Hase, Johanna
A icle — Published Ve sion
Two and a Hal Tales o Eu ope: How he Eu opean
Commission Na a es Peoplehood in Mig a ion and
Ci izenship Policy
JCMS: Jou nal o Common Ma ke S udies
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
John Wiley & Sons
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Hase, Johanna (2024) : Two and a Hal Tales o Eu ope: How he Eu opean
Commission Na a es Peoplehood in Mig a ion and Ci izenship Policy, JCMS: Jou nal o Common
Ma ke S udies, ISSN 1468-5965, Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, Vol. 62, Iss. 1, pp. 74-90,
h ps://doi.o g/10.1111/jcms.13479
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Two and a Hal Tales o Eu ope: How he Eu opean
Commission Na a es Peoplehood in Mig a ion and
Ci izenship Policy
JOHANNA HASE
WZB Be lin Social Science Cen e , Be lin
Abs ac
Since 2019, he Eu opean Commission has had a ice p esiden o ‘p omo ing ou Eu opean way
o li e’, bu whe he a Eu opean ‘we’exis s a all is dispu ed. This a icle in es iga es whe he and
how he Commission has cons uc ed his ‘we’ h ough na a i es o peoplehood. Analysing o fi-
cial communica ions in mig a ion and ci izenship policy be ween 2007 and 2020, i aces h ee
na a i e elemen s: cha ac e s, plo and main heme. The a icle a gues, fi s , ha he Commis-
sion’s na a i e o ‘ ealizing Eu opean ci izenship’c ea es a sense o peoplehood mo e han i s na -
a i e o ‘achie ing a comp ehensi e mig a ion policy’and, second, ha i has la gely epea ed i s
ci izenship na a i e while adap ing i s mig a ion na a i e. The findings sugges ha he Commis-
sion is a a he sub le na a o o peoplehood and call in o ques ion whe he i has a clea idea o
he ‘we’whose ‘way o li e’i seeks o p omo e.
Keywo ds: ci izenship; Eu opean Commission; mig a ion; na a i e analysis; peoplehood
In oduc ion
In Sep embe 2019, U sula on de Leyen, he incoming p esiden o he Eu opean Com-
mission (he ea e : Commission), selec ed Ma ga i as Schinas as he ice p esiden o
‘p o ec ing ou Eu opean way o li e’. A e wa ds, a hea ed discussion e up ed abou
whe he he e is a ‘Eu opean way o li e’and whe he i needs p o ec ion (He zensho n
and de la Baume 2019). E en ually, he po olio was enamed ‘p omo ing ou Eu opean
way o li e’, bu he i le aises simila ques ions. This a icle add esses he mos
undamen al one –how has he Commission imagined he ‘we’ ha supposedly sha es
a common way o li e?
The a icle uses he lens o Eu opean peoplehood, a no ion ha has ascina ed schola s
ac oss he disciplines a leas since he Eu opean Union (EU) became closely in eg a ed.
The me e exis ence o his sui gene is poli y begs he ques ion whe he i s limi ed deg ee
o s a ehood has been o should be accompanied by a sense o peoplehood. F om a no -
ma i e pe spec i e, heo is s and philosophe s ha e deba ed whe he Eu opean people-
hood is needed, ealis ic, o desi able o ensu e he EU’s democ a ic legi imacy
(Ma í 2018).
1
F om an empi ical pe spec i e, social scien is s ha e s udied whe he di -
e en exp essions o Eu opean peoplehood a e e iden in he a i udes and expe iences
o ci izens (B u e 2005; Hobol and De V ies 2016; Sande s e al. 2012; Siklodi 2020),
in he media (Koopmans and S a ham 2010; T enz 2010) and in he discou se o na ional
1
Al hough many people iden i y as Eu opean wi hou eeling ‘EU’ opean, ‘Eu ope’has de ac o come o mean ‘ he EU’in
la ge pa s o he public and he academic deba e (Risse 2010, pp. 50, 102).
