Determinants Encouraging Tourists to Use Public Transport in Their Vacation Destination

Bausch, Thomas; Peluso, Alessand oM.; Bu sa, Ba osz; Maile , Ma kus; Amegah,
Me cyLo lonyo
A icle — Published Ve sion
De e minan s Encou aging Tou is s o Use Public
T anspo in Thei Vaca ion Des ina ion
In e na ional Jou nal o Tou ism Resea ch
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
John Wiley & Sons
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Bausch, Thomas; Peluso, Alessand oM.; Bu sa, Ba osz; Maile , Ma kus; Amegah,
Me cyLo lonyo (2024) : De e minan s Encou aging Tou is s o Use Public T anspo in Thei
Vaca ion Des ina ion, In e na ional Jou nal o Tou ism Resea ch, ISSN 1522-1970, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., Chiches e , UK, Vol. 26, Iss. 5,
h ps://doi.o g/10.1002/j .2791
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1 o 14
In e na ional Jou nal o Tou ism Resea ch, 2024; 26:e2791
h ps://doi.o g/10.1002/j .2791
In e na ional Jou nal o Tou ism Resea ch
RESEARCH ARTICLE OPEN ACCESS
De e minan s Encou aging Tou is s o Use Public
T anspo in Thei Vaca ion Des ina ion
ThomasBausch1 | Alessand oM.Peluso2 | Ba oszBu sa3 | Ma kusMaile 3 | Me cyLo lonyoAmegah4
1Depa men o Tou ism, Munich Uni e si y o Applied Sciences, München, Ge many | 2Depa men o Managemen and Economics, Uni e si y o Salen o,
Lecce, I aly | 3Depa men o In as uc u e, In elligen T anspo Sys ems Uni , Uni e si y o Innsb uck, Innsb uck, Aus ia | 4Compe ence Cen e
Tou ism and Mobili y, F ee Uni e si y o Bozen- Bolzano, Bolzano, I aly
Co espondence: Thomas Bausch ( [email protected])
Recei ed: 29 Decembe 2023 | Re ised: 21 Augus 2024 | Accep ed: 24 Sep embe 2024
Funding: The au ho s ecei ed no speci ic unding o his wo k.
Keywo ds: daily mobili y| gues ca d| mobili y habi s| mode choice| public anspo a ion| sus ainable ou ism mobili y
ABSTRACT
Implemen ing he concep o sus ainabili y in ou ism needs a signi ican educ ion o aca ionis s' ecological oo p in a des-
ina ion le el. A key aspec he e is ou is s' a el mode choice on- si e. Based on an online- panel based su ey in I aly and
Ge many and applying o dinal eg ession, his s udy analyzes o he des ina ion Sou h Ty ol, he impac o i e blocks o po en-
ial ac o s on public anspo a ion (PT) usage du ing a aca ion: sociodemog aphics, e e yday mobili y a esidence, a i udes
owa d clima e change and en i onmen , p e e ences o ca s, and PT se ices a he des ina ion, including he a ailabili y o a
gues ca d o ee PT use. The esul s o an o dinal eg ession analysis show ha he a ailabili y o a gues ca d and he le el o
daily use o PT a home signi ican ly inc ease PT usage. This is coun e ed by daily use o he ca a home and a posi i e a ini y
owa d ca s, ha ing a nega i e e ec on PT use.
1 | In oduc ion
The de ini ion o ou ism is mos ly based on he undamen al
concep ha a ele s lea e hei amilia li ing en i onmen
and a el o one o mo e o he des ina ions (UNWTO2010).
Du ing hei s ay a a des ina ion, a ele s isi a ac ions
ha p omp ed hem o conside and choose he des ina ion.
T a eling o and excu sions a he aca ion des ina ion gene -
a e ou is a ic, which in u n is associa ed wi h ex e nali ies,
such as conges ion, noise, and g eenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.
Tou ism con ibu es signi ican ly o global GHG emissions wi h
ou is anspo , ha ing he highes sha e o hese emissions
(Gühnemann, Ku zweil, and Maile 2021; Lenzen e al.2018;
UNWTO and UNEP2008). By calcula ing an annual o e all bal-
ance o he mobili y o gues s, esiden s and employees and he
associa ed ca bon emissions o an Alpine des ina ion, Maile
e al.(2019) showed ha a ound 80% o he annual anspo -
ela ed ca bon emissions o his des ina ion esul om ou is
a el showed ha a ound 80% o he annual anspo - ela ed
ca bon emissions o his des ina ion esul om ou is a el.
Howe e , esea ch mos ly ocuses on he a el o he des ina ion
compa ing di e en means o anspo (e.g., Unge e al.2016)
and no on he a el a he des ina ion. The e o e, his esea ch
ocuses on de e minan s b inging ou is s o use en i onmen -
iendly means o anspo a ion du ing hei aca ion a hei
des ina ion.
As a eac ion o educe o a oid anspo a ion- induced en-
i onmen al impac s o con lic s, he Global Sus ainable
Tou ism Council (GSTC) added o he Des ina ion C i e ia
2.0, he sec ion “D11 Low Impac T anspo a ion” aiming a
“an inc ease in he use o sus ainable, low- emissions ehicles
and public anspo and ac i e a el in o de o educe he
con ibu ion o ou ism o ai pollu ion, conges ion, and cli-
ma e change” (see h ps://www.gs co uncil.o g/gs c- c i e ia/
gs c- des i na io n- c i e ia/). By his, GSTC also add esses he
This is an open access a icle unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion-NonComme cial-NoDe i s License, which pe mi s use and dis ibu ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal
wo k is p ope ly ci ed, he use is non-comme cial and no modi ica ions o adap a ions a e made.
© 2024 The Au ho (s). In e na ional Jou nal o Tou ism Resea ch published by John Wiley & Sons L d.
2 o 14 In e na ional Jou nal o Tou ism Resea ch, 2024
con lic s be ween he esiden s a a des ina ion and ou is s in
he ield o anspo a ion.
