Delau e, Guillaume; de Lazza i, Giulia; Rinaldi, Gus a o
Wo king Pape
Wages in A ican public adminis a ions: Whe e do we
s and?
ILO Wo king Pape , No. 134
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
In e na ional Labou O ganiza ion (ILO), Gene a
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Delau e, Guillaume; de Lazza i, Giulia; Rinaldi, Gus a o (2025) : Wages in A ican
public adminis a ions: Whe e do we s and?, ILO Wo king Pape , No. 134, ISBN 978-92-2-041704-1,
In e na ional Labou O ganiza ion (ILO), Gene a,
h ps://doi.o g/10.54394/OJAG0131
This Ve sion is a ailable a :
h ps://hdl.handle.ne /10419/312866
S anda d-Nu zungsbedingungen:
Die Dokumen e au EconS o dü en zu eigenen wissenscha lichen
Zwecken und zum P i a geb auch gespeiche und kopie we den.
Sie dü en die Dokumen e nich ü ö en liche ode komme zielle
Zwecke e iel äl igen, ö en lich auss ellen, ö en lich zugänglich
machen, e eiben ode ande wei ig nu zen.
So e n die Ve asse die Dokumen e un e Open-Con en -Lizenzen
(insbesonde e CC-Lizenzen) zu Ve ügung ges ell haben soll en,
gel en abweichend on diesen Nu zungsbedingungen die in de do
genann en Lizenz gewäh en Nu zungs ech e.
Te ms o use:
Documen s in EconS o may be sa ed and copied o you pe sonal
and schola ly pu poses.
You a e no o copy documen s o public o comme cial pu poses, o
exhibi he documen s publicly, o make hem publicly a ailable on he
in e ne , o o dis ibu e o o he wise use he documen s in public.
I he documen s ha e been made a ailable unde an Open Con en
Licence (especially C ea i e Commons Licences), you may exe cise
u he usage igh s as speci ied in he indica ed licence.
h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/
XWages in A ican public
adminis a ions: Whe e do we s and?
Au ho s / Guillaume Delau e, Giulia De Lazza i , Gus a o Rinaldi
Janua y / 2025
ILO Wo king Pape 134
Copy igh © In e na ional Labou O ganiza ion 2025
This is an open access wo k dis ibu ed unde he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion 4.0 In e na ional
License (h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/). Use s can euse, sha e, adap and build
upon he o iginal wo k, as de ailed in he License. The ILO mus be clea ly c edi ed as he own-
e o he o iginal wo k. The use o he emblem o he ILO is no pe mi ed in connec ion wi h
use s’ wo k.
A ibu ion – The wo k mus be ci ed as ollows: Delau e, G., De Lazza i , G., Rinaldi, G. Wages in
A ican public adminis a ions: Whe e do we s and? . ILO Wo king Pape 134. Gene a: In e na ional
Labou O ice, 2025.
T ansla ions – In case o a ansla ion o his wo k, he ollowing disclaime mus be added along
wi h he a ibu ion: This ansla ion was no c ea ed by he In e na ional Labou O ganiza ion (ILO)
and should no be conside ed an o icial ILO ansla ion. The ILO is no esponsible o he con en o
accu acy o his ansla ion.
Adap a ions – In case o an adap a ion o his wo k, he ollowing disclaime mus be added
along wi h he a ibu ion: This is an adap a ion o an o iginal wo k by he In e na ional Labou
O ganiza ion (ILO). Responsibili y o he iews and opinions exp essed in he adap a ion es s solely
wi h he au ho o au ho s o he adap a ion and a e no endo sed by he ILO.
This CC license does no apply o non-ILO copy igh ma e ials included in his publica ion. I he
ma e ial is a ibu ed o a hi d pa y, he use o such ma e ial is solely esponsible o clea ing
he igh s wi h he igh holde .
Any dispu e a ising unde his license ha canno be se led amicably shall be e e ed o a bi a-
ion in acco dance wi h he A bi a ion Rules o he Uni ed Na ions Commission on In e na ional
T ade Law (UNCITRAL). The pa ies shall be bound by any a bi a ion awa d ende ed as a esul
o such a bi a ion as he inal adjudica ion o such a dispu e.
All que ies on igh s and licensing should be add essed o he ILO Publishing Uni (Righ s and
Licensing), 1211 Gene a 22, Swi ze land, o by email o [email p o ec ed]g.
ISBN 9789220417034 (p in ), ISBN 9789220417041 (web PDF), ISBN 9789220417058 (epub), ISBN
9789220417065 (h ml). ISSN 2708-3438 (p in ), ISSN 2708-3446 (digi al)
h ps://doi.o g/10.54394/OJAG0131
The designa ions employed in ILO publica ions, which a e in con o mi y wi h Uni ed Na ions
p ac ice, and he p esen a ion o ma e ial he ein do no imply he exp ession o any opinion
wha soe e on he pa o he ILO conce ning he legal s a us o any coun y, a ea o e i o y
o o i s au ho i ies, o conce ning he delimi a ion o i s on ie s.
The esponsibili y o opinions exp essed in signed a icles, s udies and o he con ibu ions es s
solely wi h hei au ho s, and publica ion does no cons i u e an endo semen by he ILO o he
opinions exp essed in hem.
Re e ence o names o i ms and comme cial p oduc s and p ocesses does no imply hei en-
do semen by he ILO, and any ailu e o men ion a pa icula i m, comme cial p oduc o p o-
cess is no a sign o disapp o al.
In o ma ion on ILO publica ions and digi al p oduc s can be ound a : www.ilo.o g/ esea ch-
and-publica ions
ILO Wo king Pape s summa ize he esul s o ILO esea ch in p og ess, and seek o s imula e
discussion o a ange o issues ela ed o he wo ld o wo k. Commen s on his ILO Wo king Pape
a e welcome and can be sen o [email p o ec ed]g.
Au ho iza ion o publica ion: Ma caden , Philippe
ILO Wo king Pape s can be ound a : www.ilo.o g/global/publica ions/wo king-pape s
Sugges ed ci a ion:
Delau e, G., De Lazza i , G., Rinaldi, G. 2025. Wages in A ican public adminis a ions: Whe e do
we s and? , ILO Wo king Pape 134 (Gene a, ILO). h ps://doi.o g/10.54394/OJAG0131
01 ILO Wo king Pape 134
Abs ac
By playing a key ole in he p o ision o c i ical se ices, such as heal h, educa ion o secu i y,
go e nmen s a e c ucial o he good unc ioning o socie ies and social jus ice. Go e nmen s
ha e a dual ole o play as employe s and as he ac o esponsible o he good managemen
o he economy. This documen aims o p o ide a syn he ic pic u e o he si ua ion o he wag-
es o A ican public adminis a ion employees, based on he la es da a a ailable, and o discuss
some o he cu en challenges o public-sec o wage policies in A ica.