JCMS 2024 Volume 62. Numbe 1. pp. 74–90 DOI: 10.1111/jcms.13479
© 2023 The Au ho s. JCMS: Jou nal o Common Ma ke S udies published by Uni e si y Associa ion o Con empo a y Eu opean S udies and John Wiley & Sons
L d.
This is an open access a icle unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion License, which pe mi s use, dis ibu ion and ep oduc ion in any medium,
p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed.
and Eu opean eli es (Ka zens ein and Checkel 2009; Pukallus 2016; Risse 2010). As a
pa o his endea ou , schola s ha e begun o u ilize a na a i e lens, in wha Luis Bouza
desc ibes as he ‘na a i e u n in Eu opean s udies’(Bouza Ga cía 2017; see also Della
Sala 2010; Manne s and Mu ay, 2016; McMahon and Kaise 2021).
The a icle is a pa o his u n, as i uses na a i es bo h as i s heo e ical ame-
wo k –by assuming ha he Commission builds peoplehood h ough e ol ing na a-
i es in mig a ion and ci izenship policies –and in i s me hodology. The a icle co e s
he Commission’s mig a ion and ci izenship communica ions since he Lisbon T ea y.
I ocusses on he na a i es in which he Commission has embedded i s policies a he
han on he policies hemsel es and on he image o ‘us’ a he han isions o ‘ hem’.
The a icle shows ha he Commission ad anced di e en na a i es ac oss policy
a eas. In i s ci izenship communica ions, i p omised o ‘ ealize Eu opean ci izenship’,
whe eas in i s mig a ion communica ions, i called o a ‘comp ehensi e mig a ion
policy’. The a icle a gues ha he ci izenship na a i e has mo e po en ial o cons uc
peoplehood. While he Commission main ained i s ci izenship na a i e in co e elemen s,
i adap ed cha ac e , plo and main heme o i s mig a ion na a i e in he mid-2010s,
when many people sough p o ec ion in he EU. Howe e , i did no comple ely eplace
his na a i e, and he aim o a comp ehensi e mig a ion policy emained. The analysis
lea es he o e all imp ession ha he Commission has been elling wha figu a i ely
amoun s o wo and a hal ales o Eu ope –one na a i e in he a ea o ci izenship and
one and a hal in he a ea o mig a ion.
The a icle fi s de ails he heo e ical amewo k and i s implica ions o s udying
Eu opean peoplehood. I hen ske ches i s na a i e analysis, p esen s and discusses he
Commission’s wo and a hal ales o Eu ope and poin s o a enues o u u e esea ch
in he conclusion.
I. Theo y: The Commission as a Na a o o Peoplehood?
Psychologis s, sociologis s and cul u al heo is s ha e unde s ood humans as s o y elle s,
homo na ans, who make sense o hemsel es and c ea e hei social wo ld h ough na -
a i es (B une 1991; Koscho ke 2018; Some s 1994). F om his pe spec i e, poli ical
communi ies, as a pa o he social wo ld, a e on ologically g ounded in na a i es. Un-
like desc ip ions o a gumen s, na a i es connec e en s and cha ac e s on a imeline in o
a plo ( o ming he s o y), exp ess his s o y in a ce ain o m ( he ex ) and con ey i in a
communica i e ac om a na a o o an audience (na a ion) (Shenha 2015, pp. 16–17).
Roge s Smi h’s concep o peoplehood lends i sel well o his app oach: He a gues ha
while a people pa ly elies on coe cion, i depends on an ‘imagined scena io o how
he u u e will un old, made c edibly by a ce ain accoun o he pas and p esen ’
(Smi h 2003, pp. 43–45).
2
The concep is p oduc i e o u he easons – o ins ance,
i is no concep ually bound o any poli y (as opposed o many concep ions o
na ionhood). In ac , while s a e-building in e ms o ‘cons uc ing e ec i e ins i u ions
o go e nmen al powe ’e en ually equi es a sense o peoplehood, a people does no nec-
essa ily ha e a s a e (Smi h 2003, pp. 51–52). Fu he mo e, he concep clea ly cap u es a
2
Smi h uses na a i e and s o y in e changeably (Smi h 2003, p. 44). As his a icle uses ‘s o y’as one o h ee na a i e
componen s, Smi h’s concep is e e ed o as ‘na a i es o peoplehood’.