Sus ainabili y has become a s anda d aspec o des ina ion de-
elopmen wi hin he las decade (Vuče ić 2018). The e o e,
des ina ions aiming a imp o ing he le el o sus ainabili y
o hei ou ism o e s s a o implemen o imp o e sus ain-
able and low emissions anspo a ion, especially public ans-
po o e s o hei gues s. In leading Eu opean des ina ions
(Due kop and G oss2012; G onau2017; Heslinga, Hilleb and,
and Emon s2019; Scu a i, Volgge , and Pechlane 2016), he in-
eg a ion o ee PT in des ina ion gues ca ds has become pop-
ula (Scude i and Dalle Noga e2018). Fo ins ance, in Ge many
and I aly, a ele s s ongly associa e sus ainable ou ism wi h
high- quali y public anspo a ion (PT) a he des ina ion le el
(Bausch e al.2021), indica ing a ce ain le el o expec a ions
when isi ing hese des ina ions. Des ina ion manage s ha ing
included PT o ee in hei des ina ion ca ds epo an inc eas-
ing demand o and use o PT by hei gues s (G onau2017).
Howe e , hese epo s do no p o ide de ailed explana ions o
he e ec s o in oducing a gues ca d ha includes ee use o
public anspo . This s udy aims o close his esea ch gap. In
pa icula , i will analyze which g oups o gues s can be pe -
suaded o use public anspo h ough he gues ca ds and
which g oups o gues s will con inue o use hei own ca s and
no accep he o e . Sociodemog aphics, a i udes owa d ca s
and public anspo as well as daily mobili y beha io a he
place o esidence a e also conside ed. Finally, gi en ha in o -
ma ion is undamen al in public anspo p o ision (Pe mana
e al.2024) gaps in communica ing he gues ca d and i s hando-
e o gues s a e analyzed. This in- dep h analysis is in ended o
close he esea ch gap on he e ec s o gues ca ds wi h included
mobili y se ices and o p o ide des ina ion manage s wi h con-
c e e ips o he u he de elopmen o gues ca d se ices.
2 | Li e a u e Re iew
The c i ical ole o anspo in as uc u e in des ina ion de-
elopmen and compe i i eness, as an in eg al componen o
he o e all ou ism o e ing, has been ex ensi ely s udied (Fu
and Chen2019; Wan and Li2013). Resea ch also indica es ha
he accessibili y o a des ina ion and he a ailabili y o local
mobili y op ions signi ican ly in luence des ina ion choice
(Kesha a zian and Wu2017). Howe e , i is inc easingly e i-
den ha excep ional accessibili y o a des ina ion and i s p i-
ma y a ac ions can lead o issues such as local o e isi a ion
o o e ou ism. A common consequence is he eme gence o
mobili y challenges o he local popula ion, p ima ily due o
conges ion wi hin he des ina ion's anspo sys em (Cu ale,
Sa man, and E le 2024). This si ua ion con ibu es o he g ow-
ing esen men owa d ou ism among local esiden s, e lec ing
he nega i e social impac s o ou ism on local communi ies and
p omp ing discussions a ound deg ow h s a egies in ou ism
esea ch (Fle che e al. 2019). The esul ing local opposi ion
o ou ism in ensi ies he p essu e on des ina ion managemen
o mi iga e he ad e se e ec s o ou ism, pa icula ly hose e-
sul ing om a ic and a ec ing he anspo a ion sys ems.
One po en ial solu ion is o shi ou is - induced a ic o PT,
he eby alle ia ing he bu den on he local a ic in as uc u e.
O e ing ou is s ee access o PT could se e as an e ec i e
incen i e o enhance hei accep ance o his al e na i e. This
aises he ques ion o which ac o s, including he cos - ee use
o PT, encou age o hinde he adop ion o sus ainable mobil-
i y op ions, such as public anspo , o e he use o p i a e o
en ed ca s du ing aca ions.
Se e al a icles ha e analyzed jus hese addi ional aca ion-
speci ic ac o s, including e iew pape s ha p opose a i-
ous e sions o sys ema izing o ca ego izing hese ac o s.
Fo example, G oss and G imm (2018) and Le- Klähn, Roosen,
e al.(2015) iden i y he ollowing ca ego ies: demog aphic cha -
ac e is ics o isi o s (e.g., age, gende , income, and na ionali y),
a el cha ac e is ics (e.g., leng h o s ay and companions), des i-
na ion a ibu es (e.g., in as uc u e and PT sys em), ip p o ile
(mo i a ions and planned ac i i ies), a ibu es o he means o
anspo a ion (such as cos , ime, and com o ), and he p ocess
o collec ing in o ma ion and planning he s ay (e.g., how a in
ad ance o plan and book).
We build pa ially on his axonomy in ou a icle bu ocus mo e
on ace s pe aining o a ele s' mobili y beha io whe e hey
li e, and hei a i udes owa d en i onmen al issues and di -
e en modes o anspo a ion. Al hough he e exis s a ple ho a
o publica ions ha deal wi h he choice o means o anspo
in e e yday mobili y in gene al, he ollowing li e a u e e iew
concen a es on publica ions ha es ablish a connec ion be-
ween ou ism and e e yday mobili y. This ocus was chosen o
be able o ans e he esul s o he case o aca ion mobili y.
2.1 | Sociodemog aphic Cha ac e is ics
Sociodemog aphic a iables may signi ican ly in luence peo-
ple's in en ion o use PT in daily li e. While people o younge
and olde age g oups a e p one o ha e a highe a ini y o PT
(Sh es ha e al.2017), women appea o app ecia e, alue, and
use PT mo e han men (Kuhnimho e al. 2012; Minelgai ė,
Dagiliū ė, and Liobikienė2020). This was also con i med by a
s udy by he Eu opean Ins i u e o Gende Equali y(2023). A
s udy by Dingil and Esz e gá - Kiss(2022), using mul ina ional
da a on modal sha es in an u ban en i onmen , ound a s ong
ela ionship be ween educa ion le el and anspo mode choice:
less d i ing and mo e PT use a e obse ed in communi ies wi h
a highe sha e o e ia y educa ion. Ano he in luen ial ac o
is income. Paulley e al.(2006) showed, o G ea B i ain in de-
ail, and a an in e na ional le el in gene al, ha he inc ease in
income o e he las decades was coupled wi h highe ca own-
e ship and a co esponding decline in demand o PT.