Abou he au ho s
Guillaume Delau e (MSc in Economics) joined he ILO in 2015 and was Technical Specialis on
wages and social dialogue a he ILO Coun y O ice in Cai o, Egyp , when his s udy was un-
de aken. In Oc obe 2024, he e u ned o headqua e s a Gene a as a manage o he p o-
jec “Se ing adequa e wages: Ag icul u e”. He p e iously wo ked o he ILO’s Depa men o
Resea ch (RESEARCH) and i s Depa men o Employmen Policy, Job C ea ion and Li elihoods
(EMPLOYMENT), and s a ed his ca ee in he F ench public adminis a ion.
Giulia De Lazza i (PhD in Economics and Finance) joined he ILO in Gene a in 2022 as an Economis
in he Wage Team o he Inclusi e Labou Ma ke s, Labou Rela ions and Wo king Condi ions
B anch (INWORK). She specializes in p o iding echnical assis ance o ILO cons i uen s on ma e s
ela ed o wages and minimum wages. She is among he au ho s o he Global Wage Repo , he
ILO lagship publica ion on wages issued e e y wo yea s. She p e iously wo ked as a S a is ician
om 2018 o 2022 o he In e na ional Ci il Se ice Commission o he Uni ed Na ions in New Yo k.
Gus a o Rinaldi (PhD in Economics) is Con ac P o esso o Economics a he Uni e si y o Tu in
and an ILO consul an . He has published on mic oeconomics, he in o mal economy, business e-
silience and he economics o alcohol, and is he au ho o Economics o Policy Make s: A Guide
o Non-Economis s (Rou ledge and ITCILO, 2019).
02 ILO Wo king Pape 134
Abs ac 01
Abou he au ho s 01
Execu i e Summa y 05
XIn oduc ion 07
X1 Employmen and wages in A ican public adminis a ions 08
How a e wages and employmen egula ed in A ican public adminis a ions? 08
The S a e is one o he main employe s in A ican coun ies 09
A ican public employees ecei e highe wages han o he wage-ea ne s 12
Public wages a e also less unequal 13
Explaining wage p emiums in public adminis a ions 17
X2 The challenges o A ican public adminis a ions and hei implica ions
o public wage policies 22
Many A ican coun ies a e acing impo an public budge cons ain s 22
Lack o e idence conce ning he impac o pe o mance- ela ed pay in A ican public admin-
is a ions 25
XConclusion 27
Annex 29
Re e ences 31
Acknowledgemen s 34
Table o con en s
03 ILO Wo king Pape 134
Lis o Figu es
Figu e 1 - Sha e o wo ke s employed in public adminis a ion in o al employmen , by gen-
de (la es yea a ailable) 10
Figu e 2 - Sha e o employees in public adminis a ion in all wage wo ke s, by gende , in % 11
Figu e 3 - Public adminis a ion employees as a sha e o o mal wage employmen , in % 11
Figu e 4 - A e age numbe o hou s wo ked in a week by ull- ime public adminis a ion em-
ployees and wage wo ke s employed elsewhe e 12
Figu e 5 - Pe cen age di e ence in hou ly wage be ween public adminis a ion and all o he
employees 13
Figu e 6 – D1/D9 a io o public adminis a ion and p i a e-sec o employees 14
Figu e 7 - Pe cen age di e ence in hou ly wages o men and women in public adminis a-
ion and he p i a e sec o (gende wage gap) 16
Figu e 8 - Le el o educa ion, by sec o : Senegal, Bu kina Faso, Namibia; Egyp , Malawi,
Democ a ic Republic o he Congo 18
Figu e 9 - G oss cen al go e nmen deb , 2000–2024 (agg ega e sha e o GDP, pe cen age) 23
Figu e 10 – Public expendi u e on public-sec o compensa ion as a pe cen age o GDP (le -
hand g aph) and o al public expendi u e ( igh -hand g aph) 24
Figu e 4 bis - S anda d de ia ion o he numbe o hou s wo ked in a week, by ull- ime pub-
lic adminis a ion employees and wage wo ke s employed elsewhe e 30
Figu e 5 bis - Pe cen age di e ence in hou ly median wage be ween public adminis a ion
employees and all o he employees 30
04 ILO Wo king Pape 134
Lis o Tables
Table 1 - Ra i ica ions o Con en ion No. 151 by A ican coun ies 09
Table 2 - Wage inequali y among public adminis a ion employees e sus wage inequali y
among wo ke s employed elsewhe e 15
Table 3 - Pe cen age di e ence in hou ly wages o employees in he public and p i a e sec-
o s, by gende 20
Table 4 - Pe cen age di e ence in hou ly wages o employees in he public and p i a e sec-
o s, by gende , conside ing only o mal employmen 21
Table 1 bis –Yea o collec ion o labou o ce su ey in each coun y 29
05 ILO Wo king Pape 134
Execu i e Summa y
This pape p o ides a syn he ic pic u e o he si ua ion o A ican public adminis a ion employ-
ees, based on a selec ed numbe o coun ies, and discusses some o he challenges ha a e
cu en ly in luencing public-sec o employmen and wages.
Wage-se ing p ac ices in he public adminis a ion a y ac oss coun ies, bu ci il se an s a e
gene ally excluded, in whole o in pa , om uni e sal labou legisla ion. Also, wages and em-
ploymen in he public sec o a e d i en by di e en ac o s han hose in he p i a e sec o , as
he S a e aces di e en cons ain s in p o iding hem. I mus ec ui and e ain mo i a ed and
compe en public-sec o employees in a si ua ion in which he demands o public in e en-
ions a e e ol ing, while keeping he le el o public expendi u e sus ainable and no imposing
addi ional dis o ions on he unc ioning o he economy. His o ically, wo main ypes o g ad-
ing sys ems can be ound in A ica and we e inhe i ed om he o me colonial powe s: a mo e
posi ion-based sys em, in which indi iduals apply di ec ly o speci ic posi ions (usually open o
bo h in e nal and ex e nal candida es); and a ca ee -based sys em, in which compe i ion ends
o happen ea lie in he ca ee and mos posi ions a e only open o ci il se an s o ganized in
p o essions. Howe e , in bo h sys ems, wi h some nuances, jobs a e g ouped in o g ades based
on job equi emen s, educa ion o o he manda o y quali ica ions.
As in o he de eloping economies, he public sec o in A ica is o en he la ges employe and
he dominan sou ce o o mal wage employmen . In mos coun ies o which da a ais a ailable,
he p opo ion o public adminis a ion employees in o al wage employmen is abo e 20 pe
cen . The e a e e y la ge a ia ions om coun y o coun y, howe e , which e lec ce ain di e -
ences in he concep ion o he ole o he S a e, he le el o de elopmen and he iscal capaci y.
