Mejeh, Ma hias; G iede , Co inne
A icle
Educa ional in e en ions o p omo e sel - egula ed
lea ning in oca ional schools: A sys ema ic e iew
In e na ional Jou nal o Resea ch in Voca ional Educa ion and T aining (IJRVET)
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
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Sugges ed Ci a ion: Mejeh, Ma hias; G iede , Co inne (2025) : Educa ional in e en ions o p omo e
sel - egula ed lea ning in oca ional schools: A sys ema ic e iew, In e na ional Jou nal o Resea ch
in Voca ional Educa ion and T aining (IJRVET), ISSN 2197-8646, Eu opean Resea ch Ne wo k in
Voca ional Educa ion and T aining (VETNET), Eu opean Educa ional Resea ch Associa ion, B emen,
Vol. 12, Iss. 2, pp. 192-235,
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Educa ional In e en ions o P omo e
Sel -Regula ed Lea ning in Voca ional
Schools - A Sys ema ic Re iew
Ma hias Mejeh1,2, Co inne G iede 2
1Zu ich Uni e si y o Teache Educa ion, Depa men o Resea ch on Teaching P o essions
and Educa ion Sys ems, Cen e o School Imp o emen , Lage s asse 2,
8090 Zu ich, Swi ze land
2Uni e si y o Be n, Ins i u e o Educa ional Science, Depa men o Resea ch in School and
Ins uc ion, Fab iks asse 8, 3012 Be n, Swi ze land
Recei ed: 25 Feb ua y 2024, Accep ed: 21 No embe 2024
Abs ac
Pu pose: In he e ol ing landscape o he 21s cen u y, cha ac e ized by dynamic global
challenges such as heal h c ises, clima e change, and apid echnological ad ancemen s,
he impe a i e o li elong lea ning has become mo e p onounced han e e . Sel -Regula ed
Lea ning (SRL) plays a pi o al ole in li elong lea ning, in ol ing independen , sel -di ec ed
beha io s o enhance knowledge and skills. While he signi icance o SRL is widely acknow-
ledged in he b oade con ex o li elong lea ning, i s speci ic ole in oca ional schools is a
c i ical aspec ha equi es ca e ul in es iga ion. In hese specialized educa ional se ings,
e ec i e SRL p ac ices a e no only in eg al o indi idual academic success bu a e also c u-
cial o os e ing he compe encies essen ial o a h i ing p o essional ca ee .
Howe e , he e is a need o a sys ema ic analysis o how SRL is os e ed wi hin oca-
ional schools. Despi e i s impo ance, he cu en bes p ac ices o p omo ing success ul
SRL in oca ional schools emain unde explo ed. The e o e, his s udy aimed o sys ema i-
cally e iew in e en ion s udies ocused on changing educa ional p ac ices ela ed o SRL in
oca ional schools. Speci ically, we add essed wo key esea ch ques ions: (1) Wha a e he
cha ac e is ics o in e en ion s udies aimed a os e ing SRL in oca ional schools? and (2)
Wha is he quali y o hese in e en ions in e ms o hei impac on p omo ing SRL?
*Co esponding au ho : [email p o ec ed]
193
Mejeh, G iede
Me hods: To add ess hese ques ions, we conduc ed a sys ema ic e iew o in e en ion s u-
dies ocused on os e ing SRL in he con ex o oca ional educa ion. Ou e iew includes 11
s udies, wi h 10 epo ing posi i e e ec s o in e en ions p omo ing SRL.
Findings: The indings highligh ha collabo a i e and p oblem-sol ing app oaches, along
wi h lea ning en i onmen s emphasizing s uden au onomy, a e e ec i e me hods o en-
hancing SRL. Addi ionally, he e iew unde sco es he impo ance o dis inguishing be ween
di ec and indi ec in e en ions o p omo e SRL in he class oom. The e ec i eness o each
app oach is con ingen on he speci ic con ex and s uden popula ion.
Conclusion: Howe e , compa ing and d awing conclusions om hese s udies p esen ed
challenges due o he limi ed simila i y in ou come measu es and a ia ions in he quali y
o e idence. Fu u e esea ch should conside me hodological adjus men s o add ess he
he e ogenei y o in e en ion s udies on SRL a he oca ional school le el, including he
de elopmen o s anda dized assessmen ools and mo e igo ous expe imen al designs o
be e e alua e he impac o SRL in e en ions. These adjus men s a e c ucial o ensu ing
ha oca ional schools can e ec i ely in eg a e SRL p ac ices ha no only align wi h acade-
mic goals bu also p epa e s uden s o he demands o hei p o essional ca ee s.
Keywo ds: Sel -Regula ed Lea ning, Voca ional Schools, In e en ion S udies, VET, Voca-
ional Educa ion and T aining, Sys ema ic Re iew
1 In oduc ion
Voca ional Educa ion and T aining (VET) has inc easingly been ecognized as a c i ical ool
o add essing socio-economic challenges and in eg a ing young indi iduals in o he labo
o ce as skilled p o essionals (Fo s e e al., 2016; Oswald-Egg & Renold, 2021; Powell & Sol-
ga, 2010). Unlike gene al educa ion, which b oadly cul i a es lea ne s' knowledge and skills
in p epa a ion o e ia y educa ion (UNESCO, 2012), VET is mo e complex and a ies wi-
dely ac oss di e en o ms, such as school-based p og ams, app en iceships, and con inuing
educa ion (E ans, 2020). Among he a ious app oaches, he dual sys em is ecognized as
pa icula ly e ec i e, as i in eg a es gene al educa ion wi h hands-on oca ional aining.
This combina ion no only enhances li elong lea ning bu also p omo es social in eg a ion
and pa icipa ion among young people (Aa k og, 2005; Hoeckel & Schwa z, 2010; Ho man
& Schwa z, 2015; OECD, 2022).
Since 2015, se e al Eu opean Union coun ies ha e ansi ioned hei VET sys ems o
he dual model, inspi ed by he success ul examples se by Ge many, Aus ia, and Swi ze -
land (Cede op, 2021; Deissinge & Gonon, 2021). The dual VET sys em has been c edi ed
wi h d i ing economic success, lowe ing you h unemploymen a es, and acili a ing smoo h
194 P omo ing SRL in Voca ional Schools – A Sys ema ic Re iew
ansi ions in o he labo ma ke h ough i s s uc u ed, indus y-aligned cu iculum (F ey e
al., 2012; Gonon, 2013; Hoeckel e al., 2009; Hoeckel & Schwa z, 2010; Ho man & Schwa z,
2015; OECD, 2010; S ahm, 2014). Al hough a emp s o es ablish simila sys ems globally
ha e seen a ying deg ees o success (Ch is opoulou & Ryan, 2009; Pilz & Wiemann, 2021),
he concep o a "dual app en iceship"—linking o mal educa ion wi h wo kplace aining—
has gained ecogni ion as a key componen o e ec i e oca ional educa ion (Valien e &
Scandu a, 2017). This de ini ion allows o a b oade analysis beyond he adi ional Ge -
man-speaking coun ies, acknowledging signi ican in e na ional de elopmen s and policy
inno a ions in many de eloped coun ies (Ryan, 2001).