Di e ences in he use o means o anspo a ion be ween
people li ing in u al o u ban a eas ha e equen ly been
analyzed and epo ed (see he me hodological e iew com-
pa ing se e al s udies o Chmielewski and Olenkowicz-
T empała 2018). A signi ican ly highe sha e o ca usage
by people li ing in u al a eas was shown o egions in
G ea B i ain (Tao, Fu, and Combe  2019), Ge many, he
Ne he lands, and I aly (Be i 2009). The p e ailing use o
a p i a e ehicle o daily mobili y in u al a eas can be ex-
plained by spa ial dispe sion and, hence, longe dis ances ha
mus be co e ed o ge he se ices one needs (Ao e al.2022),
3 o 14
as well as a lowe densi y and se ice equency o PT se ices
compa ed wi h me opolises and ci ies (De Vos e al.2016).
Van Eenoo(2023) con i med hese esul s and added house-
hold size and s uc u e as u he ac o s in luencing ca
owne ship. She showed ha , on he one side, households wi h
child en a e mo e likely o own a ca , ye he inancial si ua-
ion can se limi a ions (e.g., in single- pa en households in
he lowe income ange). This esul s in a highe ca use no
only o commu ing o shopping, bu also o leisu e pu poses
(Czepkiewicz e al.2020; Le- Klähn, Roosen, e al.2015; Smi h,
Robbins, and Dickinson2019; Tó h and Dá id2010). In o he
ins ances, schola s ha e used he place o o igin/na ionali y
o ou is s as p oxies o hei mobili y beha io a home, as
he e a e clea di e ences in mobili y cul u es ac oss coun-
ies (Haus ein and Nielsen2016).
In his s udy, we ques ion whe he he abo e- discussed so-
ciodemog aphic a iables do in luence he use o PT in daily
a el and du ing aca ion. The li e a u e on he use o PT
a ou is des ina ions (Bu sa, Maile , and Axhausen2022b;
G oss and G imm 2018; Le- Klähn, Roosen, e al. 2015;
Mal ese and Zampa ini2022; Nguyen e al.2017; Zampa ini
and Ve go i 2021; Zien a a, Jażdżewska- Gu a, and
Zamojska 2021) sugges s he impac o selec ed sociodemo-
g aphic o a ele cha ac e is ics on mode choice. This was
also ound by Masie o and Zol an (2013) s a ing ha “ he
anspo mode choice o ou is s can be explained by demo-
g aphic a iables and by he amilia i y o he des ina ion,
wi h he la e also showing a consis en e ec wi h des ina-
ion mo emen pa e ns.” Howe e , he esul s a e o en in-
conclusi e and should no be in e p e ed in isola ion, bu in
combina ion wi h he o he ou blocks o po en ial ac o s,
which we discuss in mo e de ail below.
2.2 | E e yday Mobili y a he Home Loca ion
E e yday mobili y is la gely a esul o nondisc e iona y ac-
i i ies (wo k, school, e c.) cha ac e ized by s able loca ions
and epe i i e pa e ns, dependen on esiden ial loca ion and
in a- household dynamics, which all shape a el beha io
o an indi idual. O he — disc e iona y— pu poses, such as
leisu e ips, do no demons a e such s abili y (Ohnmach ,
Gö z, and Schad2009), and hus, a e di icul and expensi e
o measu e, bo h in e e yday and aca ion con ex s. These
jou neys, howe e , a e o en in luenced by commu ing beha -
io s and habi s spilling o e o leisu e a el, as sugges ed by
Tomasdo e , Ek, and Wå ell(2023). Whe he he simila holds
o aca ion a el is unclea , as ecen s udies ha e shown
ha people's choice o means o anspo a ion in e e yday li e
di e s om ha on aca ion (Mal ese and Zampa ini2022;
Zampa ini e al.2022).
The a ionale o in es iga ing whe he daily mobili y beha io ,
esul ing om all pu poses in he amilia li ing en i onmen a
he place o esidence, is e lec ed in mobili y on aca ion is ha
he o me is easie o measu e and mo e likely o be in luenced
(assuming 25 days o lea e pe yea , we ha e abou 340 days o
e e yday mobili y a yea compa ed o abou 25 days o aca ion-
ela ed ou - o - home mobili y). Gi en his, i he hypo hesis ha
anspo a ion beha io on aca ion esul s om anspo a ion
beha io in e e yday li e p o es ue, hen his is a e y e ec-
i e way o unde s and and shape isi o mobili y. Schlemme
e al.(2019) al eady add essed his ela ionship in hei s udy on
he possible e ec s o physical ac i i y du ing aca ion on e e y-
day mobili y bu could no ind clea esul s. I i u ns ou ha
mobili y a home does no ansla e in o mobili y on aca ion,
hey mus be ea ed as wo independen phenomena.
2.3 | A i udes Towa d Clima e Change
and En i onmen - F iendly Beha io
Ano he ac o ha migh in luence he mode choice o an in-
di idual is hei a i ude owa d en i onmen al and clima e
change conce ns. In a me a- s udy analyzing 58 p ima y s ud-
ies, Lanzini and Khan(2017) ound ha en i onmen al a i-
ables ha e a signi ican in luence on he in en ions o use
means o anspo a ion wi h a lowe en i onmen al impac . In
a No wegian s udy, No dlund and Ga ill(2003) e ealed he
ole ha awa eness o he nega i e en i onmen al impac o ca
use has on inc easing he p opensi y o use PT. Fu he schol-
a s ha e consis en ly demons a ed a signi ican ole o a i ude
and iden i ies in e lec ing a el beha io and en i onmen al/
clima e change conce ns— emphasizing he link be ween a el
beha io and social psychology (Anable2005; Van Acke , Van
Wee, and Wi lox2010). Ye , he esul s in his ield a e no al-
ways cong uen , as many s udies jus examine he willingness o
a el in an en i onmen - iendly way bu no he eal beha io
o he a ele s. This leads o he so- called a i ude- beha io gap
(An imo a, Nawijn, and Pee e s2012; Ju an and Dolnica 2014),
epo ed especially o long- dis ance ips. Abegg e al.(2019)
showed ha e en i he e is a big gap be ween awa eness o cli-
ma e e ec s o ou is a el and he willingness o a el less
o en, o nea e des ina ions, o a oid lying, ou is s a e mo e
willing o use mo e sus ainable means o anspo a he des-
ina ion. Howe e , ecen esea ch esul s abou daily mobili y
(B ock, Williams, and Kemp 2023) con i med ea lie esul s
(Goodwin and Lyons2010) ha he a i ude- beha io gap also
exis s in daily mobili y beha io .