In line wi h p e ious s udies, his epo highligh s ha A ican public-sec o employees gene ally
ecei e highe wages han o he wage-ea ne s. The size o he p emium, howe e , a ies consid-
e ably om one coun y o ano he . Public-sec o wages also end o ha e a mo e homogeneous
dis ibu ion han p i a e-sec o wages, al hough he sp ead may be e y a iable om coun y
o coun y, especially due o highe inequali ies in he uppe ail o he wage dis ibu ion. Once
con olled by he labou ma ke and indi idual cha ac e is ics, he p emium be ween he public
and p i a e sec o s ends o dec ease bu emains signi ican in mos coun ies. Howe e , in e -
es ingly, i he analysis is es ic ed o o mal employmen only, he wage p emium o public ad-
minis a ion employees is once again educed and e en becomes nega i e in ce ain coun ies.
In ecen decades, A ican ci il se ices ha e aced a numbe o se ies o public-sec o e o ms
ha ha e in luenced wage-se ing. Those e o ms ha e mainly aimed o ensu e be e con ol
o public expendi u es and some o hem ha e also aimed o be e ewa d he pe o mance
and quali y o se ices.
In many coun ies, he public-sec o wage bill al eady ep esen s a subs an ial sha e o he go -
e nmen ’s expendi u e. In he con ex o inc easing indeb edness, he public-sec o wage bill is
pa icula ly sc u inized by in e na ional dono s. Also, condi ions on public-sec o e o ms ha e
o en been a ached o loans in he pas . Expe ience shows, howe e , ha in o de o be e ec i e
o e he long e m, hose e o ms mus be s uc u al, consensus-based and ca ied ou in expan-
siona y pe iods (IMF 2023a). Gi en he inc easing and e e mo e complex demand o s a e in-
e en ion in eme ging economies and leas de eloped coun ies, i is o p ime impo ance ha
A ican go e nmen s imp o e hei capaci ies in e ms o iscal planning, employmen and skills
12 ILO Wo king Pape 134
A ican public employees ecei e highe wages han o he
wage-ea ne s
Ha ing in es iga ed he p e alence o public-sec o employmen , his sec ion analyses he wages
o public adminis a ion employees in A ica and mo e speci ically in es iga es whe he sys em-
a ic wage gaps exis be ween hem and p i a e-sec o employees.5 The a iable used o meas-
u e ea nings is he hou ly wage, which is calcula ed by i s ans o ming mon hly ea nings in o
weekly ea nings and hen di iding by he numbe o hou s wo ked in he p e ious week, as e-
po ed by he esponden . Mon hly ea nings a e de i ed om sel - epo ed igu es. Using hou ly
wages a he han mon hly wages has he ad an age o emo ing any ea nings di e en ial ha
is due o he po en ially di e en numbe o hou s wo ked by indi iduals in he p i a e and pub-
lic sec o s. This is an a ac o wo h conside ing because, as shown in igu e 4, which epo s he
a e age numbe o hou s wo ked by ull- ime wage wo ke s employed in public adminis a ion
and elsewhe e, public-sec o employees wo k ewe hou s a week in all coun ies conside ed.
The analysis also indica es ha no only do wo ke s employed in public adminis a ion wo k
ewe hou s on a e age han wo ke s employed elsewhe e bu also hei wo king hou s end
o be mo e e enly dis ibu ed han in he p i a e sec o , as indica ed by he lowe s anda d de-
ia ion in he numbe o hou s wo ked depic ed in igu e 4bis in he (see appendix, igu e 4bis).
XFigu e 4 - A e age numbe o hou s wo ked in a week by ull- ime public adminis a ion employees and
wage wo ke s employed elsewhe e
Sou ce: ILO es ima es
Fo each o he coun ies analysed, igu e 5 epo s he a e age hou ly ea nings di e en ials be-
ween employees in he public and p i a e sec o s, exp essed as he p opo ion by which he a -
e age wage o public-sec o employees su passes he a e age wage o p i a e-sec o employees.
A posi i e numbe indica es highe ea nings o employees in he public sec o , while a nega i e
5Fo his compa ison, only employees in he p i a e sec o a e conside ed and own-accoun and amily wo ke s a e no included.
13 ILO Wo king Pape 134
igu e indica es highe ea nings o employees in he p i a e sec o . In all bu one A ican coun-
y, he Democ a ic Republic o he Congo, public adminis a ion employees a e paid hou ly a es
ha a e on a e age abo e hose paid in he p i a e sec o . The coun y wi h he highes wage
p emium is Senegal, whe e he a e age hou ly sala y o a public adminis a ion employee is al-
mos h ee imes ha o a p i a e-sec o employee, while he coun y wi h he lowes p emium
is Malawi, whe e hey ea n an hou ly sala y ha is on a e age 34 pe cen highe han ha o
hei p i a e-sec o coun e pa s. In he Democ a ic Republic o he Congo, he only coun y ana-
lysed wi h an ea nings di e en ial ha a ou s he p i a e sec o , public adminis a ion employ-
ees ea n an hou ly wage ha is on a e age only 85 pe cen o wha is paid in he p i a e sec o .
Figu e 5 also epo s he ea nings di e en ial be ween he public and p i a e sec o s sepa a ely
by gende . In 16 o 22 coun ies, i is la ge o women han o men. I is no able ha o wom-
en, employmen in he public sec o is always associa ed wi h a highe wage p emium. The la g-
e ela i e p emium enjoyed by women in he public sec o compa ed o men may be d i en
by highe sala ies o women in public posi ions o by ela i ely lowe sala ies o women in he
p i a e sec o , o by a combina ion o he wo. While he e idence o lowe wages o women
in he p i a e sec o is a well-documen ed phenomenon in he li e a u e ha is commonly e-
e ed o as he “gende pay gap”, e idence in suppo o highe wages o women in he public
sec o is less clea .