This sho o e iew o he signi icance o he dual oca ional educa ion sys em demons-
a es he impo ance o gene al educa ion o a sus ainable VET sys em. This is pa icula ly
ele an in ligh o he apid pace o echnological change and he eme gence o mega ends
such as au oma ion, digi aliza ion, and g een ene gy, which a e ha ing a signi ican impac
on he u u e o VET sys ems (Ach enhagen & Oldenbü ge , 1996; Bold ini & Wü h ich,
2022; Sei ied, 2002; Seu e , 2018). To add ess hese challenges, go e nmen s and educa io-
nal ins i u ions a e seeking o de elop mo e lexible, indus y-aligned cu icula, and os e
s onge pa ne ships be ween educa ion and indus y (S alde & Cle c, 2019; We s ein e
al., 2014; Win he & Ach enhagen, 2009).
In ligh o hese challenges, VET sys ems mus ocus on no only de eloping speci ic job-
ela ed knowledge bu also os e ing in e disciplina y compe encies like p oblem-sol ing,
c i ical hinking, communica ion, and collabo a ion—skills ha a e inc easingly c ucial in
oday's apidly changing wo ld (F ey e al., 2014). Sel -Regula ed Lea ning (SRL) is essen ial
o acqui ing hese compe encies and is indispensable o success in bo h cu en oca ional
aining and li elong lea ning (Fo s e e al., 2016; Hanushek e al., 2017; Jossbe ge e al.,
2010; Ki schne & S oyano , 2020; Rozendaal e al., 2003, 2005). S udies show ha wo ke s
wi h s ong SRL ounda ions and a commi men o con inuous educa ion a e mo e adap able
o ma ke changes and less p one o long- e m unemploymen (Dubs, 2018). Thus, he dual
VET sys em no only equips s uden s wi h necessa y p o essional quali ica ions bu also plays
a c i ical ole in os e ing SRL (Valien e & Scandu a, 2017). Unde s anding how oca ional
s uden s na iga e job ma ke challenges equi es s udying hei ansi ion in o p o essional
li e, wi h oca ional schools playing a key ole in his p epa a ion.
Wi h he impo ance o SRL in VET es ablished, i is c ucial o explo e how his concep
can be e ec i ely implemen ed in oca ional schools. This in ol es unde s anding he con-
di ions ha acili a e op imal SRL. As p epa ing young people o he labo ma ke becomes
an inc easingly u gen goal o VET sys ems, he challenge lies in de e mining how SRL can
be de eloped and p omo ed wi hin oca ional educa ion.
195
Mejeh, G iede
2 Sel -Regula edLea ninginVoca ionalSchools
SRL se es as a ounda ion o he de elopmen o sus ainable knowledge cons uc ion and
is he e o e highly ele an in schools and class ooms as well as o li elong lea ning (An ho-
nysamy e al., 2020; Bolhuis, 2003; Lü enegge e al., 2012; UNESCO, 2022). SRL is iewed
as a hie a chical, dynamic, and adap i e p ocess in which lea ne s analyze a ask, se goals,
and de ise plans o comple e he ask. The use o a ious lea ning s a egies and he in luence
o mo i a ional and emo ional ac o s a e c ucial o ini ia ing and main aining p og ess o-
wa ds hese goals. The lea ning p ocess and goal a ainmen a e egula ly e alua ed h ough
me acogni i e s a egies, and he choice and e ec i eness o sel - egula o y s a egies a e
con ingen on he ask and con ex o he lea ning en i onmen (G eene e al., 2021).
A c ucial ask in oca ional educa ion is o equip lea ne s no only wi h speci ic job-
ela ed knowledge bu also wi h in e disciplina y compe encies such as c i ical hinking, col-
labo a ion, c ea i e p oblem-sol ing, pe sonal esponsibili y, adap abili y, communica ion
skills, and a commi men o li elong lea ning (Asplund e al., 2021; Höp e , 2017; OECD,
2016; Sembill, 2000). This highligh s he impo ance o SRL in VET (Fo s e e al., 2016;
Hanushek e al., 2017; Ki schne & S oyano , 2020). The e o e, oca ional school ins uc ion
should be seen as a c ucial componen o VET, wa an ing con inual imp o emen due o i s
las ing impac on lea ne s' lea ning and beha io pa e ns (Höp e , 2017).
Se e al empi ical s udies ha e speci ically ocused on SRL wi hin oca ional schools. Fo
ins ance, Sembill e al. (2007) examined he implemen a ion o SRL in a ious se ings a
comme cial oca ional schools, inding ha eaching SRL s a egies led o inc eased lea -
ning mo i a ion and p oblem-sol ing abili ies among lea ne s while main aining echnical
knowledge. O he s udies sugges ha s a egies like sel -con ol, ime managemen , and he
egula ion o mo i a ion and concen a ion a e iewed ambi alen ly by oca ional lea ne s
du ing hei aining (Me zge , 2001; Me zge & Nüesch, 2011). Howe e , i can be assumed
ha he use o lea ning s a egies posi i ely a ec s p oblem-sol ing abili ies and expands
lea ne s' s a egic epe oi es (Me zge , 2014; Sembill, 1999; Wu ke, 1999).
Hil mann (2015) demons a ed ha he abili y o lea n in a sel - egula ed manne po-
si i ely in luences lea ning ime, wi h oca ional lea ne s using "i - hen plans" pe o ming
mo e lea ning ac ions and in es ing mo e ime in hei s udies. E ec i e use o lea ning
s a egies encou ages oca ional lea ne s o ake ac i e ini ia i e in hei own lea ning, which
is closely ela ed o lea ning pe o mance, mo i a ion, and emo ional disposi ions (Tenbe g,
2008). Fu he mo e, a s ong sense o owne ship o he lea ning p ocess enables deepe in-
o ma ion p ocessing (Boekae s & Minnae , 2003; Rozendaal e al., 2005; Wi eman, 1997).
Mo i a ion, as a key componen o SRL, plays a c i ical ole in bo h lea ning success in
oca ional educa ion (Beck, 2000; Ha d e al., 1996; Nennige & Wosni za, 2000; Rosendahl
& S aka, 2011) and job e en ion (Be gmann, 1992; Coombe & Ba iball, 2007; Du aisin-
gam e al., 2009; Rosse , 2004; Sembill, 1992). Rozendaal (2002) showed ha he quali y o
196 P omo ing SRL in Voca ional Schools – A Sys ema ic Re iew
he lea ning en i onmen in luences he a ec i e a iables o SRL, wi h di ec in e en ions
inc easing he mo i a ion o oca ional lea ne s, leading o deepe in o ma ion p ocessing
and educed anxie y.
Howe e , eedback and assessmen o lea ning p ocesses, undamen al o SRL (Bu le &
Winne, 1995), a e no ully implemen ed in basic oca ional educa ion (Rozendaal, 2002).
Fo example, sel - e lec ion elemen s a e no equen ly used, esul ing in limi ed use o me-
acogni i e egula ion s a egies ( an Velzen, 2004; an Velzen & Tillema, 2004). The di e-
en objec i es o oca ional lea ne s and eache s u he illus a e his gap (Rozendaal e
al., 2005). Ne e heless, when eache s encou age sel - e lec ion, i can signi ican ly in luence
lea ne s' e lec i e hinking, wi h he lea ne s' pe cep ion o he eache being pa icula ly
ele an ( an Velzen & Tillema, 2004).
A e e iewing he li e a u e o da e, se e al impo an aspec s eme ge ha equi e
u he in es iga ion. Fi s , all o he ci ed s udies abo e ha e been conduc ed exclusi ely in
he Ne he lands, Ge many, o Swi ze land. Consequen ly, i is c ucial o explo e he ep e-
sen a ion o SRL beyond hese bo de s.