In addi ion, i has no ye been es ablished whe he he e is a
link be ween ‘posi i e’ a i udes owa d en i onmen al issues
and he use o ac i e and sus ainable anspo a ion a des i-
na ions. Hibbe e al.(2013) claimed ha “p o- en i onmen al
ac ions” unde aken by isi o s a e p ima ily in line wi h wha
hey iden i y wi h. Howe e , i is no clea whe he his co e-
sponds o he iden i ies and li es yles ha gues s would like o
c ea e o hemsel es o he du a ion o hei aca ion, which
may di e om hei “a home” iden i y and, he e o e, no e-
lec hei ue a i udes. In iew o he esul s epo ed in he
li e a u e and gi en ha many alpine des ina ions cu en ly
y o add sus ainabili y o hei des ina ion image co e alues
(Heslinga, Hilleb and, and Emon s2019), we included he as-
pec o en i onmen al a i udes in his s udy, o cla i y hei ole
du ing aca ion.
2.4 | A i udes Towa d Ca s
In he s udy on a el beha io in he Uni ed Kingdom,
Anable (2005) es ablished p o iles o six g oups wi h a el
4 o 14 In e na ional Jou nal o Tou ism Resea ch, 2024
beha io and p o- en i onmen al beha io ac o s, using he
heo y o planned beha io . The six g oups di e in hei
p o- en i onmen al a i udes, conce ning he di ec ion (posi-
i e o nega i e) and in ensi y (no exis ing o exis ing). Bu
in he model, he use o PT and o he sus ainable al e na i es
could i s be es ablished by in oducing an addi ional a i-
able he a ini y o ca s. Resea ch in o ac o s o p e e ing
he ca as means o anspo a ion b ough ou a lis o in-
s umen al easoned ac o s, such as ime ad an ages, sa e y,
com o , o cos s. Bu he use o a ca does no only ely on
p ac ical aspec s o daily mobili y, as commu ing o wo k o
places o s udy, isi ing ela i es, o ganizing he kids' ac i i-
ies o managing he daily supply. The p e e ence o he ca
is also ela ed o a ec i e and symbolic alues as de eloped
in a ec heo ies (S eg, Vlek, and Slo eg aa 2001; Anable &
Ga e sleben, 2005). Wi hin he g oup o a ec i e alues, wo
main ac o s we e iden i ied: con ol and independence, while
in he g oup o symbolic alues he aspec o gaining and
demons a ing social s a us was iden i ied as cen al (Lois and
López- Sáez2009). In ou s udy, we a gue ha he desc ibed
gene al ac o s o con ol and independence a e iden ical
du ing a aca ion and, he e o e, migh ha e an in luence on
he accep ance o PT. Fu he mo e, we see he aspec o social
s a us as a ac o ha is mainly linked o daily li e and he
social en i onmen and less o aca ion. Looking a he lee s
o ca en als in ma u e Eu opean aca ion des ina ions, i be-
comes isible ha mos Eu opean a ele s du ing aca ion
a e no willing o pay highe p ices o p es igious ehicles.
The e o e, we did no add his ac o o ou analysis.
2.5 | Va iables Cha ac e izing he Vaca ion
Le- Klähn and Hall(2015) conclude ha low use o PT in des i-
na ions (especially non- u ban des ina ions) is due o poo acces-
sibili y and ne wo k densi y, insu icien equency, una ac i e
schedules, long a el imes, and a gene al misma ch wi h he
needs o ou is s who alue ease o use, lexibili y, and con e-
nience. This is u he in ensi ied by di icul ies when mo ing
a ound wi h luggage o spo s equipmen and by wea he condi-
ions (Bu sa, Maile , and Axhausen2022a).
Besides he quali y o he anspo a ion se ices a he
des ina ion, esea che s ha e also in es iga ed a ibu es
desc ibing he ac ual aca ion and any associa ed issues.
Among many ac o s, he li e a u e epo s ha some a-
ca ion cha ac e is ics— ha is, du a ion o s ay a he des-
ina ion, spending capabili ies, and he g oup ( a el) size
(Bieland, Ca s en, and Claudia 2017; Bu sa, Maile , and
Axhausen2022a; G oss and G imm2018; Gui e e al.2007;
Le- Klähn, Ge ike, and Michael Hall 2014; Zampa ini and
Ve go i 2021)— in luence mode choice a he des ina ion.
Fu he mo e, in a choice modeling s udy om Aus ia, Bu sa,
Maile , and Axhausen(2022b) e ealed ha he p esence o
child en unde 6- yea old makes ou is s e y unlikely o
choose any hing bu ca o local anspo a ion.
On he du a ion o s ay, Bieland, Ca s en, and Claudia(2017)
assessed he de e minan s o he mode choice o isi o s in he
ci y o Kassel, Ge many, showing ha same- day isi o s would
ins ead p io i ize as and di ec anspo connec ions while
o e nigh isi o s (mainly young singles/couples and adul s
wi hou child en) s ick o mo e en i onmen - iendly a el
beha io . Howe e , his is speci ic o he g oup ( a el) size.
Acco ding o Bieland, Ca s en, and Claudia(2017), amilies and
olde people would eso o mul i- pe son anspo p io i iz-
ing hei con enience and abili y o a el oge he . This is in
line wi h Bu sa, Maile , and Axhausen(2022b), who no ed ha ,
wi h inc easing age, he esponse o a el ime becomes less
nega i e— speaking in a o o PT, which ypically akes longe
han d i ing.
