0 was used and lis ell 8.80, was used o u he
analysis. he desc ip i e analysis o he esponden s was as ollows ( able 1):
he e a e mul iple opinions ega ding he sample size. some esea che s ag ee ha 150 esponses a e
su icien when he e is no missing da a. howe e , o he s udies ha e s a ed ha he minimum sample
size should be mo e han 200. he e is a echnique o iden i y a p ope sample size, which sugges s ha
he a io should be 5:1 (hai e al., 2014; kline, 2011). he de elope s o lis el 8.80 sugges ed a o mula
o calcula e he app op ia e sample size. Jo eskog and so bom (1993, p. 26) p o ided a o mula o he
assessmen o an app op ia e sample size o es ima ing he s uc u al model:
kk
−
()
1 2/
whe e, k = no. o a iables
he numbe o a iables in his s udy esul ed in a ecommended minimum sample size o 28, which
is subs an ially smalle han ou inal sample size o 374 cases.
he sample size chosen o his s udy was much la ge , which was sugges ed by he de elope s. a e
ensu ing a p ope sample size, a close analysis o he demog aphic aspec o he da a was ca ied ou ,
and i was ound ha many o he esponden s, mo e han 74% o he esponden s, we e below he age
o 30 yea s and we e using he in e ne o mo e han i e yea s. in his sample, 25% o he esponden s
spen mo e han six hou s a day on he in e ne , 50% used he in e ne o one hou pe day, and he
emaining 25% used he in e ne o hal an hou pe day. Mo e han 80% o he esponden s shop
Table 1. showing demog aphics o he esponden s.
Demog aphics F equency Pe cen age (%)
sec o
Public uni e si ies 300 80.21
P uni e si ies 74 19.89
Cou se
P o essional Cou ses 299 80
nonp o essional Cou ses 75 20
Le el o educa ion
unde g adua e 24 6.4
g adua e 150 40.10
Mas e s 100 26.73
abo e 100 26.73
gende
Male 264 70.58
Female 110 29.41
age
20-30 y s 74 19.89
30-40 y s 200 53.22
40y s and abo e 100 26.73
cOgen BUsiness & ManageMen 7
online wice a mon h, and he emaining 20% shop online mo e han i e imes a mon h, showing sam-
ple app op ia eness o he s udy.
3.2. Response and i em comple ion a es
a 56% esponse a e was ob ained o he analysis o da a. as many academics ha e no ed, i em comple-
ion a e is calcula ed o his esea ch and is ega ded as a ele an indica o (klassen & Jacobs, 2001). he
i em comple ion a e is he p opo ion o comple ed su eys ha a e used o analysis. wen y six o he
600 ini ial esponses we e ound o be incomple e and we e emo ed om he esea ch. he e icacy o
he su ey used in his esea ch was qui e good, wi h 96% o he i ems comple ed.
3.3. Biases in esponse and non- esponse
3.3.1. Response bias
While esponden s make mis akes while answe ing he ques ionnai e, i ’s e e ed o as esponse bias.
h oughou he ques ionnai e’s de elopmen , a numbe o he echniques sugges ed o educe his inac-
cu acy we e used. hese measu es aim o p e en biases by adhe ing o he ecommenda ions and main-
aining a simple and clea ocabula y o he scale. he esponden and hei esponses we e kep
p i a e, and i was p omised ha he esponses would only be used o esea ch. i was also explained
ha only he agg ega e esponses would be analysed, and he esea che would no iden i y o use any
pa icula esponse o his pe sonal in e es .
3.3.2. Non- esponse bias
some esponde s a e slow o eac o don’ espond a all. his bias esul ed om hese non-exis en
eplies. signi ican mean di e ences we e consis en ly ad ised in o de o examine he ea ly and la e
esponde s. he da a was supplied by manage s a di e en o ganisa ional hie a chy le els, as able 2
show. as a esul , i seems sense o claim ha he da a ep esen ed e e y answe . he ep esen a ion o
esponden s demons a es he no mali y o he sample and he da a.
3.4. Assessmen o mul icollinea i y and common me hod bias
eigh ac o s eme ged a e pe o ming eFa and all he cons uc s we e mode a ely co ela ed he e o e
he issue o mul icollinea i y was no encoun e ed. common me hod bias desc ibes mis akes made
when co ec app oaches a e used inco ec ly o inco ec ly. i is b ough on by a a ie y o ac o s in
gene al o e o s in he ga he ing p ocess. Fo ins ance, esponden bias om an online poll migh
exagge a e o de la e he indings. o con i m his inaccu acy, he eFa was ca ied ou . a s udy is said
o ha e a subs an ial common echnique bias i one componen accoun s o he majo i y o he a i-
a ion. he e we e eigh componen s c ea ed o he p esen esea ch, and he esul s o he ha mans
single ac o es a e shown in able 3. i is ai o conclude ha he esea ch is una ec ed by
common-me hod bias.
3.5. Skewness and ku osis
he da a’s skewness sugges s ha i is ypical. Da a se s migh be posi i ely o nega i ely skewed, sym-
me ical, o bo h. he skewness alue o symme ical da a is ze o when i is displayed om bo h he le
and he igh side. he accep able bounds o skewness and ku osis o a no mal dis ibu ion a e -2 and
+2. We ind ha we a e inside an accep able ange o each a iable. he ou comes a e shown in able 4.
3.5.1. Con e gen alidi y
campbell and Fiske said ha i illus a es he s eng h o he ela ionship be ween he concep ions. i
gua an ees ha he objec s will con e ge on a single idea. esea che s claim ha when hey sha e a
14 s. k. chish Y anD s. saYa i
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