XFigu e 5 - Pe cen age di e ence in hou ly wage be ween public adminis a ion and all o he employees
Sou ce: ILO es ima es
Public wages a e also less unequal
When compa ing he median wages o public-sec o and p i a e-sec o employees ins ead o
hei a e age wages, he esul s a e simila , bu he wage p emium associa ed wi h public admin-
is a ion employmen is in almos all cases la ge (see appendix, igu e 5bis). This is an indica ion
14 ILO Wo king Pape 134
ha he a e age wage o p i a e-sec o employees ends o be a ec ed by ou lie s mo e han
he a e age wage o public-sec o employees, which sugges s an o e all wage dis ibu ion ha
is less equally dis ibu ed among he la e han he o me . Figu e 6, which epo s o each o
he coun ies analysed he D9/D1 a io in public adminis a ion and he p i a e sec o , suppo s
his hypo hesis. The D9/D1 a io is a measu e o inequali y ha is calcula ed by aking he a-
io be ween he h eshold alue ha ma ks he uppe end o he nin h decile and he h eshold
alue ha ma ks he uppe end o he i s decile. The highe he igu e, he highe he le el o
inequali y in he dis ibu ion. om igu e 6, i is e iden ha in a la ge majo i y o coun ies, he
o ange ma ks, which ep esen inequali ies in he p i a e sec o , a e la ge han he blue ba s,
indica ing a mo e homogeneous dis ibu ion o wages among public adminis a ion employ-
ees. In e es ingly, i also seems ha he D9/D1 a io among public adminis a ion employees is
e y a iable om one coun y o ano he . In Egyp , i is below 3, meaning ha he nin h decile
is paid on a e age h ee imes he sala y o he i s decile, while in Bo swana his a io is much
mo e unequal, a abou 18.
XFigu e 6 – D1/D9 a io o public adminis a ion and p i a e-sec o employees
Sou ce: ILO es ima es
Table 2 looks a some addi ional aspec s o he dis ibu ion o wages o he wo popula ions con-
side ed, in pa icula whe he he wages o employees in public adminis a ion a e mo e o less
dispe sed han hose o p i a e-sec o employees. In addi ion o he D9/D1 a io al eady epo ed
in igu e 6, able 2 applies wo addi ional measu es o u he in es iga e whe he he dispe sion
is mo e p onounced a he uppe o lowe end o he wage dis ibu ion, he D5/D1 and he D9/
D5. These indica o s measu e he a io be ween he median wage and ha o he bo om de-
cile and he a io be ween he wage o he op decile and ha o he median wage, espec i ely.
In all cases in which wages a e mo e dispe sed among public adminis a ion employees (high-
ligh ed in bold in able 2), his is due o inequali ies in he uppe ail o he wage dis ibu ion (as
measu ed by he D9/D5 a io), meaning ha he highe dispe sion is d i en by highe wages
15 ILO Wo king Pape 134
among op ea ne s in he public adminis a ion a he han lowe wages o he bo om ea n-
e s. On he con a y, when wages a e mo e dispe sed in he p i a e sec o , his is d i en by high
le els o inequali y in he bo om hal o he wage dis ibu ion o employees in he p i a e sec o
(as indica ed by he alues o he D5/D1 a io, which a e usually abo e he co esponding alues
o he public sec o and abo e he alues o he D9/D5 measu e o bo h he public and p i a e
sec o s). When we look a he D5/D1 a io, we may obse e ha he dispe sion o wages among
public adminis a ion employees is in all cases lowe o e y close o he dispe sion o wages
among p i a e-sec o employees. This indica es ha wages in he bo om deciles a e close o
he median wage in public adminis a ion han o employees wo king elsewhe e.
XTable 2 - Wage inequali y among public adminis a ion employees e sus wage inequali y among wo ke s
employed elsewhe e
D9/D1 D5/D1 D9/D5
Public P i a e Public P i a e Public P i a e
Angola 8.29 12.48 2.16 4.99 3.83 2.50
Bo swana 17.86 13.23 2.50 6.67 7.14 1.98
Bu kina Faso 8.56 11.09 2.19 3.97 3.90 2.80
Came oon 10.54 8.96 3.06 3.14 3.44 2.86
Chad 8.67 15.23 2.74 4.18 3.16 3.64
Cô e d'I oi e 7.47 10.50 2.77 3.85 2.70 2.73
Democ a ic Republic
o he Congo 7.83 14.52 2.75 4.00 2.85 3.63
Egyp 2.82 3.05 1.83 1.83 1.54 1.67
Eswa ini 8.51 13.12 1.77 5.55 4.80 2.36
E hiopia 6.67 11.75 2.31 3.46 2.89 3.39
Ghana 11.67 16.67 3.26 4.95 3.58 3.37
Guinea-Bissau 7.40 6.05 2.98 2.82 2.48 2.15
Kenya 5.15 9.12 2.09 4.17 2.46 2.19
Madagasca 11.25 9.95 2.97 2.65 3.79 3.76
Malawi 6.46 20.87 2.10 4.59 3.08 4.55
Mali 4.20 10.83 1.83 2.59 2.30 4.19
Namibia 7.14 22.04 2.43 6.40 2.94 3.44
Nige ia 10.61 14.00 3.73 4.67 2.84 3.00
Congo 3.44 5.20 1.88 2.35 1.84 2.21
Senegal 7.06 6.35 2.03 2.67 3.47 2.38
Uni ed Republic o
Tanzania 9.32 20.53 3.00 5.50 3.11 3.73
Zambia 5.64 11.59 2.01 4.17 2.81 2.78
Sou ce: ILO es ima es
Figu e 7 looks a he gende pay gap, ha is, he pe cen age di e ence in he sala ies o men and
women in he public and p i a e sec o s. A nega i e numbe indica es highe sala ies o women,
while a posi i e numbe indica es highe sala ies o men. In 13 o he 22 coun ies conside ed,
he sala ies o men employed in public adminis a ion a e highe han hei emale coun e pa s,
16 ILO Wo king Pape 134
while in he emaining 9 coun ies he opposi e is ue. Mo eo e , when he gende pay gap a-
ou s men, he di e ence in sala y ends o be la ge . The gende pay gap is he e o e also a
p oblem ha a ec s public adminis a ion. Howe e , as expec ed, he gende wage gap ends
o be la ge in he p i a e sec o and he wage di e en ial a ou s men in mos cases. The ew
cases o nega i e gende pay gaps may be due o composi ion e ec s, which happen, o exam-
ple, when highly educa ed women a e o e ep esen ed.
XFigu e 7 - Pe cen age di e ence in hou ly wages o men and women in public adminis a ion and he p i-
a e sec o (gende wage gap)
Sou ce: ILO es ima es
The analysis indica es ha when he wage p emium associa ed wi h employmen in he public
sec o is highe o women han o men (see igu e 5), his is d i en by poo wage ou comes o
women in p i a e-sec o employmen compa ed o men a he han by ma kedly highe wages
o women in he public sec o . Fo ins ance, he la ge p emium associa ed wi h public-sec o
employmen o women in Zambia de i es om he ac ha he hou ly wage in public admin-
is a ion is 30.5 ZMW compa ed o he 12.1 ZMW paid in he p i a e sec o . Al hough men ea n
a smalle public adminis a ion p emium, wage le els o men a e abo e hose o women (36.9
ZMW and 20.8 ZMW, espec i ely) in bo h public adminis a ion and he p i a e sec o . Coun ies
in which he public adminis a ion wage p emium is la ge o men han o women end o ha e
posi i e and ela i ely signi ican gende pay gaps in he p i a e sec o as well.