Based on a s udy om he UK, Downwa d and Lumsdon(2004)
sugges ed ha isi o s a eling by p i a e ehicles a e likely o
gene a e mo e spending a he des ina ion. Since we ha e in-
o ma ion on daily spending in ou da a, we decided o see i
highe spending co ela es nega i ely wi h he use o PT as in
Downwa d and Lumsdon's s udy.
Bambe g, Ajzen, and Schmid  (2003), in a s udy among s u-
den s in Ge many, showed ha o e ing a s uden semes e
icke allowing a ee- o - cha ge use o PT has a posi i e impac
on he accep ance o he campus bus line. Assuming ha hese
s udy esul s migh be alid also o ou is s in a des ina ion al-
lows o ou hypo hesis ha gues ca ds ha ing included he use
o a des ina ion PT sys em is an incen i e o encou age he use
o PT by ou is s. G onau(2017) app oaches he concep o gues
icke s om a beha io al change pe spec i e. Howe e , his
s udy is based on quali a i e s akeholde in e iews ( anspo
p o ide s, accommoda ion p o ide s, poli icians). Thus, i s e-
sul s a e no based on he mobili y da a o he ou is s epo ing
on he use o he gues ca ds. To add he a ele s' pe spec i e,
we included he use o he gues ca d as a u he a iable in
ou s udy.
Ou discussion o indings om p io li e a u e leads o he ol-
lowing h ee esea ch ques ions ha we y o answe in ou
empi ical s udy:
RQ1. Which a iables om he i s ou blocks o ac o s, con-
ce ning sociodemog aphic cha ac e is ics, e e yday mobili y a
home, a i ude owa d clima e change and en i onmen - iendly
beha io , and a i ude owa d ca s as means o anspo a ion
ha e a s a is ically signi ican impac on equency o PT use on
aca ion?
RQ2. Which cha ac e is ics o he aca ion ha e a s a is ically
signi ican impac on PT use on aca ion?
RQ3. Does he p o ision o a gues ca d, which includes ee use
o local and egional PT, in luence ou is s' mode choice owa d
mo e sus ainable mobili y?
We see hese esea ch ques ions a e p essing and ele an , es-
pecially o policymake s, manage s, and local au ho i ies in
ou is a eas who a e s i ing o b ing ou is s o use PT on- si e,
bu do no know how o need e idence o he e ec i eness o
hei ac ions. The concep o gues ca ds is gaining popula i y,
mo e egions a e hinking abou o ollow in he oo s eps o he
pionee s o s ay compe i i e. Bu such ini ia i es likely cos a lo
o money, which should no be done wi hou scien i ic e idence,
which ou pape deli e s.

5 o 14
3 | Da a and Me hods
This s udy is based on da a collec ed in sp ing 2023 in a com-
p ehensi e su ey analyzing he mobili y beha io o ou is s
ha ing spen a leas one aca ion in Sou h Ty ol, I aly, in he
las 4 yea s. The s udy co e ed mobili y beha io a he place o
esidence, he mode choice o a eling o he des ina ion, and
mode choice du ing he aca ion. Fu he mo e, da a on sociode-
mog aphic cha ac e is ics as well as mobili y and en i onmen -
ela ed a i udes we e collec ed. Sou h Ty ol welcomes yea ly
abou 8 million ou is s gene a ing abou 35 million o e nigh
s ays. The summe season 2023 had a sha e o abou 5.2 million
a i als and 22.4 million o e nigh s ays. Mo e han hal (52.3%)
o he summe o e nigh s ays a e gene a ed by gues s om
Ge many, u he 28.7% by gues s om I aly (ASTAT 2023).
The au onomous p o ince o Bolzano p o ides an excellen
ne wo k o PT based on egional ains, buses, and cable ca s,
which allows locals and gues s o each any own and a ac ion
wi hin he e i o y all yea using PT. Fu he mo e, a gues ca d
is a ailable which is handed ou o gues s by mo e han hal o
he hos s when checking in o hei accommoda ion. This gues
ca d includes ee access o any ype o PT o he en i e p o ince
anspo a ion ne wo k.
As Ge many and I aly a e he main sou ce ma ke s o Sou h
Ty ol, co e ing 81% o all o e nigh s ays, 1000 pa icipan s
we e ec ui ed om each coun y using online panels o No s a
(see www.no s a .com). Quo a sampling was applied conside -
ing gende , age s uc u e, educa ion le el, and he season o he
s ay. The quo as we e ixed on he basis o he gues s a is ics
om he s a is ical o ice o Sou h Ty ol (see h ps://as a .p o i
nz.bz.i /de/de au l .asp). A e a so launch wi h 50 pa icipan s
in each coun y and a con ol o he comple eness and plausi-
bili y o collec ed da a, he ull launch ook place 21s o Ma ch
o 10 h o Ap il 2023 in bo h coun ies. F om he 1963 cases
wi h ully comple ed ques ionnai es o his s udy, he subse o
pa icipan s was selec ed, who had hei s ay du ing he sp ing,
summe , o au umn pe iod in 2021 o 2022 and a i ed by ca .
This selec ion was done, i s , as he ou is ic p oduc o he des-
ina ion in he win e pe iod is s ongly ela ed o skiing and
he e o e implies o he mobili y needs han du ing he es o
he yea , and second, o a oid a COVID- 19 impac conce ning
he use o PT, as i was obse ed in 2020. Finally, 807 cases (413
Ge man, 394 I alian) we e included in his analysis. Table 1
shows he sociodemog aphic s uc u e o he subse . T a eling
by ca is no only he p edominan mode o anspo , bu also
o e s ou is s— unlike when a eling by ain— he choice be-
ween di e en modes o anspo a he des ina ion, which is
essen ial o ou s udy.
To collec da a desc ibing he i e blocks o ac o s, we used
closed ques ions wi h o dinal o Like scales. The a iables
and scales o sociodemog aphic cha ac e is ics a e lis ed in
Table1. The e e yday mobili y a esidence was assessed by,
“How equen ly do you use he ollowing means o ans-
po a ion in e e yday li e?,” o e ing as means ca as d i e ,
ca as passenge , PT (bus, am, me opoli an, egional and
long- dis ance ains and busses), ac i e mobili y (walking,
con en ional bike, and e- bike), and o he (e- scoo e , scoo e ,
mo o cycle, axi, and u he ). A i e- poin Like scale
was used wi h ca ego ies be ween ne e (1) and daily (5).