Secondly, he e is cu en ly limi ed knowledge abou he lea ning egula ion o oca ional
s uden s (Jossbe ge e al., 2015, 2018; Khaled e al., 2015). This is pa icula ly conce ning,
as he sel - egula ion o cogni i e, mo i a ional, and emo ional p ocesses du ing p ac ical
and academic ask pe o mance in oca ional educa ion is c i ical o helping lea ne s achie e
e ec i e lea ning ou comes (Boekae s & Cascalla , 2006; de B uijn & Leeman, 2011; Joss-
be ge e al., 2010; an G ins en & Tillema, 2006). Ex e nal ac o s, such as he in luence o
eache s o he design o he lea ning en i onmen , can signi ican ly impac lea ne s' SRL
(Digna h & Veenman, 2021). This unde sco es he impo ance o a well-designed lea ning
en i onmen in os e ing SRL among oca ional lea ne s.
Thi dly, o accu a ely demons a e he e ec s on he de elopmen o SRL in oca ional
schools, i is essen ial o iden i y s udies whe e ele an in e en ions ha e been implemen-
ed (Go edson e al., 2015). Re iews on how SRL can be p omo ed h ough educa ional
in e en ions al eady exis o di e en le els o educa ion (e.g., Cla k, 2012; Den & Koenka,
2016; Digna h e al., 2008; Digna h & Bü ne , 2008; Digna h & Veenman, 2021; Loyens e al.,
2008; Richa dson e al., 2012; Si zmann & Ely, 2011). Howe e , e iews ocusing speci ically
on how SRL can be p omo ed h ough educa ional in e en ions in oca ional schools ha e
been lacking.
3 AimsandResea chQues ions
Based on he a o emen ioned poin s, he goal o his s udy is o use p e ious in e en ion s u-
dies o iden i y and cha ac e ize e ec i e me hods o p omo ing SRL in oca ional schools.
This s udy is impo an because SRL is c ucial o li elong lea ning. By examining exis ing
197
Mejeh, G iede
e idence on he sel - egula ion o lea ning p ocesses among oca ional s uden s, his s udy
seeks o ill a c i ical gap in he li e a u e. In e en ion esea ch plays a i al ole in iden i y-
ing he mos e ec i e eaching me hods o p omo ing SRL in oca ional schools. Howe e ,
o he bes o ou knowledge, no sys ema ic e iew has ye been conduc ed on in e en ion
s udies aimed a enhancing SRL in his speci ic con ex .
To summa ize, he cu en bes p ac ices o p omo ing success ul SRL in oca ional
schools a e no well unde s ood. The e o e, he i s s ep is o iden i y in e en ion s udies
ha ocus on changing educa ional p ac ices ela ed o SRL in oca ional schools. The second
s ep in ol es analyzing he cha ac e is ics o hese s udies. To achie e his, an explo a o y
sys ema ic e iew o in e en ion esea ch on SRL in he con ex o oca ional educa ion was
conduc ed. The esea ch ques ions o his e iew a e as ollows:
1. Wha a e he cha ac e is ics o in e en ion s udies aimed a os e ing sel - egula ed lea -
ning in oca ional schools (RQ1)?
2. Wha is he quali y o in e en ion s udies on he p omo ion o sel - egula ed lea ning in
oca ional schools (RQ2)?
The second ques ion is u he di ided in o wo sub-ques ions:
a) Wha is he quali y o he esea ch designs?
b) Wha is he quali y o e idence p o ided by he s udies ound ega ding he p omo ion o
sel - egula ed lea ning in oca ional schools?
These esea ch ques ions enable an analysis o which in e en ions e ec i ely os e SRL, as
well as he iden i ica ion o limi a ions in hese app oaches. A e e iewing he li e a u e on
SRL, oca ional educa ion and aining, oca ional schools, and in e en ions, he esea ch
ques ions we e o mula ed acco ding o he guidelines o he PICo sys em o quali a i e
s udies (Mille & Fo es , 2001; Mu doch Uni e si y, 2024). By e alua ing he e ec i eness
o he in e en ions, i will be possible o d aw conclusions abou which in e en ions a e
mos op imal o p omo ing SRL among oca ional s uden s. A b oad scope ensu es ha all
s udies ele an o he esea ch ques ions a e included, wi h none excluded a p io i (Muka
e al., 2020).
4 Me hodology
The e iew was conduc ed ollowing he me hod ou lined by Boland e al. (2017). This me-
hod in ol es wo di e en bu ela ed modes o sea ching: A scoping sea ch and a main
sea ch o e idence. Fi s , a p elimina y li e a u e sea ch, known as a scoping sea ch, was
198 P omo ing SRL in Voca ional Schools – A Sys ema ic Re iew
conduc ed. The pu pose o he scoping sea ch was o p o ide an o e iew o he published
li e a u e and a ailable in o ma ion on he opic. Based on he indings o he scoping sea ch,
a clea sea ch s a egy was hen de eloped. This s a egy included se ing inclusion and ex-
clusion c i e ia, as well as es ablishing a sc eening and selec ion p ocess o iden i y po en ial
in e en ion s udies o his e iew, which is e e ed o as he main sea ch.
4.1 Sea chS a egyandSc eeningP ocess
The sea ch s a egy began wi h he c ea ion o a comp ehensi e keywo d lis , encompassing
synonyms o he e ms "sel - egula ed lea ning", " oca ional educa ion", and "in e en ion".
Using his lis , a da abase-agnos ic sea ch s ing was de eloped which se ed as he ound-
a ion o da abase-speci ic que ies. This sea ch s ing was e ined h ough collabo a i e e-
isions by he wo au ho s. Subsequen ly, ailo ed sea ch que ies we e cons uc ed o each
da abase o accoun o di e ences in syn ax and indexing.1
The sea ch was execu ed ac oss se e al da abases, including ERIC (O idSP), APA Psyc-
In o (O idSP), PSYNDEXplus Li e a u e and Audio isual Media (O idSP), Web o Science
(All Da abases), Scopus, SocINDEX (EBSCOhos ), In e na ional Bibliog aphy o he Social
Sciences (P oQues ), and Sociological Abs ac s (P oQues ). These da abases we e selec ed
due o hei ex ensi e co e age o li e a u e in he ields o educa ion, psychology, and social
sciences, and hei ele ance o ou esea ch ocus.
The li e a u e sea ch was conduc ed in July 2024, wi h all eco ds a ailable up o he
sea ch da e included. We applied no es ic ions ega ding he publica ion da e, bu only a -
icles published in English we e conside ed. The sea ch yielded a o al o 224 esea ch a icles
published be ween 1988 and 20222. The P e e ed Repo ing I ems o Sys ema ic Re iews
and Me a-Analyses (PRISMA) lowcha in Figu e 1 ou lines he sc eening and selec ion
p ocess. No addi ional eco ds we e iden i ied h ough o he sou ces, such as g ey li e a u e.
1 The sea ch s ing syn ax is a ailable upon eques om he au ho s.
2 Two scoping que ies we e ca ied ou ini ially. The i s que y yielded 1,645 unique hi s, bu his numbe was signi ican ly
educed o 222 when we added he sea ch e m 'in e en ion' o ou syn ax.
199
Mejeh, G iede
Figu e 1: PRISMA Flow Diag am o Included S udies (adap ed om Mohe e al., 2009)3
3 Full- ex a icles could ha e mul iple easons o exclusion; he e o e, he sum o each eason oge he is > 16 a e he i s
ound o eligibili y.