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collec i e cons uc ion a he han an indi idual’s eeling o belonging (as opposed o
iden ifica ion).
As na a i es a e omnip esen ‘like li e i sel ’(Ba hes, ci ed in Koscho ke 2018, p. 1), i
is help ul o di e en ia e be ween na a i es o peoplehood and o he na a i es in he po-
li ical sphe e, such as policy na a i es. Peoplehood and policy na a i es ope a e a di e -
en le els: The o me ope a e as deeply held con ic ions, ‘public philosophies’
(Schmid 2011, pp. 111–112) o poli ical my hs (Della Sala 2016, pp. 524–525), he la e
as less en enched ‘s a egic cons uc ions o a policy eali y p omo ed by policy ac o s’
(Jones e al. 2014, p. 9; Schmid 2011, pp. 108–109; see, o a simila di e en ia ion in
In e na ional Rela ions, Roselle e al. 2014, p. 76). While concep ually dis inc , hey can
empi ically o e lap: Documen s jus i ying a ce ain policy may a he same ime con ey
a na a i e abou he people o whom i is implemen ed. The ques o c ea e a communi y
is wha his a icle sees as he decisi e ea u e o na a i es o peoplehood (Smi h 2003, pp.
44–45). To his end, he people in some o m mus a guably ea u e as a ela able cha ac e
in such na a i es. Smi h di e en ia es be ween na a i es o peoplehood wi h economic
hemes o ma e ial ad an ages, poli ical hemes o indi idual o collec i e poli ical powe
and e hically cons i u i e hemes o wha supposedly inhe en ly defines he espec i e peo-
ple –be i cul u e, alues, ace, e hnici y o some hing else. These a e o en combined, bu
a di e en imes, di e en hemes may domina e (Smi h 2003, pp. 59–71). In ei he o
hese hemes, na a i es o peoplehood can be expec ed o o ecas some kind o p og ess
o gi e he audience a eason o iden i y as pa o he people (Smi h 2003, pp. 44–45).
While e e yone can na a e peoplehood, poli ical leade s ha e o do so. They s a egi-
cally po ay hemsel es as he oes in o de o ‘achie e and main ain powe ’(Smi h 2003,
pp. 32–37). Eu opean leade s, oo, ell s o ies o secu e hei legi imacy and on ological
secu i y (Biegoń2013; Della Sala 2018). Bu in con as o policy na a i es, na a i es
o peoplehood canno be educed o s a egic ins umen s as hey ‘do no me ely se e in-
e es s, hey also help o cons i u e hem’(Smi h 2003, p. 45). This a icle ocusses on he
Commission o se e al easons. Fi s , in con as o he Eu opean Pa liamen and he
Council, which ep esen he in e es s o hei elec o a e and he Membe S a es (MS),
he Commission has a manda e o ‘p omo e he gene al in e es o he Union’(A icle
17, T ea y on Eu opean Union), which may include c ea ing a sense o communi y.
Second, as a sup ana ional agenda se e wi hou di ec democ a ic legi imacy, i
a guably depends especially on na a i es o po ay i as he he o. Thi d, he Commission
is engaged in policies –like he o me ‘Eu ope o Ci izens’p og amme – ha p omo e a
Eu opean communi y. In o he wo ds, he Commission’s na a i es can in o m i s policies
(see also Ma icu 2017).