This sho pape and he da a a ailable do no allow us o conside he de ails o public wage dy-
namics o e he medium o long e ms. Howe e , i should be emembe ed ha many A ican
coun ies ha e expe ienced a su ge in in la ion o le els unseen in decades due o he consequenc-
es o he co ona i us disease (COVID-19) pandemic and subsequen ly he Russian Fede a ion's
agg ession agains Uk aine. Based on he IMF’s assessmen , in la ion in A ica s ood a 18.2 pe
cen in 2023, up om 14.2 pe cen in 2022 (IMF 2024). In ou sample o coun ies, Angola, Malawi,
17 ILO Wo king Pape 134
E hiopia and Ghana expe ienced in la ion a es in excess o 20 pe cen in 2022. E en i he si -
ua ion s a ed o imp o e in a numbe o coun ies in 2023, se e al coun ies s ill expe ienced
ano he inc ease in hei consume p ice index, such as Egyp (24.4 pe cen ), Nige ia (33.9 pe
cen ), Malawi (30.3 pe cen ) and Ghana (37.5 pe cen ).
This is a majo issue o wage policies. High in la ion in he 1970s and 1980s se e ely e oded he
eal alue o public-sec o sala ies. Indeed, o cope wi h hei inancial obliga ions, he nominal
adjus men s made by go e nmen s o en did no ma ch in la ion a es. The highes -skilled em-
ployees ended o expe ience he sha pes decline in eal wages, as mos go e nmen s ook meas-
u es o p o ec low-paid employees. O e all, his e osion in eal wages led o many nega i e ou -
comes in e ms o educ ion o e o s, absen eeism, discipline and skills sho ages (Simson 2022).
Explaining wage p emiums in public adminis a ions
The summa y s a is ics epo ed o da e show only he a e age endencies o sala ies in he pub-
lic and p i a e sec o s. No indica ion is gi en on whe he highe (o lowe ) sala ies in he public
sec o a e jus i ied by he di e en cha ac e is ics o he wo k o ce employed o he ac i i ies
pe o med he ein. The issue o public-sec o wage p emiums has been widely discussed in he
li e a u e. Acco ding o mos au ho s, he sala ies in he public sec o a e o en highe han hose
in he p i a e sec o and his should be e en mo e he case in lowe -income coun ies (Gindling
e al. 2020; Finan, Olken and Panda 2015; Ke and Wi enbe g 2017; Wo ld Bank 2021; Abdallah,
Coady and Ji asa e akul 2023). Howe e , a he global le el, he p emium is gene ally highe o
less-quali ied wo ke s han o he mos quali ied wo ke s Wo ld Bank 2021). The e idence shows
ha in many coun ies, highly skilled wo ke s end o pay a penal y o wo king in he public
sec o and public wages ha e ended o be comp essed in ecen decades. Mo eo e , he pub-
lic-sec o wage p emium ends o disappea when compa ed wi h o mal p i a e employees only
(Gindling e al. 2020). The li e a u e is also con adic o y on he e olu ion o his wage p emium,
wi h some au ho s obse ing a g owing end (Ke and Wi enbe g 2017; Wo ld Bank 2021) and
o he s seeing i as diminishing (Tansel, Keskin and Ozdemi 2020) o mo ing coun e -cyclically
(Abdallah, Coady and Ji asa e akul 2023 ), depending on he coun y. Beyond he issue o he
public budge , he issue o he public-sec o wage p emium is also impo an because o he in-
luence o he go e nmen on he o e all unc ioning o he labou ma ke . I is indeed likely o
impac he ese a ion wage and lead o skills sho ages in he p i a e sec o in ce ain ci cum-
s ances (Abdallah, Coady and Ji asa e akul 2023).
Using educa ion as a p oxy o he le el o skills equi ed o pe o m a job, igu e 8 looks a he
le el o educa ion o indi iduals employed in public adminis a ion and he p i a e sec o in he
h ee coun ies wi h he highes public-sec o pay p emiums and he h ee coun ies wi h he
lowes p emiums (o a nega i e gap in he case o he Democ a ic Republic o he Congo). I is
e iden ha in all six coun ies, employees in he public sec o ha e a highe le el o educa ion
on a e age, as indica ed by he ac ha he blue ba s end o be highe owa ds he igh , im-
plying highe le els o educa ion, while he o ange ba s end o clus e a ound lowe le els o
educa ion. The g aphs also sugges ha he di e ence in he le el o educa ion be ween public
adminis a ion and p i a e-sec o employees is mo e p onounced in coun ies in which he e is
a highe p emium associa ed wi h wo king in he public sec o . This is especially e iden in he
case o Senegal and Bu kina Faso, he coun ies wi h he la ges gaps, in which less han 20 pe
cen o employees in he p i a e sec o ha e educa ion abo e he lowe -seconda y le el, in s a k
con as wi h employees in he public sec o , in which he p opo ion exceeds 50 pe cen in he
case o Senegal and exceeds 40 pe cen in he case o Bu kina Faso. Excep o Malawi, in which
public adminis a ion employees display a ema kably highe le el o educa ion, he coun ies
18 ILO Wo king Pape 134
wi h lowe (o nega i e) gaps a e cha ac e ized by le els o educa ion in he public and p i a e
sec o s ha a e mo e simila . These indings sugges ha he highe le els o sala ies in he pub-
lic sec o may be a leas pa ially jus i ied by highe le els o educa ion.
XFigu e 8 - Le el o educa ion, by sec o : Senegal, Bu kina Faso, Namibia; Egyp , Malawi, Democ a ic
Republic o he Congo
Sou ce: ILO es ima es
While he a e age sala y epo ed in he p e ious sec ion is a con enien indica o , as i is easily
in e p e ed and gi es an idea o he mid-poin in a sample, i has he disad an age o being a -
ec ed by ex eme alues and no gi ing any in o ma ion abou popula ion cha ac e is ics ha
migh jus i y di e en le els o wages. To u he in es iga e he exis ence o a public adminis-
a ion wage p emium, we an a se ies o eg essions ha aim o e i y whe he di e ences in
sala ies in public adminis a ion and he p i a e sec o a e s a is ically signi ican and pe sis a -
e join ly conside ing a se o occupa ional and pe sonal cha ac e is ics. Fo each coun y, he
eg ession is speci ied as ollows:
●male is a dummy a iable, aking alue 1 o male and 0 o emale;
●public is ou a iable o in e es and is a dummy ha akes alue 1 i an indi idual is employed
in he public adminis a ion and 0 i hey a e employed elsewhe e;
●pa _ ime is a dummy a iable, aking alue 1 i an indi idual is employed pa - ime and 0 i
hey a e employed ull- ime;6
6The h eshold used o dis inguish be ween pa - ime and ull- ime employmen is 31 hou s a week.