S udy S udy
ID Coun y S udy ocus S udy design S udy sample In e en ion and compa a o Means o da a
collec ion S udy indings
an G ins en
& Tillema
(2006)
2
The
Ne he -
lands
Analysis o s u-
den pe cep ions
o hei lea ning
en i onmen
in ela ion o
hei mo i a ion
and lea ning
s a egies
Quasi expe imen
wi h i e di e en
in e en ion
g oups: T adi io-
nal o ma g oup,
open lea ning
cen e g oup, in-
dependen g oup
wo k g oup,
p ojec -o ien ed
lea ning g oup,
p ojec -based
lea ning g oup
T adi ional
educa ion
g oup: n = 72
Open lea ning
cen e g oup:
n = 69
Independen
g oup wo k
g oup: n = 344
P ojec -o ien-
ed lea ning
g oup: n = 72
P ojec -based
lea ning
g oup: n = 66
Fi e di e en ly a anged lea ning
p og ams, no con ol g oup(s)
Ques ionnai es and a
ca ego iza ion scheme
o analyze lea ning
en i onmen s
S uden mo i a ion had he g ea es
in luence on he use o sel - egula ed
lea ning s a egies. Teache s’ beha io
in he independen g oup wo k g oup,
p ojec -o ien ed lea ning g oup, and
p ojec -based lea ning g oup was
seen as mo e conduci e o lea ning
compa ed o he o he g oups. The
s uden s in hose g oups expe ienced
mo e au onomy, sel -e icacy, and
mo i a ion han in he o he g oups,
as he eache s we e less ocused
on con ol and mo e on suppo ing
s uden au onomy.
Gunduz e al.
(2016) 3Tu key
E alua ion o
e ec i eness o a
p oblem-based
online lea ning
en i onmen
Quasi-expe imen
wi h one in e -
en ion g oup,
no con ol g oup
(pos -in e en ion
measu emen
only)
Pe o mance
ask: n = 187
Sel -e alua ion
o m:
ques ion 1:
n = 70
ques ion 2:
n = 59
ques ion 3:
n = 230
The in e en ion g oup pa icipa ed
in an online p oblem-based lea ning
en i onmen
Pe o mance ask and
sel -e alua ion o m
om s uden s
A posi i e in luence on how o w i e
a pe i ion was a posi i e e ec o he
designed online p oblem-based en-
i onmen ; less in e ac ion wi h each
o he and less pa icipa ion om he
s uden s we e nega i e e ec s.
P omo ing SRL in Voca ional Schools – A Sys ema ic Re iew
206
S udy S udy
ID Coun y S udy ocus S udy design S udy sample In e en ion and compa a o Means o da a
collec ion S udy indings
Rush & Mil-
bu n (1988) 4 USA
E alua ion o
e ec i eness
o a ecip o-
cal eachinga
p ocedu e o he
me acogni i e
comp ehension
me hod
Quasi-expe imen
wi h wo in e -
en ion g oups
and wo con ol
g oups (p e- and
pos -in e en ion
measu emen
and ollow-up
measu e a e i e
weeks)
n = 150
In e en ion g oup one lea ned he
me acogni i e comp ehension me-
hod h ough ecip ocal eaching;
in e en ion g oup wo lea ned
he me acogni i e comp ehension
me hod h ough con en ional
eache -cen e ed whole-class ins -
uc ion; con ol g oup one engaged
in cou se- ela ed eading ac i i ies;
con ol g oup wo engaged in non-
eading cou se ac i i ies
Reading comp ehensi-
on ask (The Coope a i-
e English Tes )
Measu emen immedia ely a e he
in e en ion showed he e ec i eness
o he in e en ion bu did no a o
ei he ins uc ional o ma . S uden s
in he ecip ocal eaching g oup
we e mo e en husias ic and in ol ed,
bu he me acogni i e comp ehen-
sion me hod was no mo e e ec i e
compa ed o con en ional eache -
cen e ed whole-class ins uc ion.
In e en ion g oup wo signi ican ly
ou pe o med bo h con ol g oups on
he Coope a i e English Tes .
Tsai (2011) 5 Taiwan
E ec i eness o
a web-media ed
sel - egula ed
lea ning and
collabo a i e lea -
ning cou se on
s uden s’ hough s
in ega d o his
cou se
Quasi expe imen
wi h one in e -
en ion g oup
(pos -in e en ion
measu emen
only)
n = 64
The in e en ion g oup go exposed
o a web-media ed sel - egula ed
lea ning and collabo a i e lea ning
cou se
Ques ionnai e
The e was a posi i e e ec on s u-
den s’ hough s, which we e imp o ed
in ega d o he web-medi a ed sel -
egula ed lea ning and collabo a i e
lea ning cou se.
Tsai e al.
(2013) 6Taiwan
In es iga ion
o e ec s o
web-enabled
p oblem-based
lea ning and
sel - egula ed
lea ning on low
achie ing oca-
ional s uden s’
compu ing skills
Quasi expe imen
wi h wo in e -
en ion g oups
and one con ol
g oup (p e- and
pos -in e en ion
measu emen )
in e en ion
g oup one:
n = 23
in e en ion
g oup wo:
n = 22
con ol g oup:
n = 31
In e en ion g oup one ecei ed
p oblem-based and sel - egula ed
lea ning online cou se; in e en ion
g oup wo ecei ed p oblem-based
online cou se; he con ol g oup
ecei ed ace o ace eaching in
class oom
Ce i ica e examina-
ions, which measu ed
s uden s’ compu ing
skills in g ades; g ade-
poin a e age (GPA) o
measu e he s uden s’
lea ning p og ess
In e en ion g oup one had signi i-
can ly be e compu ing skills han
in e en ion g oup wo and con ol
g oup.
Mejeh, G iede 207
Yang (2016) 7 Taiwan
Analysis i sel -
egula ed lea -
ning in on-si e
wo kshops and
wi h an online
lea ning com-
muni y makes
low o eign lan-
guage achie e
o become mo e
au onomous
lea ne s
Quasi-expe i-
men wi h one
in e en ion
g oup, no con ol
g oup (p e- and
pos -in e en ion
measu emen )
n = 104
The in e en ion g oup signed up
o a se ies o 18 ESP (English o
speci ic pu poses) wo kshops
Tes o English o
In e na ional Com-
munica ion (TOEIC);
ques ionnai e abou
s uden s’ belie s in
lea ne au onomy,
sel - egula ed lea ning
and ESP
The in e en ion g oup had signi i-
can be e pos -in e en ion esul s
han p e-in e en ion and de eloped
lea ne au onomy.
Tsai e al.
(2011) 8Taiwan
E ec o a cou se
wi h web-enab-
led sel - egula ed
lea ning on o-
ca ional s uden s’
skills o applying
unc ions o da-
abase manage-
men sys em
Quasi-expe-
imen s wi h
andomiza ion;
h ee in e en ion
g oups, no con ol
g oup (p e- and
pos -in e en ion)
in e en ion
g oup one:
n = 39
in e en ion
g oup wo:
n = 36
in e en ion
g oup h ee:
n = 37
In e en ion g oup one ecei ed en
a anged blended lea ning sessions
wi h sel - egula ed lea ning aspec s;
g oup wo ecei ed i e a anged
blended lea ning sessions wi h
sel - egula ed lea ning aspec s; in-
e en ion g oup h ee ecei ed i e
a anged blended lea ning sessions
wi hou sel - egula ed lea ning
aspec s
Compu e skills es
(g aded) be o e he
in e en ion; ques ion-
nai e abou s uden ’s
hough s owa ds
blended cou se and in-
e en ions conce ning
sel - egula ed lea ning
In e en ion g oup wo had he high-
es g ades in he da abase manage-
men sys em exams and mos posi i e
hough s owa ds he in e en ion.
Lee e al.