To measu e he clima e- change and en i onmen - iendly
beha io , we used nine s a emen s d awn om Schleich,
Schwi plies, and Ziegle  (2018) in combina ion wi h a i e-
poin Like scale (1 = does no apply a all, o 5 = ully applies).
A e wa d, we conduc ed a p incipal componen analysis
(Va imax o a ion) and ound h ee main ac o s explaining
74.0% o he o al a iance om he nine s a emen s. Fac o
1 me ged s a emen s abou he accep ance o en i onmen al
TABLE 1 | Sociodemog aphic s uc u e o s udy da ase .
Sociodemog aphic
cha ac e is ic
Pe cen age
equency Coding
Age
Below 18 yea s 0.0% 1
18– 34 yea s 10.7% 2
35– 49 yea s 35.3% 3
50– 64 yea s 29.0% 4
65+ yea s 25.0% 5
Gende
Male 55.4% 0
Female 44.6% 1
Mon hly ne household income
Below €1500 4.7% 1
€1501– €2500 19.7% 2
€2501– €4000 43.2% 3
€4001– €6000 23.6% 4
€6000 and abo e 8.8% 5
Le el o educa ion
Up o seconda y school 26.5% 1
High school/Uni e si y
en ance diploma
31.0% 2
Uni e si y deg ee o
highe
42.5% 3
Household size
One pe son 10.5% 1
Two people 39.7% 2
Th ee and mo e people 49.8% 3
Coun y
Ge many 51.2% 0
I aly 48.8% 1
A ea o li ing
U ban (in eg a ed in o
u ban anspo )
65.2% 0
Ru al (only se ed by
egional anspo )
34.8% 1
No e: N = 807.
6 o 14 In e na ional Jou nal o Tou ism Resea ch, 2024
and clima e p o ec ion e en i i leads o pe sonal es ic ions.
Fac o 2 included s a emen s abou he deg ee o con ic ion
en i onmen al and clima e p o ec ion a e necessa y and im-
p o e he quali y o li e. Fac o 3 included s a emen s asking
o he willingness o adap one's own li es yle o he sake o
he en i onmen and clima e. Fo in e p e a ion and compa-
abili y o he esul s, hese h ee ac o s we e con e ed o
an o dinal scale wi h i e anks using a linea ans o ma ion
based on he minimum and maximum ac o sco es.
Fo he a i ude owa d ca s as means o anspo a ion, we ol-
lowed he esul s o Van, Choocha ukul, and Fujii(2014). F om
his s udy, we used he wo s a emen s “Fo me, d i ing a ca
means eedom and independence” and “I like o a el by ca ”
o he independence ac o and “The ca is essen ial o my
leisu e ac i i ies” and “The ca is indispensable o my e e y-
day li e” o he con ol ac o . Because o he high co ela ion
o he las wo a iables and ela ed mul icollinea i y p oblems
o he la e eg ession in he analysis, only he i s s a emen
was used. The h ee s a emen s o his block we e measu ed by
a i e- poin Like scale (1 = do no ag ee a all o 5 = ully ag ee).
The mobili y- ela ed cha ac e is ics o he las aca ion we e du-
a ion (numbe o days), spending pe day and pe son (o dinal
wi h 4 ca ego ies below €100 o €200 and mo e), he numbe
o people a eling oge he (g oup size), and bina y i people
ecei ed a gues ca d o no (people no emembe ing we e ex-
cluded om he analysis). Fo all s a is ical analysis including
he o dinal eg ession, SPSS 24 was used. An o e iew o he
used a iables and hei coding can be ound in he AppendixA
a he end o he pape .
4 | Resul s
An o dinal eg ession analysis was conduc ed wi h he depen-
den a iable being based on he equency o use o bus o
ain du ing he las aca ion. This a iable was compu ed by
assessing he equency o esponden s' use o he bus and ha
o he ain using a i e- poin scale (1 = ne e , 2 = e y a ely,
3 = some imes, 4 = equen ly, and 5 = e y equen ly). The
dependen a iable was compu ed as he maximum be ween
he wo equencies. Fo example, i a esponden epo ed
using he bus e y a ely (i.e., indica ing 2 on he scale) and
he ain equen ly (i.e., 4 on he scale), hen he alue o he
dependen a iable o his esponden was 4. The a ionale
was ha esponden s' decision o use buses o ains may be
con ingen on he p esence o anspo a ion in as uc u es
and se ices in he su ounding a ea. The e o e, he maxi-
mum be ween he wo a o e- men ioned equencies can be e
e lec one's ue p opensi y o use PT han he sum o he wo
equencies. The o dinal eg ession esul s a e summa ized in
Table2.
We conduc ed p elimina y mul icollinea i y checks by com-
pu ing a a iance in la ion ac o (VIF) alue o each indepen-
den a iable in a linea eg ession analysis. VIF alues anged
om 1.072 o 1.965, a below he ecommended h eshold o
10 (Yan and Su 2009), hus sugges ing negligible mul icol-
linea i y among he independen a iables. The e o e, gi en he
o dinal na u e o he dependen a iable, we conduc ed an o -
dinal eg ession analysis. The es ima ed model was signi ican
(−2 Log Likelihood = 1958.377, χ2(23) = 220.049, p < 0.001),
and goodness- o - i s a is ics we e accep able (Pea son
χ2(3201) = 3213.883, p = 0.433). The s a is ical esul s summa-
ized in Table3 showed ha he dependen a iable deno ing
esponden s' p opensi y o use PT was nega i ely ela ed o hei
mon hly income (B = −0.269, p = 0.001), coun y (B = −0.827,
p < 0.001), deg ee o accep ance o en i onmen al and clima e
p o ec ion (B = −0.177, p = 0.014), and liking o a eling by ca
(B = −0.215, p = 0.007). Ins ead, he same dependen a iable
was posi i ely ela ed o he use o ca as a passenge (B = 0.226,
p = 0.011), use o PT such as local, egional, long- dis ance means
o anspo a ion o plane (B = 0.505, p < 0.001), use o indi idual
means o anspo a ion di e en om ca (B = 0.490, p < 0.001),
as well as o esponden s' deg ee o con ic ion ha en i on-
men al and clima e p o ec ion a e necessa y and imp o e qual-
i y o li e (B = 0.236, p < 0.007), aca ion du a ion (B = 0.230,
p < 0.001), and whe he hey ecei ed a gues ca d du ing he
aca ion (B = 1.049, p < 0.0 01).