19 ILO Wo king Pape 134
● o mal is a dummy a iable, aking alue 1 i an indi idual has a o mal job and 0 i he job is
in o mal;7
●hou s_wo ked measu es he ac ual numbe o hou s wo ked in he main job du ing he week
p eceding he su ey;
●age measu es he age o he wo ke ;8
●indus y includes a se o dummies ha dis inguish economic ac i i ies based on hei
In e na ional S anda d Indus ial Classi ica ion o All Economic Ac i i ies, Re ision 4 (ISIC,
Re .4)) classi ica ion;
●
occupa ion includes a se o dummies ha iden i y he occupa ion based on he ILO’s In e na ional
S anda d Classi ica ion o Occupa ions (ISCO-08);9
● egion includes a se o dummies ha eco d he egion in which he employee wo ks;
●educa ion includes a se o dummies ha measu e he le el o educa ion, using he same ou
le els used in igu e 8.
The second column o able 3 epo s he pe cen age di e ence in public-sec o and p i a e-sec-
o wages, as es ima ed using he eg ession abo e, oge he wi h he le el o s a is ical signi -
icance. A posi i e numbe indica es a wage p emium in he public sec o . When looking a he
ea nings di e en ials in he public and p i a e sec o s in e ms o hou ly wages a e con olling
o wo ke s and occupa ional cha ac e is ics, a p emium is iden i ied in all coun ies excep he
Democ a ic Republic o he Congo, whe e employees in he public adminis a ion ea n on a e -
age 10 pe cen less han hei p i a e sec o coun e pa s. The magni ude o he p emium o
he emaining coun ies a ies om 82 pe cen in he Uni ed Republic o Tanzania o jus 3 pe
cen in Guinea-Bissau.
Gi en ha he summa y s a is ics p esen ed in igu e 5 poin ed o impo an di e ences in he
public adminis a ion wage p emium expe ienced by men and women, he p e ious eg ession
has been es ima ed again, adding an in e ac ion e m be ween gende and public adminis a-
ion employmen . The in oduc ion o his in e ac ion e m allows o a di e en gap o be es-
ima ed o men and women. The esul s a e epo ed in he hi d and ou h columns, which
show he es ima ed gap o women and men, espec i ely. Fo women, a s a is ically signi ican
p emium associa ed wi h public adminis a ion employmen is e iden o all coun ies excep
Malawi and Guinea-Bissau, o which he coe icien associa ed wi h public-sec o employmen
is posi i e bu no s a is ically signi ican , indica ing ha he e is no di e ence be ween he wag-
es ea ned by women employed in public adminis a ion and he p i a e sec o . The ex en o he
wage di e en ial o women anges om 116 pe cen in he Uni ed Republic o Tanzania o 17
pe cen in Bo swana.
Con i ming wha is al eady indica ed by summa y s a is ics, he wage gap be ween public-sec o
and p i a e-sec o employees o men is almos in a iably lowe han he wage gap o wom-
en, e en i he di e ence is no always s a is ically signi ican .10 The highes wage p emium o
men is in Namibia, a 66 pe cen . The Democ a ic Republic o he Congo and E hiopia a e he
only coun ies in which male employees in he public adminis a ion ea n lowe wages han hei
coun e pa s in he p i a e sec o wi h a le el o signi icance eaching a leas 0.05.
7The a iable is no a ailable in he case o Egyp , Nige ia and he Uni ed Republic o Tanzania and hence is no included in he eg es-
sion in hese coun ies.
8The analysis only conside s wo king-age indi iduals, ha is, indi iduals be ween 16 and 70.
9Six dummies a e included o he ca ego ies o CEO/manage , p o essional, echnical, semi-skilled, low-skilled and unskilled
10 The gende di e ence is s a is ically signi ican (a leas a he 0.1 le el) in Bu kina Faso, Malawi, he Congo, he Uni ed Republic o
Tanzania, E hiopia, Ghana, Nige ia, Chad, he Democ a ic Republic o he Congo, Came oon, Senegal and Egyp .
20 ILO Wo king Pape 134
XTable 3 - Pe cen age di e ence in hou ly wages o employees in he public and p i a e sec o s, by gende
Coun y
Wage di e en ial
OVERALL
Wage di e en ial
WOMEN
Wage di e en ial
MEN
Uni ed Republic o Tanzania 82% *** 116% *** 63% ***
Namibia 70% *** 73% *** 66% ***
Bu kina Faso 69% *** 102% *** 54% ***
Came oon 54% *** 79% *** 40% ***
Nige ia 54% *** 77% *** 42% ***
Kenya 51% *** 55% *** 49% ***
Zambia 46% *** 51% *** 43% ***
Eswa ini 42% *** 50% *** 36% ***
Ghana 41% *** 57% *** 32% ***
Senegal 41% *** 25% *** 48% ***
Cô e d’I oi e 40% *** 53% *** 35% ***
Chad 34% *** 84% *** 24% ***
Mali 25% *** 28% *** 25% ***
Congo 25% *** 18% *** 36% ***
Angola 23% *** 25% *** 22% ***
Madagasca 17% * 12% 22% **
Egyp 17% *** 41% *** 9% ***
Bo swana 14% *** 17% *** 10% *
E hiopia 5% *** 22% *** -4% **
Guinea-Bissau 3% 13% 0%
Malawi -2% 8% -6%
Democ a ic Republic o he
Congo -10% *** 2% -14% ***
Sou ce: ILO es ima es
No e: The pe cen age di e ence e e s o he es ima es ob ained in he eg ession speci ied in he p e ious pa ag aph. Mo e
speci ically: *** indica es an es ima e ha is signi ican a he 0.01 le el, ** indica es an es ima e ha is signi ican a he 0.05
le el and * indica es an es ima e ha is signi ican a he 0.1* le el.
Al hough he eg ession analysis con i ms he exis ence in mos A ican coun ies o a wage
p emium o public adminis a ion employees ha canno be explained by indi idual o occu-
pa ional cha ac e is ics, he magni ude o hose p emiums is smalle han wha is indica ed by
he simple a e ages epo ed in igu e 5. This indica es ha he di e ences among public-sec-
o and p i a e-sec o employees, in pa icula highe educa ional quali ica ions, pa ly accoun
o he highe sala ies paid in he public sec o .
In e es ingly, i we es ic ou analysis o o mal employmen only, he pic u e becomes sligh ly
di e en ( able 4). In gene al, he wage p emium o public adminis a ion employees is lowe
and e en becomes nega i e in some coun ies, such as Mali o he Congo, meaning ha in hose
coun ies public adminis a ion employees a e paid less han o mal employees o he p i a e
21 ILO Wo king Pape 134
sec o , all o he hings being equal.