(2010) 9Taiwan
E ec o ou
di e en lea ning
se ings on s u-
den s’ in ol e-
men in lea ning
2 x 2 ac o ial
p e- and pos -
in e en ion
measu emen
in e en ion
g oup one: n = 28
in e en ion
g oup wo: n = 25
in e en ion
g oup h ee: n = 24
con ol g oup:
n = 25
In e en ion g oup one ecei-
ed sel - egula ed lea ning and
p oblem-based lea ning app oach;
in e en ion g oup wo ecei ed
p oblem-based and no sel - egula-
ed lea ning app oach; in e en ion
g oup h ee ecei ed sel - egula ed
and no p oblem-based app oach;
he con ol g oup ecei ed no sel -
egula ed lea ning and no p oblem-
based lea ning app oach
Pe sonal In ol emen
In en o y (PII)
Signi ican inc ease in sco es o
in ol emen o he p oblem-based
g oups pos -in e en ion measu e-
men ; signi ican inc ease in sco es
o in ol emen o he sel - egula ed
lea ning pos -in e en ion measu-
emen .
P omo ing SRL in Voca ional Schools – A Sys ema ic Re iew
208
Mejeh & Held
(2022) 10 Swi ze -
land
In es iga e he
de elopmen o
SRL componen s
o e ime and
analyze he
impac o an
SRL-p omo ing
lea ning en i on-
men compa ed
o egula ins -
uc ion
Quasi expe imen
wi h ee in e -
en ion g oups
and ou con ol
g oups (p e- and
pos -in e en ion
measu emen )
in e en ion
g oup n = 68
con ol g oup
n = 91
In e en ion g oup:
- ecei ed a lea ning job (documen
ha included all asks o be comple-
ed) e e y 4 weeks
- 4 o 5 20 min. inpu sessions wi h
echnical con en o subjec s
- s uden s c ea ed hei lea ning
p ocess la gely on hei own
- each s uden was suppo ed by a
pe sonal coach and had a coaching
mee ing e e y 4 weeks
con ol g oup:
- a ended egula classes wi h less-
ons in all subjec s o 45 min.
Long ques ionnai es
(14 scales add essing
he di e en compo-
nen s o SRL) a he
beginning and end o
he school yea , and
weekly sho ques ion-
nai es (consis ed o one
i em o he scales)
Di e ences in disposi ional changes
in (me a)cogni i e s a egies like
planning and elabo a ion wi hin and
be ween in e en ion and con ol
g oup; he s uden s’ disposi ion ega -
ding planning inc eased signi ican ly
in he in e en ion g oup. Momen a y
me acogni i e ac i i y (e.g., epe i ion
planning o moni o ing) inc eases
o e ime in he in e en ion g oup.
Helm (2014) 11 Aus ia
Examine he
compe ence
de elopmen
o s uden s in
g ade 9
Quasi expe imen
wi h 13 in e -
en ion g oups
and 14 con ol
g oup (p e- and
pos -in e en ion
measu emen )
In e en ion
g oup n = 285
Con ol g oup
n = 317
In e en ion g oup ecei ed he
ea men while he adi ional clas-
ses a ended no mal school lessons
S uden s’ compe ence
in Accoun ancy we e
measu ed wi h he s an-
da dized ins umen
"Knowledge Tes ing
o Basic Knowledge o
Bookkeeping"
Di e en ia ion, sca olding, he use o
"cons uc i is " asks and me aco-
gni ion we e nega i ely ela ed o
Accoun ancy sco es.
No e. a "Recip ocal eaching is an ins uc ional p ocedu e designed o each s uden s cogni i e s a egies ha migh lead o imp o ed eading comp ehension" (Rosenshine & Meis e , 1994, p. 479).
Mejeh, G iede 209
210 P omo ing SRL in Voca ional Schools – A Sys ema ic Re iew
The wo andomized s udies did no epo in o ma ion abou he concealmen o alloca ion,
and i was unclea i he s uden s we e blind o he in e en ion. Since he e was no ollow-up
in ei he o he s udies, his poin was no applicable o he quali y assessmen . Apa om
ha , bo h s udies ul illed all quali y c i e ia o andomized s udies (Tu ana u e al., 2020).
The me hodological quali y in e ms o s a is ical analysis in he s udy wi h ID 9 could ha e
been imp o ed. They only pe o med independen - es s, while hei s udy design would
ha e been imp o ed i hey added pai ed sample - es s.
Fu he , s udies wi h ID 3 and ID 6 we e missing s a is ical analysis and he desc ip ion o
he case s udies in s udy wi h ID 1we e almos comple ely absen .
Table 4: Pa icipan Cha ac e is ics
S udy S udy
ID
Sample size Age (yea s) Female
sex N
Cu en educa ion le el
M (SD) ange
Ca aneo &
Bold ini (2017)
1 case 1: N = 38
case 2: N = 6
case 3: N = 136
case 4: N = 3
NS (NS) NS NS Case 1: Fi s -yea oca ional s uden s in a h ee-yea long clo hing design app en iceship
Case 2: Second-yea oca ional s uden s, no s a ed how long he bu che app en iceship akes
Case 3: Second-yea oca ional s uden s in h ee-yea long o ice cle k app en iceship
Case 4: Nu se s uden , no s a ed in which yea o he app en iceship she is in and how long he app en iceship akes
an G ins en &
Tillema (2006)
2N = 623 NS (NS) 16 – 18 NS Second-yea oca ional educa ion s uden s, in hei h ee- o ou -yea long oca ional educa ion
Gunduz e al.
(2016)
3N = 623 NS (NS) 16 – 18 NS Second-yea oca ional educa ion s uden s, in hei h ee- o ou -yea long oca ional educa ion
Rush & Milbu n
(1988)
4N = 150 NS (NS) NS 0 S uden s who we e en olled in a pos -seconda y echnical diesel au omo i e aining p og am; i is no s a ed how
long hei oca ional educa ion akes
Tsai (2011) 5 N = 64 20 (NS) NS NS Second-yea uni e si y s uden s om he depa men o Secu i y Managemen ; i is no s a ed how long hei oca-
ional educa ion akes
Tsai e al. (2013) 6 N = 76 18.17 (NS) NS 48 Fi s -yea s uden s om he depa men o business adminis a ion o a p i a e oca ional school; i is no s a ed
how long hei oca ional educa ion akes
Yang (2016) 7 N = 104 NS (NS) 20 – 26 52 S uden s om echnical o oca ional uni e si ies; i is no s a ed how long hei oca ional educa ion akes second-
yea oca ional s uden s, en olled in a cou se i led
Tsai e al. (2011) 8 N = 112 19 (NS) NS 79 "Da abase managemen sys em"; i is no s a ed how long hei oca ional educa ion akes
Lee e al. (2010) 9 N = 102 NS (NS) NS 71 Fi s -yea s uden s a a uni e si y o science and echnology, en olled in a cou se i led “packaged so wa e and
applica ion; i is no s a ed how long hei oca ional educa ion akes
Mejeh & Held
(2022)
10 N = 159 16.64
(2.23)
NS 83 Fi s school yea a oca ional school
Helm (2014) 11 N = 602 14.5 (.76) NS 430 9 h g ade a oca ional school
No e. NS (no s a ed).