Since poli ical leade s also na a e who he people a e no (Smi h 2003, p. 56), hey
end o o e na a i es o peoplehood in policy a eas ha define who belongs. Pa adig-
ma ic examples a e mig a ion and ci izenship policy: While ci izenship emains he ul i-
ma e ins umen o ‘social closu e’(B ubake 1992, pp. 21–34), mig a ion policies a e
‘ga ekeepe s’, egula ing access o e i o y, labou ma ke and wel a e sys ems
(O gad 2015, p. 84). The e o e, he Commission’s mig a ion and ci izenship na a i es
a e he ocus o he a icle. I s powe s a e limi ed in bo h o hese a eas. The
Ams e dam T ea y o 1999 inc eased he EU’s compe ences o ha monize mig a ion
and asylum policies, excluding olumes o admission. E e since, he Commission has
p oposed legisla ion on many aspec s o mig a ion, bu has ound mo e suppo among
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di ided MS o measu es cu bing i egula mig a ion han opening legal pa hways, so ha
he ‘ amewo k emains incomple e’(Geddes e al. 2020, p. 169). The Commission, in
pa icula he Di ec o a e Gene al o Mig a ion and Home A ai s, pu o wa d a new
se o p oposals in he ‘New Pac on Asylum and Mig a ion’in 2020, hoping o gi e
new impe us o he di ficul nego ia ions. Eu opean ci izenship policy has i s oo s in
he eedom o mo emen o wo ke s es ablished in he 1950s. I was cons i u ionalized
as a s a us de i ed om MS’na ionali y in he Maas ich T ea y in 1993. The Cou o
Jus ice has inc eased i s ‘pe sonal and ma e ial scope’ h ough case law, claiming ha i
is ‘des ined o become he undamen al s a us o he na ionals o he Membe S a es’
(Menéndez and Olsen 2020, pp. 94–104). MS ha e o design hei ci izenship policies
wi h due ega d o EU law. Ne e heless, he Commission and i s esponsible Di ec o a e
Gene al o Jus ice and Consume s may no p opose legisla ion on access o EU ci izen-
ship and mainly en o ce EU ci izens’ igh s.
While poli ical leade s may mo e flexibly adap policy na a i es o new ci cum-
s ances, people do no easily accep changes o na a i es abou who hey a e (Smi h 2003,
pp. 54–55, 121–125; Risse 2010, p. 31; Dixon 2018, p. 11). Ne e heless, some change
always occu s when ( e) elling a na a i e (Shenha 2015, pp. 56–67; Hase 2021). When
and why poli ical leade s in en ionally change wha aspec s o na a i es o peoplehood
emains unde heo ized. Howe e , he e a e a couple o poin s o depa u e: Fi s , a na -
a o may be eplaced o de elop new isions. Second, he na a o may eac o a
changed audience (Dixon 2018). Thi d, hey migh eac o c ises a ‘c i ical junc u es’
o , e en i a ely, undeniable ac s (Risse 2010, pp. 32–33; Koscho ke 2018, p. 202). Fu -
he mo e, poli ical leade s na a e peoplehood unde ce ain cons ain s. Fi s and o e-
mos , hei na a i e needs o be accep able o he audience who should iden i y as he
people (Smi h 2003, p. 34). Addi ionally, a powe ul na a o may be ee o change hei
na a i e (Schmid 2011, pp. 119–121), bu hen be bound o i once i is ins i u ionalized
(Koscho ke 2018, p. 267). F om his pe spec i e, he Commission deals wi h di e en
legal compe ences o bounda y-d awing. In any case, some na a i e change is o be
expec ed, esul ing om new Commissione s, new audiences among MS and hei
popula ions o new ci cums ances.
The a icle adds o a weal h o in e disciplina y s udies on Eu opean peoplehood and
na a i es. The long-s anding deba e on Eu opean iden i y has depa ed om he dicho -
omy o a poli ical and cul u al e sion o Eu ope (Risse 2010), showing ha hese ideas
di e ac oss ime, policy a eas and ac o s (Ca a and Wodak 2015; Osh i and
Shenha 2018; Sau ugge and Tha che 2019). P e ious s udies on mig a ion and ci izen-
ship policies o en con as ed he Commission’s e sion o ee mo emen and he a ac-
ion o high-skilled mig an s wi h he Council’s e sion o s a is coope a ion on secu i y
and he Pa liamen ’s e sion o common alues and undamen al igh s (Ma icu 2017;
La enex 2019). O he s udies ocussed on he Commission, a guing ha i shi ed om
a heme o a unc ional single ma ke wi h common alues in he 1970s o a heme o a
cul u al communi y in he 1980s and a i ing a an image o Eu ope as a pa icipa o y de-
moc acy in he la e 1990s and 2000s (Bee 2008; Biegoń2013). Gilbe finds uni y in his
di e si y and cau ions agains he common po ayal o Eu opean in eg a ion as desi able
and ine i able in bo h poli ical and schola ly na a i es (Gilbe 2008).