11
This indica es ha pa o he wage p emium esul ing om
compa ing he a e age wages o employees in he public and p i a e sec o s is d i en by he
ac ha mo e public-sec o employees han p i a e-sec o employees a e in he o mal econo-
my, whe e wages a e highe on a e age. Once his di e en composi ion is ully accoun ed o ,
he wage p emium associa ed wi h public-sec o employmen dec eases. The p emium associ-
a ed wi h wo king in he public adminis a ion compa ed o he public sec o dec eases by 12
pe cen on a e age when he analysis is es ic ed o employees in he o mal economy only.
Un o una ely, i has no been possible o us o p o ide a compa ison wi h o mal p i a e-sec-
o employees in Egyp , bu in a p e ious s udy, Tansel, Keskin and Osdemi (2020) ound a pe -
sis en public-sec o wage penal y o males and a public-sec o wage p emium o emales (ex-
cep a he op o he dis ibu ion).
XTable 4 - Pe cen age di e ence in hou ly wages o employees in he public and p i a e sec o s, by gende ,
conside ing only o mal employmen
Coun y
Wage di e en ial
OVERALL
Wage di e en ial
WOMEN
Wage di e en ial
MEN
Namibia 56% *** 63% *** 48% ***
Bu kina Faso 76% *** 46% 91% ***
Came oon 63% *** 80% *** 54% ***
Kenya 45% *** 44% *** 46% ***
Zambia 27% *** 22% ** 31% ***
Eswa ini 40% *** 49% *** 32% ***
Ghana 51% *** 50% *** 52% ***
Senegal 17% *** -1% 24% ***
Cô e d’I oi e 29% *** 46% *** 23% ***
Chad -2% 19% -6%
Mali -25% *** -43% ** -20% *
Congo -23 % *** -15% -25% ***
Angola 11% * 5% 13% **
Madagasca 27% * 32% * 23%
Bo swana 0% *** 3% -4%
E hiopia 5% *** 13% *** 3%
Guinea-Bissau -7% 15% -13%
Malawi -8% -13% -6%
Democ a ic Republic o he
Congo -23% *** -32% *** -8%
Sou ce: ILO es ima es
11 These esul s need o be in e p e ed wi h cau ion, because in many coun ies he exclusion o in o mal employmen limi s he sam-
ple size and in he speci ic cases o Mali and he Congo, he numbe o wage employees wo king in he p i a e sec o in he o mal
economy is less han 100.
28 ILO Wo king Pape 134
such as eaching, heal hca e o e enue adminis a ion whe e he ou pu s and ou comes a e
easie o measu e. Fo mo e complex asks, howe e , he e emains a lack o e idence.
29 ILO Wo king Pape 134
Annex
XTable 1 bis –Yea o collec ion o labou o ce su ey in each coun y
Su ey Yea o collec ion
Angola
Inqué i o ao Emp ego em Angola
(Su ey o Employmen in Angola)
2021
Bo swana Mul i-Topic Household Su ey 2022
Bu kina Faso Enquê e Régionale In ég ée su l'Emploi e le Sec eu
In o mel 2018
Came oon Enquê e aup ès des Ménages 2014
Chad Enquê e Ha monisée su les Condi ions de Vie des
Ménages 2018
Cô e d’I oi e Enquê e na ionale su la si ua ion de l'emploi 2019
Democ a ic Republic o he Congo Enquê e 1-2-3 su l'Emploi e le Sec eu In o mel 2012
Egyp Labou Fo ce Sample Su ey 2021
Eswa ini Labou Fo ce Su ey 2021
E hiopia Na ional Labou Fo ce Su ey 2021
Ghana Labou Fo ce Su ey 2015
Guinea-Bissau Inqué i o Ha monizado sob e às Condições de ida dos
Ag egados Familia es 2018
Kenya Household Budge Su ey 2019
Madagasca Enquê e Na ionale su l'Emploi e le Sec eu In o mel 2015
Malawi Labou Fo ce Su ey 2013
Mali Enquê e Modulai e e Pe manen e aup ès des Ménages 2020
Namibia Labou Fo ce Su ey 2018
Nige ia Gene al Household Su ey 2019
Congo Enquê e su l'emploi e le sec eu in o mel 2009
Senegal Enquê e Na ionale su l'Emploi 2019
Uni ed Republic o Tanzania Na ional Panel Su ey 2020
Zambia Labou Fo ce Su ey 2021
30 ILO Wo king Pape 134
XFigu e 4 bis - S anda d de ia ion o he numbe o hou s wo ked in a week, by ull- ime public adminis a-
ion employees and wage wo ke s employed elsewhe e
Sou ce: ILO es ima es
XFigu e 5 bis - Pe cen age di e ence in hou ly median wage be ween public adminis a ion employees and
all o he employees
Sou ce: ILO es ima es
31 ILO Wo king Pape 134
Re e ences
Abdelhamid, Doha and Laila El Ba adei. 2010. “Re o ming he Pay Sys em o Go e nmen
Employees in Egyp ”. In e na ional Public Managemen Re iew 11(3): 59–85.
Abdallah, Chadi, Da id Coady and La-Bhus Fah Ji asa e akul, L. 2023. Public–P i a e Wage Di e en ials
and In e ac ions Ac oss Coun ies and Time. IMF Wo king Pape No. 2023/064.
Ahmad, Fa ooq, e al. 2024. “Back o he Fu u e Re isi ed: A Sys ema ic Li e a u e Re iew o
Pe o mance-Rela ed Pay in he Public Sec o ”. In e na ional Public Managemen Jou nal 27 (6):
896–920.
A isoy, Elmas, Knu J. Leipold and Kouami Hounsinou Messan. 2023. “The Expanding Role o Public
P ocu emen in A ica’s Economic De elopmen ”. Wo ld Bank Blogs (blog), 17 Janua y.
Cale o, Ca l, and Guillaume Delau e. 2023. Pa icipa ion and Employmen in Se en De eloping
Economies: An Age-Pe iod-Coho Analysis. ILO and Eu opean Commission Backg ound Pape No. 12.
Demi güç-Kun , Asli, Michael Lokshin and Vladimi Kolchin. 2023. “E ec s o Public Sec o Wages
on Co up ion: Wage Inequali y Ma e s”. Jou nal o Compa a i e Economics 51(3): 941–959.
Endegnanew, Yehenew, Mau icio So o and Gene iè eVe die . 2017. “Do Elec ions A ec he Wage
Bill?”. In Fiscal Poli ics, edi ed by Vi o Gaspa , Sanjee Gup a and Ca los Mulas G anados, 137–
151. IMF.
Finan, F ede ico, Benjamin A. Olken and Rohini Pande. 2015. The Pe sonnel Economics o he S a e.
NBER Wo king Pape 21825.