Mejeh, G iede 211
212 P omo ing SRL in Voca ional Schools – A Sys ema ic Re iew
The quali y assessmen e ealed ha he included pape s did no ha e he same design o he
same ype o nume ical da a o ex ac ing and analyzing he esul s. Two s udies used ando-
miza ion o pa icipan s o he in e en ion o con ol g oup, while se en s udies we e quasi-
expe imen al s udies wi hou andomiza ion. Some o hese we e p e- and pos -in e en ion
measu emen s, while o he s we e only pos -in e en ion. O e all, he e we e limi a ions in
he quali y assessmen ega ding how he 11 s udies we e designed and conduc ed. They
we e pa ially eliable, pa icula ly in ega d o how hey p o ided suppo in answe ing he
esea ch ques ion.
5.3 Desc ip iono heS udies
The au ho s o s udy ID 1 (Table 5) designed ins uc ional scena ios wi h in e en ions based
on s uden e o s. The s udy p ima ily ocused on whe he he p ecise depic ion o possible
e o s could assis oca ional s uden s in a oiding hose mis akes. This led o ou di e en
s udy designs, each o which in es iga ed a sepa a e in e en ion. Case one ound ha he
in e en ion g oup had highe es sco es o analyzing e o s compa ed o he con ol g oup
in p ac ical exe cises. Case wo was conduc ed as a pilo s udy and ound ha he analysis
o a wo k-based ideo- eco ded p ac ice wi h a desc ip ion o possible e o s is a bene icial
ins uc ional s a egy. Case h ee showed ha he in e en ion g oup, which ocused on he
analysis o e o s, had be e a e age sco es in lis ening o co ec elemen s o consul a ion
p ocess and po en ial e o s han he con ol g oup. Case ou ound ha a nu sing s uden
and he u o s ag eed ha he ideo helped hem iden i y e o s ha hey would no ha e
ecognized in eal p ac ice. This led he u o s o change hei way o gi ing eedback om a
nonspeci ic, co ec i e o suppo i e eedback while he s uden became mo e accep ing o
eedback and inc eased he sel - egula ed e lec ion.
213
Mejeh, G iede
Table 5: S udy Resul s F om Ca aneo and Bold ini (2017)
S udy
ID S udy ocus Ou comes
1
Case 1 es -sco e
Tes sco e o p ac ical exe cise IG (M/SD)
13.8 (4.0)
CG (M/SD)
8.8 (5.0)
Case 2 quali a i e da a
W i en and o al quali a i e da a om
con e sa ions be ween eache s and
s uden s
The analysis o a wo k-based ideo- eco ded p ac ice wi h e o s is a
bene icial ins uc ional s a egy. The e o s, which ha e been pu on
pu pose in o he ideo, can be an ini ial s ep o he s uden s o a e
hei own e o s
Case 3 es -sco ea
Lis ing co ec elemen s o p ocedu e
and po en ial e o s
(134) = 5.1**
Case 4 quali a i e da a
Con en analysis The u o s changed hei way o gi ing eedback om a nonspeci ic,
co ec i e o suppo i e eedback. The nu se s uden became mo e
accep ing o eedback and o he e o s she made; s uden and u o s
said ha he ideo helped hem o see e o s which in eal p ac ice
would no ha e been ecognized
No e. *p < .05, **p < .01
aThe au ho s only epo ed his - es esul ; i emains unclea , whe e he da a o he in e en ion and con ol g oup was.
The s udy wi h ID 2 (Table 6) showed ha he way an ins uc ional design is planned ma e s.
The ocus was on oca ional s uden s' pe cep ion o hei lea ning en i onmen in ela ion
o hei mo i a ion and lea ning s a egies. Di e en lea ning en i onmen s had di e en
impac s on s uden s' use o SRL s a egies. S uden s' mo i a ion, which is in luenced by he
lea ning en i onmen and ice e sa, a ec ed he use o SRL s a egies he mos , mo e han
eache s' beha io and au onomy eeling o s uden s.
Table 6: S udy Resul s F om an G ins en and Tilemma (2006)
S udy
ID
S udy ocus S uden s in di e en
lea ning en i onmen
Au onomy Task alue Suppo i e
eache
beha iou
2
e ec s o lea ning
en i onmen a iables on
s uden s expe ience o
sel - egula ed lea ning
adi ional educa ion -1.4 1.5 -1.2
open lea ning cen e -1.5 -1.3 -.7
independen g oup wo k .8 .3 1
p ojec -o ien ed lea ning .2 -1.5 .1
p ojec -based lea ning .7 .8 1.3
No e. T ans o med be a weigh s o lea ning en i onmen s on he h ee aspec s o s uden s expe ience o sel - egula ed
lea ning.
The nex s udy ocused on he e ec i eness o a p oblem-based online lea ning en i onmen .
This s udy, wi h ID 3 (Table 7), showed ha a p oblem-based online lea ning en i onmen
214 P omo ing SRL in Voca ional Schools – A Sys ema ic Re iew
can be bene icial o s uden s when hey a e p o ided wi h necessa y in o ma ional esou -
ces, guidelines, a ool o collabo a e wi h hei colleagues, and when hey a e ge ing suppo
om hei eache . The s uden s go highe g ades o a pe i ion-w i ing ask a e hey expe-
ienced he p oblem-based online lea ning app oach and said in he ques ionnai e ha his
app oach helped hem become mo e con iden in w i ing a pe i ion.
The s udy wi h ID 4 ( able 7) p ima ily ocused on whe he a web media ed SRL and
collabo a i e lea ning cou se had an e ec on oca ional s uden s' hough s ega ding SRL
and collabo a i e lea ning. This s udy showed ha he in e en ion, a web-media ed sel - e-
gula ed and collabo a i e lea ning cou se, was bene icial o he s uden s. All 64 s uden s said
ha he lea ning collabo a ion wi h o he s uden s was help ul o e y help ul o de eloping
hei compu ing skills. Almos 90% hough ha he SRL app oach helped hem de elop a
egula lea ning beha io , and almos all s uden s concluded ha he web-media ed sel -
egula ed and collabo a i e lea ning cou se was a be e o much be e lea ning expe ience
compa ed o adi ional cou ses hey ook.
Table 7: S udy Resul s F om Gunduz e al. (2016) and Tsai (2011)
S udy ID S udy ocus Sco es gi en by he
eache
Indi idual deg ee how
much s uden s lea ned
Indi idual deg ee how
con iden he s uden s
el w i ing a pe i ion
3e ec i eness o a p oblem-based
online lea ning en i onmen
high: 78.1%
in e media e: 19.8%
low: 2.1%
e y well: 35.7%
enough: 58.6%
poo : 5.7%
yes: 91.5%
weak: 5.1%
no: 3.4%
4
e ec i eness o a web-media ed
sel - egula ed lea ning and
collabo a i e lea ning cou se
e y help ul: 56.3%
help ul: 43.8%
no e y help ul: 0.0%
did no use hem: 0.0%
e y help ul: 48.4%
help ul: 40.6%
no e y help ul: 9.4%
did no use hem: 1.6%
much be e : 35.9%
be e : 60.9%
wo se: 3.1%
much wo se: 0.0%
No e. Dis ibu ion o s uden s' esponses in pe cen
The p ima y ocus o he nex s udy was whe he a ecip ocal eaching p ocedu e o a me acogni-
i e comp ehension me hod was e ec i e. This s udy, wi h ID 5 ( able 8), showed ha wo in e -
en ion g oups, he ecip ocal eaching g oup, and he whole-class ins uc ion g oup, pe o med
signi ican ly be e in he main enance phase han he con ol g oup, which pa icipa ed in no -
mal cou se- ela ed ac i i ies. Howe e , i e weeks a e he in e en ion, no signi ican di e ences
in he comp ehension measu e we e ound be ween he di e en g oups. The ecip ocal eaching
g oup could no be a o ed compa ed o he con en ional whole-class ins uc ion g oup. In he
pos -in e en ion measu emen , he con en ional whole-class ins uc ion g oup showed e en
s a is ically signi ican be e esul s in he Coope a i e English Tes han he con ol g oup.