To analyze he RQ3 a u he in- deep in es iga ion o he a iable
desc ibing, i a s udy pa icipan ecei ed a gues ca d o use PT
du ing he s ay ee was done. By expe iences o he ho el owne
associa ion HGV (see h ps://www.hg .i /de/) no all gues s au-
oma ically ecei e a gues ca d as well as knowing abou i and
he e o e eques i . This allows he hypo hesis ha o sho e
s ays gues s ecei e less equen ly he gues ca d. Table3 shows
he esul o a c oss ab be ween he wo a iables o ha ing e-
cei ed a gues ca d and he du a ion o he gues s' s ay.
The Pea son Chi- squa e es o independence o he a iables
shows a es s a is ic alue o 29.541 (0 cells ha e expec ed coun
less han 5) which has an asymp o ic signi icance smalle han
0.001 a six deg ees o eedom. The e o e, he hypo hesis o in-
dependence o he wo a iables mus be ejec ed a signi icance
le el o 0.1%.
Fu he in e p e a ion o he esul is based on he Wald es -
s a is ic alues o he es o coe icien es ima ion no being
ze o o he o dinal eg ession. This s a is ic ollows app oxi-
ma ely a χ2- dis ibu ion (Liu2016) wi h one deg ee o eedom
and he e o e allows a anking. This anking can be in e p e ed
as a measu e o a iable impo ance and, by his, an ini ial ank
o de ing o ou independen a iables' con ibu ions o he e-
g ession model compa able o he s anda dized es ima o s o
he β- coe icien s o linea eg ession (Na hans, Oswald, and
Nimon2012). Table4 shows he eg ession esul s o signi i-
can independen a iables in descending so ing by Wald es -
s a is ic alues.
5 | Discussion
In ou o dinal eg ession, we used independen a iables om
he i e po en ially explana o y blocks: sociodemog aphic
cha ac e is ics (7), e e yday mobili y a esidence (5), a i ude
owa d clima e change and en i onmen - iendly beha io (3),
a i ude owa d ca s (3), and cha ac e is ics o he las aca ion
(5). Conside ing he complexi y o he examined phenomenon
and he huge numbe o ac o s ha migh con ibu e o ex-
plaining people's use o PT in ou is des ina ions, we assume
ha he i e blocks o de e minan s used in ou eg ession
7 o 14
TABLE 2 | Resul s o eg ession analysis.
Va iable Es ima e (B)S d. e o Wald es (d = 1) p
In e cep 1 3.000 0.905 10.983 0.001
In e cep 2 3.813 0.909 17.606 < 0.001
In e cep 3 5.186 0.918 31.887 < 0.001
In e cep 4 6.635 0.937 50.163 < 0.001
Sociodemog aphic a iables
Age −0.064 0.080 0.643 0.422
Gende −0.248 0.150 2.754 0.097
Mon hly income −0.269 0.085 10.142 0.001
Le el o educa ion −0.008 0.093 0.007 0.934
Household size 0.088 0.130 0.460 0.498
Coun y −0.827 0.167 24.431 < 0.001
A ea o li ing −0.064 0.154 0.172 0.678
E e yday mobili y a esidence
Use o ca as d i e 0.032 0.108 0.089 0.765
Use o ca as passenge 0.226 0.089 6.456 0.011
Use o PT 0.505 0.104 23.362 < 0.001
Use o indi idual means o
anspo a ion di e en om ca
0.490 0.100 23.935 < 0.001
Use o means o ac i e mobili y 0.065 0.081 0.640 0.424
A i udes owa ds en i onmen and clima e change
Deg ee o accep ance o
en i onmen al and clima e p o ec ion
−0.177 0.072 5.984 0.014
Deg ee o con ic ion ha en i on-
men al and clima e p o ec ion a e
necessa y and imp o e quali y o li e
0.236 0.088 7.258 0.007
Willingness o adap hei own
li es yle o he sake o en i onmen al
and clima e p o ec ion
0.153 0.089 2.951 0.086
A i udes owa ds ca s
Liking o a eling by ca −0.215 0.080 7.220 0.007
Ca is essen ial o leisu e ac i i ies 0.117 0.089 1.724 0.189
Ca is indispensable o e e yday li e −0.047 0.086 0.306 0.580
Cha ac e is ics aca ion in Sou h Ty ol
Vaca ion's du a ion 0.230 0.054 18.468 < 0.001
Spending du ing aca ion 0.092 0.064 2.097 0.148
G oup size −0.041 0.055 0.577 0.447
Child en we e p esen and a eled
wi h he esponden
−0.005 0.199 0.001 0.979
Gues ca d was ecei ed 1.049 0.148 50.215 < 0.001
No e: N = 807. Dependen a iable: F equency wi h which esponden s used ei he a bus o ain as means o anspo a ion (maximum be ween he equency
wi h which esponden s used bus and he equency wi h which hey used ain as means o anspo a ion). Link unc ion: Logi ; −2 Log Likelihood = 1958.377,
χ2(23) = 220.049, p < 0.001; Goodness- o - i : Pea son χ2(3201) = 3213.883, p = 0.433. McFadden Pseudo R2 = 0.101; Tes o pa allel lines: −2 Log Likelihood = 1909.389,
χ2(69) = 48.979, p = 0.968.
8 o 14 In e na ional Jou nal o Tou ism Resea ch, 2024
model cap u ed a subs an ial po ion o he a iance o he
dependen a iable.