Fo ni, Lo enzo, and Na ilija No a. 2014. Public Employmen and Compensa ion Re o m du ing Times
o Fiscal Consolida ion. IMF Wo king Pape WP/14/192.
Gindling, T.H, e al. 2020. “A e Public Sec o Wo ke s in De eloping Coun ies O e paid? E idence
om a New Global Da ase ”. Wo ld De elopmen 126 (2): 104737.
Hasnain, Zahid, Nick Manning and Jan Hen yk Pie skalla. 2014. “The P omise o Pe o mance
Pay? Reasons o Cau ion in Policy P esc ip ions in he Co e Ci il Se ice”. The Wo ld Bank Resea ch
Obse e 29 (2): 235–264.
Holms om, Beng , and Paul Milg om. 1991. “Mul i ask P incipal-Agen Analyses: Incen i e
Con ac s, Asse Owne ship, and Job Design”. Jou nal o Law, Economics, & O ganiza ion 7 (Special
Issue): 24–52.
IMF. 2016a. Case S udies on Managing Go e nmen Compensa ion and Employmen : Ins i u ions,
Policies and Re o m Challenges.
___. 2016b. Managing Go e nmen Compensa ion and Employmen : Ins i u ions, Policies and Re o m
Challenges.
___. 2018. Public Wage Bills in he Middle Eas and Cen al Asia.
32 ILO Wo king Pape 134
___. 2023a. “Coming Down o Ea h: How o Tackle Soa ing Public Deb ”. In IMF, Wo ld Economic
Re iew: A Rocky Reco e y, 69–89.
___. 2023b. Mali: Selec ed Issues. IMF S a Coun y Repo s 2023 (210)
___. n.d. “Wo ld Economic Ou look Da abases”.
Kelle , Be nd . 2013. “Ge many: The Public Sec o in he Financial and Deb C isis”. Eu opean
Jou nal o Indus ial Rela ions 19(4): 359–374.
___. 2020. “Employmen Rela ions wi hou Collec i e Ba gaining and S ikes: The Unusual Case
o Ci il Se an s in Ge many”. Indus ial Rela ions Jou nal 51 (1–2): 110–133.
Ke , And ew, and Ma in Wi enbe g. 2017. Public Sec o Wages and Employmen in Sou h A ica.
SALDRU Wo king Pape 214.
Liene , Ian, and Ji end a Modi. 1997. A Decade o Ci il Se ice Re o m in Sub-Saha an A ica. IMF
Wo king Pape 97/179.
OECD. 2019. Go e nmen a a Glance 2019.
Ong’e a, Al ed, and Be e ly Mu hoki. 2019. Public Sec o Re o ms in Kenya: Challenges and
Oppo uni ies. KIPPRA Wo king Pape No. 29.
Owusu, F., Ohemeng, F. 2012. “The Public Sec o and De elopmen in A ica: The Case o a
De elopmen al Public Se ice”. In Re hinking De elopmen Challenges o Public Policy: Insigh s
om Con empo a y A ica, edi ed by Kobena T. Hanson, Geo ge Ka a ach and Timo hy M. Shaw,
117–154. Palg a e McMillan.
Reicha d, Ch is oph. 2022. “New Public Managemen ”. In In e na ional Encyclopedia o Ci il Socie y,
edi ed by Regina A. Lis , Helmu K. Anheie and S e an Toeple . Sp inge .
Ricka d, S ephanie J., and Te i L. Ca away. 2019. “In e na ional Demands o Aus e i y: Examining
he Impac o he IMF on he Public Sec o ”. Re iew o In e na ional O ganiza ions 14: 35–57.
Robinson, De ek. 1990. Ci il Se ice Pay in A ica. ILO.
Rod ik, Dani. 2000. “Wha D i es Public Employmen ?”. Re iew o De elopmen Economics 4(3):
229–243.
Sawaneh, Banna, Alagie Fade a and Ayo Adesopo. 2022. “Ci il Se ice Re o ms: A Case S udy o
he Gambian Ci il Se ice”. Jou nal o Public Adminis a ion, Finance and Law 11 (24): 87–97.
Simson, Rebecca. 2019. “E hnic (In)Equali y in he Public Se ices o Kenya and Uganda”. A ican
A ai s 118 (470): 75–100.
___. 2022. “Wi h In la ion Rising, Will A ica Face Ano he C isis in Public Sec o Pay?”. ODI Global.
Tadesse, Wo ku M. 2019. “Public Se ice Re o m in E hiopia: Challenges and Gaps Pos -
Implemen a ion”. A ica’s Public Se ice Deli e y and Pe o mance Re iew 7(1).
33 ILO Wo king Pape 134
Tansel, Aysi , Halil Ib ahim Keskin and Zeynel Abidin Ozdemi . 2020. "Public–P i a e Sec o Wage
Gap by Gende in Egyp : E idence om Quan ile Reg ession on Panel Da a, 1998–2018". Wo ld
De elopmen 135.
The eno , Celine, and Sébas ien Walke . 2024. “How o Se Compensa ion o Go e nmen
Employees”. IMF.
Weibel, An oine e, Ka ja Ros and Ma gi Os e loh. 2009. “Pay o Pe o mance in he Public Sec o :
Bene i s and (Hidden) Cos s”. Jou nal o Public Adminis a ion Resea ch and Theo y 20 (2): 387–412.
Williams, Ma in J., and Liah Yecalo-Tecle. 2019. “Ci il Se ice Re o m and Pe o mance Managemen
in Ghana and Zambia Since 1990”. IGC policy b ie .
Wo ld Bank. 2021. Wo ldwide Bu eauc acy Indica o s: Me hodology, Insigh s, and Applica ions.
Yemin, E. 1990. “P e ace”. In Robinson.
34 ILO Wo king Pape 134
Acknowledgemen s
The au ho s would like o hank he wo in e nal pee e iewe s o hei help ul and cons uc-
i e commen s ha g ea ly con ibu ed o imp o ing his wo king pape . The au ho s emain o
cou se esponsible o all e o s con ained in he ex .
Condi ions o Wo k and Equali y Depa men
(WORKQUALITY)
Inclusi e Labou Ma ke s, Labou Rela ions and
Wo king Condi ions B anch (INWORK)
In e na ional Labou O ganiza ion
Rou e des Mo illons 4
1211 Gene a 22
Swi ze land
T +41 22 799 6754
XAd ancing social jus ice, p omo ing decen wo k
The In e na ional Labou O ganiza ion is he Uni ed Na ions agency o he wo ld o wo k. We b ing oge he go e nmen s, employe s and wo ke s
o imp o e he wo king li es o all people, d i ing a human-cen ed app oach o he u u e o wo k h ough employmen c ea ion, igh s a wo k,
social p o ec ion and social dialogue.
I S B N 9789220417034
9HSTCMA*ebhade+
9 789220 417034
Con ac de ails