While some o hese wo ks use he e m na a i e, s udies in ecen yea s ely on i cen-
ally in heo y and empi ics when s udying poli ical discou se (Manne s and
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Mu ay 2016; Cloe 2017; Kaise and McMahon 2017) and ci izens’pe cep ions
(Beaudonne e al. 2022). Wi hin his ‘na a i e u n in Eu opean s udies’(Bouza
Ga cía 2017), he ques ion o whe he and how he Commission ( e)na a es Eu opean
peoplehood in i s mig a ion and ci izenship policies has ecei ed less a en ion. The e o e,
his a icle con ibu es wi h i s na a i e app oach o deba es abou Eu opean peoplehood
and wi h i s use o he peoplehood concep o na a i e schola ship wi hin Eu opean
s udies.
II. Me hods: T acing he Commission’s Na a i es
The analysis encompassed h ee s eps. Fi s , o ficial communica ions we e de i ed om
he Commission’s online egis y,
3
fil e ed o he keywo ds ‘mig a ion’,‘ hi d coun y na-
ional’,‘in eg a ion’,‘ci izen’,‘ci izenship’, documen ype COM, which deno es he
Commission’s poli ical s a egies and legisla i e p oposals, and he Commission depa -
men s esponsible o mig a ion and ci izenship policy.
4
The ime ame was se be ween
he signing o he Lisbon T ea y in 2007 – he las ea y change –and he end o 2020,
a e on de Leyen’s manda e s a ed wi h he New Pac on Mig a ion and Asylum and
he Ci izenship Repo 2020. In a fi s sc eening, documen s no ouching co e aspec s
o mig a ion o ci izenship policy we e omi ed o easons o scope, while addi ional
communica ions discussed in he seconda y li e a u e we e included. Toge he , he
co pus enlis ed in he appendix consis s o 137 documen s. While no all-
encompassing, i cap u es many o he Commission’s s a egic ou pu s o e hi een
yea s. O ficial communica ions a e he b ead and bu e o he Commission. They
unde go a complex d a ing p ocess in ol ing di e en depa men s un il he college o
Commissione s ul ima ely adop s hem. The communica ions con ey he Commission’s
p oposals o Membe S a es, media and he wide public and hus con ain policy
na a i es. A he same ime, hey a e an oppo uni y o he Commission o in e wine
hem wi h na a i es o peoplehood. The a icle in es iga es whe he and how he
Commission makes use o his oppo uni y.
In a second s ep, he co pus was analysed wi h espec o elemen s o s o y, ex and
na a ion, la gely ollowing Shenha ’s guidelines on s udying social na a i es
(Shenha 2015). In o de o make an analysis o he la ge numbe o documen s easible,
i ocusses only on hose sec ions ha embed he communica ions in a la ge con ex –
ypically hose en i led ‘in oduc ion’,‘con ex o he p oposal’,‘conclusions’o ‘nex
s eps’(Shenha 2015, p. 86). While his is a limi a ion, hese pa s a e a guably mos el-
e an o na a i es o peoplehood. Especially hose segmen s ha Shenha calls concise
na a i es, which connec he e en s u hes in he pas and in he u u e and ha con ain
i s ‘ empo al and hema ic iden i y’(Shenha 2015, pp. 62–63), can be easonably ex-
pec ed wi hin he aming sec ions o he documen s a he han in a de ailed subsec ion.