Ano he s udy ocused on he e ec s o web-enabled p oblem-based lea ning and SRL on
low-achie ing oca ional s uden s' compu ing skills. This s udy, wi h ID 6 ( able 8), showed
inc eased compu ing es sco es o he in e en ion g oup in he long- e m (measu e was 36
mon hs pos -in e en ion). The in e en ion in ol ed a web-based p oblem-based lea ning
215
Mejeh, G iede
and SRL en i onmen . The esul s we e s a is ically insigni ican . Compa ed o he in e en ion
g oup wo, which only ecei ed he p oblem-based lea ning app oach, he in e en ion g oup
pe o med wo se in he long- e m and had a simila compu ing skill es sco e ou mon hs pos -
in e en ion as he con ol g oup. The con ol g oup in pa icula was seen o be qui e ine ec i e,
a signi ican educ ion in es sco es was ound a 36 mon hs in compa ison o ou mon hs pos -
in e en ion.
The s udy wi h ID 7 ( able 8) had i s ocus on whe he SRL in on-si e wo kshops and wi h an
online lea ning communi y makes low o eign language achie e s become mo e au onomous
lea ne s. This s udy demons a ed ha he s uden s, who unde ook he wo kshop in SRL o
English o speci ic pu poses wi h an online lea ning communi y, de eloped au onomy and im-
p o ed hei English eading and lis ening skills. The esul s we e all s a is ically signi ican . The e
was no con ol g oup, howe e , which would ha e been a good compa a o o he e ec o he
in e en ion.
The nex s udy p ima ily ocused on whe he a cou se wi h web enabled SRL had an e ec
on oca ional s uden s' skills o applying unc ions o da abase managemen sys em. This s udy,
wi h ID 8 ( able 8), ound ha a cou se wi h web enabled SRL had a posi i e e ec on oca io-
nal s uden s' skills o applying unc ions o a da abase managemen sys em. The s uden s in he
in e en ion g oup wi h i e lessons o SRL and blended lea ning had highe a e age da abase
es sco es han hose in he g oup wi h en lessons o SRL o blended lea ning only. The s udy's
esul s suppo ed he hypo hesis ha a blended lea ning cou se wi h ewe online classes esul s
in be e lea ning e ec s and ha SRL has a highe e ec in a web-based lea ning en i onmen
han wi hou his ins uc ional me hod. The s udy also ound ha he in e en ion g oup wi h
ze o lessons o SRL had lowe a e age da abase es sco es han he in e en ion g oup wi h i e
lessons o SRL.
The nex s udy p ima ily ocused on which o ou di e en lea ning se ings we e e ec i e on
s uden s' in ol emen in lea ning. This s udy, wi h ID 9 ( able 8), showed ha he g oup which e-
cei ed an in e en ion o p oblem-based lea ning and SRL had a s a is ically signi ican inc ease
o hei pos -in e en ion in ol emen le el compa ed o hei p e-in e en ion in ol emen
le el.
The s udy wi h ID 10 ocused on whe he a class oom s uc u e in e en ion wi h "SRL-sup-
po i e s uc u es" would os e SRL. The esul s showed ha s uden s' disposi ions owa d plan-
ning, elabo a ion, and lea ning wi h ellow s uden s signi ican ly imp o ed in he in e en ion
g oup, e lec ing disposi ional change. Addi ionally, planning, epe i ion, moni o ing, egula ion,
and s uc u ing an app op ia e lea ning en i onmen demons a ed si ua ional de elopmen , e-
ealing a signi ican in e ac ion e ec be ween ime and he ea men .
The s udy wi h ID 11 was he i s o p o ide deepe insigh s in o he e ec s o coope a i e
open lea ning (COOL). S uden s in he COOL in e en ion demons a ed highe compe encies
in Accoun ancy compa ed o he con ol g oup, which a ended egula school lessons.
222 P omo ing SRL in Voca ional Schools – A Sys ema ic Re iew
Hadwin & Oshige, 2011; Jä elä e al., 2016) and socially sha ed me acogni i e egula ion
(De Backe e al., 2015; Iiskala e al., 2021; Vole e al., 2009).
Ano he impo an inding om he summa y o esul s was ha p omo ing SRL skills
was mo e o a means o an end, a he han he cen al ocus o he in e en ion s udies.
Al hough SRL was applied in a ious o ms, in mos o he s udies he emphasis was placed
on measu ing ou comes such as imp o ed es sco es, a he han p omo ing SRL s a egies.
Howe e , he in e en ion s udies did inco po a e key elemen s o SRL p omo ion, such as
p io i izing lea ne s as p oblem-sol e s, g an ing high le els o s uden pa icipa ion and
au onomy, u ilizing p ojec -based app oaches, and encou aging collabo a i e g oup wo k on
complex p oblems (Sembill e al., 2007).
While all s udies iden i ied concep s o p omo ing SRL in oca ional schools, he a -
ge g oup o he in e en ions emained mos ly unclea . The e was inconsis en epo ing o
pa icipan ages among he s udies, and in o ma ion on he comple e du a ion o oca ional
aining was o en missing. Gi en he demons a ed impo ance o pa icipan cha ac e is ics
in educa ional in e en ion s udies (S eed & K anski, 2020; Wong e al., 2015), his lack o
de ailed epo ing could limi he unde s anding o he in e en ions' e ec i eness.
Consequen ly, he indings o his s udy con i m he impo ance o dis inguishing be -
ween di ec and indi ec in e en ions o os e SRL in he class oom, a concep ho oughly
examined in o he educa ional con ex s (Digna h & Veenman, 2021). Resea ch has shown
ha bo h di ec and indi ec app oaches can be e ec i e in p omo ing SRL, bu he e ec-
i eness o each app oach may depend on he speci ic con ex and s uden popula ion. Fo
ins ance, di ec p omo ion may be mo e e ec i e o s uden s wi h limi ed p io expe ience
wi h SRL, while indi ec p omo ion may be mo e e ec i e o s uden s who ha e al eady
de eloped some SRL skills and a e mo i a ed o use hem (Digna h & Bü ne , 2018; Pe y
e al., 2020).
6.2 S udyQuali y
The quali y o e idence in s udies in es iga ing he p omo ion o SRL a ies widely, as de-
mons a ed by he analysis. The in e en ions showed posi i e e ec s, including imp o ed
es sco es and he de elopmen o key skills such as au onomy and compu a ional abili ies,
which a e c ucial o success ul SRL (Zimme man & Schunk, 2011). Howe e , he e we e
conce ns abou he a iabili y in ou come measu es and he di e ing e ec sizes ac oss he
11 s udies, which can be a ibu ed o he di e si y o s udy designs used. Fo example, he
quasi-expe imen al app oach o he non- andomized s udies was in e p e ed di e en ly
ac oss he pape s. A quasi-expe imen al design is commonly used in educa ional esea ch
when andomiza ion is no easible, bu i can lead o "nume ous in e p e a ion p oblems"
223
Mejeh, G iede
(G ibbons & He man, 1996, p. 2). Au ho s could ha e p o ided mo e cla i y on hei in e -
p e a ion o quasi-expe imen s when desc ibing hei me hodology.