Looking a he i s block, he sociodemog aphic cha ac e is-
ics, we ind only wo o he se en used independen a iables
o signi ican ly con ibu e o explaining esponden s' use o PT:
coun y and mon hly income. The alue and nega i e sign o he
es ima ed coe icien o coun y shows ha na ionali y s ongly
in luences PT use: Ge mans (coded as 0) use PT mo e equen ly
du ing aca ion han I alians (coded as 1). This is in line wi h
Haus ein and Nielsen(2016), who e ealed ha hese wo coun-
ies belong o ai ly di e en mobili y cul u es, wi h I alians
exhibi ing highe p e e ence o d i ing han Ge mans and
placing mo e alue on speed and con enience a he han on
en i onmen al aspec s. Appa en ly, hese cul u al o na ional
cha ac e is ics also hold ue on aca ion.
In e ms o income, people wi h highe ea nings a e less likely
o use PT a hei des ina ion equen ly. On he o he hand, he
equency o PT use du ing aca ion is posi i ely in luenced by
he equency o public anspo use on a daily basis a home,
as well as he equency o a eling by ca as a passenge and
by al e na i e means o anspo a ion. We ound no signi i-
can e ec s o age, gende , le el o educa ion, household size,
and a ea o li ing ( u al s. u ban). In ou sample, 95.9% o he
pa icipan s a eled oge he wi h a leas one o he pe son.
Conce ning he insigni ican a iables— age and gende , which
a e impo an ac o s in daily mobili y beha io — he explana-
ion could be ha people do no decide alone abou hei mode
choice while on aca ion, which undamen ally di e s om a
daily li e scena io.
The second block o p edic o s, ega ding e e yday mobili y a
esidence, desc ibes he mode choice p e e ences o he s udy
pa icipan s. Fu he con i ma ion abou beha io al con inui y
du ing aca ion becomes isible: he highes posi i e con i-
bu ion o PT use du ing aca ion is gi en by he le el o usage
in daily li e. This sugges s ha egula use o PT means be e
con ol o PT and educed ese a ions abou possible disad an-
ages, such as c owding, longe a el ime, o a lack o com o ,
and inc eases he isibili y o ad an ages as a i al di ec ly a o
close o he a ac ions, no a ic jams ( ain) o e en economic
ad an ages (no pa king ees). Also, an appa en posi i e e ec
can be seen o “o he indi idual means o anspo a ion di -
e en om ca .” In he g oup o people equen ly using such
ype o anspo a ion, we ind a highe sha e o younge and
u ban people being used o si ua ional decision- making abou
mode choice. This migh also explain he s ong e ec o his
independen a iable o he aca ion, bu i could be explo ed
u he .
Fo he hi d block o independen a iables, ega ding a i ude
owa d clima e change and en i onmen - iendly beha io ,
none o he h ee appea ed pa icula ly ele an . Ye wo o he
h ee eached s a is ical signi icance: deg ee o accep ance o
en i onmen al and clima e p o ec ion (p = 0.014) and deg ee
o con ic ion ha en i onmen al and clima e p o ec ion a e
necessa y and imp o e quali y o li e (p = 0.007). These esul s
can be in e p e ed as a weak impac on he en i onmen al and
clima e- ela ed a i udes o a ele s. Howe e , i concu en ly
shows ha he desc ibed a i ude- beha io gap exis s no only
o long- dis ance ips o daily mobili y bu also o mode choice
du ing a aca ion. This esul is in line wi h he esul s o Abegg
e al.(2019) men ioned ea lie and pa ially wi h he indings o
Zampa ini e al.(2022), who showed a di e gen mobili y beha -
io o young ou is s by gende (less en i onmen - iendly) and
des ina ion ype ( op des ina ions mo e en i onmen - iendly).
Rega ding he h ee independen a iables desc ibing he a i-
ude owa d using a ca , only he i em “liking o a eling by
ca ” eached signi icance. This i em is pa o he a ec i e alue
o independence and i s well wi h he gene al a el mo i e o
pe sonal escape as “ o ge away om my no mal en i onmen ”
and in e pe sonal escape as “ o ge away om a s ess ul so-
cial en i onmen ” (Do an, La sen, and Wol 2015). The o he
wo insigni ican i ems, linked o he a ec i e alue o con ol,
“pe cep ion ha ca is essen ial o leisu e ac i i ies,” and “pe -
cep ion ha ca is indispensable o e e yday li e,” a e no ele-
an o mode choice du ing aca ion. The o me is pa icula ly
in e es ing as i s signi icance would ha e indica ed ha peo-
ple hink hey need he ca o ealize hei aca ion ac i i ies.
Because o he excellen PT se ices a ailable in Sou h Ty ol,
his esul could indica e insu icien in o ma ion. Howe e ,
i should no be ega ded as gene alizable and migh di e o
o he des ina ions.
Wi hin he block o i e a iables cha ac e izing he las sum-
me aca ion in Sou h Ty ol, only wo a e signi ican : he du a-
ion o he las aca ion and gues ca d ecep ion. Bo h a iables
show p alues below 0.001, which p o es hei signi ican el-
e ance in p omp ing PT use. The use o PT inc eases wi h he
du a ion o s ay (see Table 3), which was also obse ed in a
s udy o Ge many by G oss and G imm(2018). As people on
a sho s ay ecei e a gues ca d less equen ly han hose on
longe aca ions, wo po en ial explana ions a ise: Fi s , hos s
end no o hand ou he gues ca d o sho - s ay ou is s as hey
TABLE 3 | Gues ca d ecep ion and du a ion o s ay.
Las aca ion in Sou h Ty ol: How long did you s ay
in egion las ? (du a ion in o e nigh s ays)
To al1 2 3 4– 6 7– 9 10– 13 14+
Du ing you las s ay in Sou h Ty ol,
did you ecei e a gues ca d om
you accommoda ion o ee use o
public anspo and o he se ices
in Sou h Ty ol?
No 77.8% 59.8% 42.1% 44.3% 42.1% 35.9% 25.0% 45.5%
Yes 22.2% 40.2% 57.9% 55.7% 57.9% 64.1% 75.0% 54.5%