The a icle u he mo e employs a his o ical-s uc u al app oach and ocusses on he ele-
men s ha i conside s o be cen al ea u es o na a i es o peoplehood in line wi h he
heo e ical amewo k – he ( ela able) cha ac e s, he plo owa ds a b igh u u e and he
main heme, as summa ized in able 1(Shenha 2015, p. 65).
3
h ps://ec.eu opa.eu/ anspa ency/documen s- egis e /.
4
Di ec o a es-Gene al COMM, DEV, EAC, EEAS, EMPL, HOME, JLS, JUST and SG.
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A na a i e’s cha ac e s may be people, animals, machines, ins i u ions o concep s, as
long as hey seem o ha e human-like in en ions, hough s o eelings (Shenha 2015, pp.
25–27). The analysis asked who he cha ac e s in each documen we e and how o en
hey appea ed, bu mos impo an ly wha hei ole in he ac ion was and whe he he e
was a ela able cha ac e among hem. While na a ology o e s se e al ypologies o
cha ac e s, he succinc di e en ia ion be ween he oes (who fix p oblems), illains
(who cause p oblems) and ic ims (who su e om p oblems) was bo owed om he
na a i e policy amewo k (Jones e al. 2014, p. 6). I u he asked whe he he wo ding
sugges ed a common pe spec i e be ween cha ac e , na a o and audience h ough he
use o ‘we’o ‘ou ’–a mo e o make social na a i es ela able (Shenha 2015,p.
50). Na a i es o Eu opean peoplehood could ea u e ela able cha ac e s such as ‘we’,
‘ci izens’,o ‘Eu opeans’.
A plo connec s e en s and cha ac e s on a imeline (Shenha 2015, p. 32). The e a e
se e al plo ypologies. The one o iginally de eloped o Wes e n li e a u e, which di e -
en ia es be ween agedy, i ony, omance, and comedy can be applied o o he fields. T ag-
edy is a s o y o he he o’s ailu e. I ony fluc ua es be ween eg ess and p og ess and has
no p edefined esolu ion no a s ong he o. Romances a e no necessa ily lo e s o ies, bu
hey ell how he pu e he o achie es hei end, usually o e coming a challenge o illain.
In comedies, an ini ial equilib ium is dis u bed, and he he oine aces po en ial ailu e
be o e e en ually achie ing a new equilib ium (Fo ch ne e al. 2020, pp. 208–213). As
oman ic and comic plo s lead owa ds a b igh u u e, hey a e a guably mo e use ul in
na a i es o peoplehood. The plo has implica ions o he communi ies na a ed by
hem: Romances can c ea e solida i y, bu lack sel - eflec ion (Jacobs and Smi h 1997,
pp. 67–70). Fo ch ne and colleagues a gue ha comedy and omance con ey ce ain y
o a be e u u e and a aul less he oine a he cos o collec i e lea ning p ocesses
(Fo ch ne e al. 2020, p. 212). Building on his, Öz a an a gues ha ‘ agic and i onic
s o ies acili a e spanning social bounda ies, while comic and oman ic s o ies d aw igid
and conclusi e social bounda ies’(Öz a an 2020, pp. 287–288). Be ween omances and
comedies, he di e ence is one o deg ee, bu significan : Due o hei dis u bance o he
Table 1: Co e Elemen s o Na a i es o Peoplehood
Elemen De ini ion Types
Cha ac e People, animals, ins i u ions, concep s, e c. ha seem o
ha e in en ions and o ake ac ions
(Shenha 2015, pp. 25–27)
•He oes who fix p oblems
•Villains who cause p oblems
•Vic ims who a e sa ed (Jones
e al. 2014,p.6)
Plo The way in which e en s a e connec ed in o a whole
(Shenha 2015, p. 32)
•Romance
•Comedy
•T agedy
•I ony ( o ins ance, Fo ch ne
e al. 2020)
Main
Theme
The ype o s o y and e en s ha can c ea e a communi y
and aise allegiance
(Smi h 2003, pp. 59–71)
•Economic
•Poli ical powe
•E hically cons i u i e
(Smi h 2003, pp. 59–71)
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equilib ium and he he o’s momen o sel -doub , comedies a e mo e open o lea ning
p ocesses and inclusi i y han omances.