In his e iew, a ious designs we e iden i ied, including pos -in e en ion measu emen
only, p e- and pos -in e en ion measu emen , and e en ollow-up measu emen . No ably,
six s udies did no include a con ol g oup, only in e en ion g oups, ye s ill discussed he
e ec i eness o he in e en ions. This is a limi a ion because a eliable compa ison, ypically
p o ided by a con ol g oup, was missing (P essley & Ha is, 1994).
Ano he challenge was he gene aliza ion o he e ec i eness o he in e en ions. As
Go edson e al. (2015) desc ibe, assessing e ec i eness ypically in ol es compa ing he
mean di e ence in he a ge a iable be ween he in e en ion and con ol g oups. To con-
clude ha an in e en ion is e ec i e, he in e en ion g oup should exhibi a s a is ically
signi ican di e ence in mean alues compa ed o he con ol g oup. Fo ins ance, igo ous
p e- and pos -in e en ion measu emen s a e necessa y o accu a ely assess whe he s u-
den s bene i om he in e en ion. The a ge a iable should be measu ed be o e and a e
he in e en ion in such cases o de e mine whe he i p oduced indi idual-le el di e ences
(Wal on & Wilson, 2018).
The quali y o e idence in he in e en ion s udies anged om low o mode a e, sugges-
ing ha he indings o indi idual s udies should be in e p e ed wi h cau ion. The a ia ion
in s udy design and me hodological quali y makes i challenging o compa e s udies and
d aw de ini i e conclusions.
7 Implica ions,Fu u eResea chandLimi a ions
F om he analysis o he di e en in e en ion s udies on he p omo ion o SRL in oca ional
schools, se e al implica ions can be de i ed.
Fi s ly, a combina ion o di ec and indi ec app oaches o p omo ing SRL has been ound
o be mos e ec i e in maximizing he po en ial bene i s o in e en ions (Schus e e al.,
2020, 2023). Fu u e in e en ions in oca ional schools should he e o e inco po a e bo h
di ec and indi ec p omo ion o SRL. Howe e , his app oach may also p esen challenges
ha need o be ca e ully conside ed. The key challenge lies in inding he igh balance be -
ween di ec and indi ec p omo ion o a pa icula s uden g oup, as he e ec i eness can
a y based on con ex and he cha ac e is ics o he s uden popula ion.
When analyzing he esul s o in e en ion s udies, i is c i ical o conside he in e ac ion
be ween s uden ap i udes and he ea men s p o ided. The e ec i eness o an in e en ion
is belie ed o be in luenced by he i be ween a s uden 's abili ies and he in e en ion hey
ecei e (C onbach & Snow, 1977; Yeh, 2012). Based on hei unique ap i udes, some s uden s
may espond mo e posi i ely o an in e en ion (Snow, 1992). This sugges s ha he impac
o an in e en ion may no be uni o m ac oss all s uden s. Fu he esea ch is needed o
224 P omo ing SRL in Voca ional Schools – A Sys ema ic Re iew
explo e whe he he e a e consis en di e ences in s uden s' ap i udes ha a ec he success
o he in e en ion.
Secondly, bo h di ec and indi ec p omo ion o SRL a e esou ce-demanding and ime-
consuming, as hey equi e he de elopmen o mul iple in e en ion componen s, such as
ins uc ional ma e ials, aining p og ams, and assessmen ools. To add ess his challenge,
i may be bene icial o co-c ea e he in e en ions wi h s akeholde s, such as s uden s and
eache s, using design-based esea ch o co-design me hods (McKenney & Ree es, 2013;
Penuel e al., 2022; Roschelle & Penuel, 2006).
Thi dly, he o e all quali y o he s udies was ela i ely low. While he ou come
measu emen s we e gene ally assumed o be alid, he e may ha e been oom o imp o emen
in he s a is ical analyses. This issue highligh s a b oade p oblem in educa ional in e en ion
esea ch: A lack o epo ed in o ma ion and anspa ency in he use o s a is ical me hods.
As a esul , i becomes challenging o gene a e eliable and gene alizable me a-analy ic e-
sul s ha can be applied o educa ional p ac ice, pa icula ly in esea ch on SRL (Co nelius-
Whi e, 2007; Den & Koenka, 2016; Digna h & Bü ne , 2008; Digna h & Veenman, 2021;
Jansen e al., 2019; Panade o, 2017; Si zman & Ely, 2011). In u u e s udies, i is c ucial o
p io i ize p o iding all necessa y in o ma ion o ho ough in es iga ion and o use app op-
ia e s a is ical p ocedu es. Mo eo e , since he quali y o me a-analy ic da a depends on he
p ac ices in p ima y esea ch, p ima y esea che s should be e en mo e diligen in epo ing
hei esea ch design, me hodology, and s a is ical analyses wi h ho oughness and ca e (Ahn
e al., 2012). P e egis e ed s udies could be one po en ial solu ion o add ess his issue (An-
de son e al., 2019; Gehlbach & Robinson, 2018).
The indings should be conside ed by aking in o accoun some limi a ions o he s udy.
Fi s , only a ew s udies we e iden i ied ha could be included in he analysis. This li-
mi a ion may be a ibu ed, on he one hand, o he exclusion o g ay li e a u e om he
analysis. On he o he hand, he di e si y o VET sys ems wo ldwide (Cede op, 2021; Pilz,
2016; Valien e & Scandu a, 2017) migh ha e esul ed in SRL being p omo ed in di e en
ways, making i di icul o iden i y consis en pa e ns. Ano he limi a ion o his s udy is
he exclusi e ocus on English-language publica ions, which may ha e led o he exclusion o
p og ams and in e en ions aimed a p omo ing SRL ha we e de eloped, implemen ed, and
es ed in o he na ional languages. Consequen ly, aluable insigh s om s udies conduc ed in
di e en language egions migh no ha e been cap u ed in ou analysis.
Secondly, a me a-analysis was no conduc ed a e da a syn hesis o wo main easons:
The p ede ined scope o he wo k and he lack o homogenei y among he s udies (Boland e
al., 2017). The di e se ou comes and in e en ion p og ams made meaning ul compa isons
impossible, as oca ional s uden s we e exposed o di e en in e en ions o e a ying ime
pe iods.
225
Mejeh, G iede
8 Conclusion
Based on he a ailable esea ch, i appea s ha he p omo ion o SRL in VET has no been ex-
ensi ely explo ed by esea che s. The limi ed empi ical e idence and heo e ical amewo ks
sugges ha mo e esea ch is necessa y o be e unde s and and add ess his subjec . Fu he
esea ch could p o ide aluable insigh s and con ibu e o ad ancing bo h knowledge and
p ac ice in his a ea.
VET is in ended o equip and empowe young people wi h he knowledge and skills nee-
ded o lea n and wo k au onomously, p epa ing hem o employmen in oday's dynamically
changing wo ld (Pe sico e al., 2015). SRL in VET is c ucial o s uden s o ac i ely lea n om
p ac ical ask expe iences. Becoming a skilled p o essional is key o secu ing and sus aining
employabili y ac oss leng hening wo king li es, making he de elopmen o skill ul p o es-
sionals an essen ial socie al goal. VET aims o os e independen and sel -di ec ed lea ne s,
and SRL is a p omising skill o achie e his objec i e (De B uijn & Leeman, 2011; Jossbe ge
e al., 2010).
Acknowledgemen
This esea ch ecei ed no speci ic g an om any unding agency in he public, comme cial,
o no - o -p o i sec o s.
E hicsS a emen
This pape ully complies wi h he p inciples and guidelines o IJRVETs E hical S a emen o
publica ions. The conduc ed esea ch did no include human pa icipan s whe eas in o med
consen was no necessa y.
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