Las ly, o iden i y he main heme o he na a i e as economic, poli ical o e hically
cons i u i e in line wi h Smi h (2003, pp. 59–71), he subs ance o he e en s was
in e p e ed. Fo ins ance, a na a i e ha o ecas ed how ci izens would become weal hy
as a esul o he common ma ke was aken o indica e an economic heme; one ha
aimed o a mo e democ a ic o powe ul EU was unde s ood as a poli ical heme and
one ha spoke abou inhe en ly Eu opean alues was classified as an e hically cons i u i e
heme. These hemes we e equen ly in e wined, so pa icula a en ion was paid o con-
cise na a i es.
In a hi d s ep, he co e elemen s o each communica ion we e compa ed o e ime and
ac oss policy a eas o shed ligh on whe he he Commission pu o wa d na a i es o
peoplehood, and when and how i changed hem. As some deg ee o fluc ua ion is ex-
pec ed be ween documen s, only clus e s o new elemen s we e in e p e ed as change.
This quali a i e app oach o na a i e analysis equi ed in e p e a ion when selec ing
he documen s and hei ele an sec ions, when assigning a cha ac e , plo and heme
ype o each documen and when iden i ying changes o e ime. To make hese in e p e-
a ions as clea as possible, his sec ion lay open he ques ions asked, while he ollowing
subs an ia es in e p e a ions wi h quo es om he o iginal documen s.
III. Resul s: The Commission’s Na a i es in Mig a ion and Ci izenship
This sec ion p esen s he Commission’s ci izenship and mig a ion na a i es – hei cha -
ac e s, plo s and hemes and hei po en ial o c ea e a sense o Eu opean peoplehood. Fig-
u a i ely speaking, he Commission p esen ed wo and a hal ales o Eu ope: one na a-
i e o ‘ ealizing Eu opean ci izenship’, which was epea ed o e ime, and a na a i e o
‘achie ing a comp ehensi e mig a ion policy’. As he la e was nei he epea ed no e-
placed, bu changed in some elemen s a ce ain momen s, i seems like one and a hal
a he han wo sepa a e na a i es.
The Na a i e o ‘Realizing Eu opean Ci izenship’
The dis ibu ion o oles in he Commission’s ci izenship communica ions was usually he
ollowing: The he oes we e he Commission and he EU, which adop ed policies, w o e
epo s and implemen ed p og ammes o bols e EU ci izenship. O en, hese documen s
hemsel es appea ed as cha ac e s, which seemed ac on hei own [‘The Repo […] pu s
o wa d conc e e p oposals’(Eu opean Commission 2017, p. 4)]. Howe e , hey we e
place holde s o he eal ac o s (in he example abo e, he Commission ha published
he epo ). The ole o he ic im was ypically held by EU ci izens, a ela able cha ac e ,
who su e ed om he deficiencies o EU ci izenship. The s o y wen ha once he EU’s
espec i e policies would ha e made EU ci izenship a angible eali y, ci izens would em-
b ace hei EU ci izenship. In con as o he oes and ic ims, he e we e no unambiguous
illains. Some imes selec ed MS played his ole when hey implemen ed unpopula pol-
icies, such as measu es o ‘a ac in es men by g an ing in es o s ci izenship o esi-
dence igh s’(Eu opean Commission 2019a, p. 1). Bu he MS’cha ac e s could likewise
be ic ims, o ins ance, when o he MS’in es o ci izenship schemes a ec ed hem
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nega i ely (Eu opean Commission 2019a). Mos o en, howe e , he Commission
po ayed MS as suppo e s o whom i in ended ‘ o p o ide guidance […] wi h he objec-
i e o b inging a eal imp o emen o all EU ci izens’(Eu opean Commission 2009,p.
2). I is also wo h men ioning he cha ac e s ha did no ake cen e s age: Thi d coun y
na ionals seldomly appea ed, and i so, hey ypically appea ed as amily membe s o EU
ci izens.
5
They we e no explici ly illainous ‘o he s’agains whom a communi y o
Eu opean ci izens was cons uc ed.
Wi h ega d o he second elemen , he plo , he Commission’s communica ions mos
close esemble a omance. Fo ins ance, some s a ed wi h he Maas ich T ea y and
ended –a e p og ess had been made due o Eu opean policies –wi h Eu opean ci izen-
ship becoming an e e yday eali y. While no wi hou obs acles, he e was a ely a mo-
men in he s o y whe e he he o migh ha e ailed. A imes, howe e , he Commission
p esen ed a comedy including such a momen . Fo ins ance, in i s epo on in es o ci -
izenship, some illainous MS in oduced ci izenship- o -sale schemes ha unde mined
Eu opean ci izenship (dis u bance o he equilib ium), and he Commission would ‘ ake
necessa y ac ion’so ha he MS would in he u u e mi iga e he conce ns ( e-es ablish-
men o he equilib ium) (Eu opean Commission 2019a, p. 24). Howe e , hese comic
plo s did no clus e enough o indica e a undamen al change.
6
As o he elemen o he main heme, he Commission pu mos emphasis on a poli -
ical one o empowe ing ci izens, as Eu opean ci izenship would be li ed h ough ‘ he ull
enjoymen o ci izens’ igh s’(Eu opean Commission 2020a, p. 27), especially poli ical
pa icipa ion, eedom o mo emen and consula p o ec ion. This sugges s ha he Com-
mission has pa ly con inued he depic ion o a democ a ically engaged Eu ope o he
ea ly 1990s and 2000s (Bee 2008; Biegoń2013) and suppo s Pukallus’finding o he
pos -Lisbon ocus on igh s (Pukallus 2016). In e es ingly, he e seems o be a gap be-
ween his poli ical heme and Menéndez and Olsen’s analysis ha in ac , ‘ he poli ical
alue o Eu opean ci izenship has become p og essi ely de alued’(Menéndez and
Olsen 2020, p. 135). Fu he mo e, he Commission po ayed EU ci izenship no only
as an empowe men o i s ci izens bu o some deg ee as desc ip i e o who hey a e:
‘EU ci izenship embodies sha ed igh s and alues as well as he ich di e si y o a Union
o di e en na ionali ies and languages’(Eu opean Commission 2017, p. 3). In his way,
he Commission in e wined a poli ical heme wi h an e hically cons i u i e one. I also
na a ed he ealiza ion o EU ci izenship in an economic heme o how eedom o
mo emen benefi s ci izens and he Eu opean common ma ke . Howe e , hese do no
domina e a a pa icula momen in ime.
7
The EU Ci izenship Repo 2017 illus a es he ypical ci izenship na a i e well:
Since EU ci izenship was fi s ensh ined in he Maas ich T ea y wen y-fi e yea s ago,
significan p og ess has been made o ensu e he e ec i eness o EU ci izens’ igh s in
p ac ice. Today, wo- hi ds o Eu opeans eel hey a e ci izens o he EU, and e en mo e
among he younge gene a ions.
Howe e , con inuous e o s a e needed o make su e ha all EU ci izens know hei
5
As in COM(2009)313 and COM(2018)212.
6
Ci izenship communica ions in e p e ed as comedies include COM(2011)881, COM(2011)884, COM(2012)99, COM
(2014)33, COM(2014)177, COM(2016)206, COM(2017)32 and COM(2019)12.
7
Communica ions ha ha e an economic heme include COM(2008)840, COM(2010)747, COM(2011)149, COM(2013)
228, COM(2013)269, COM(2014)6, COM(2016)206, COM(2016)320 and COM(2020)730.
Two and a Hal Tales o Eu ope 81
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Suppo ing In o ma ion
Addi ional suppo ing in o ma ion may be ound online in he Suppo ing In o ma ion
sec ion a he end o he a icle.
APPENDIX S1. Co pus o Commission Communica ions.
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