Ho nbe g, Ca la; Heisig, Jan Paul; Solga, Heike
Wo king Pape
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional)
di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o young
adul s
Mapineq deli e ables, No. D4.1
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
WZB Be lin Social Science Cen e
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Ho nbe g, Ca la; Heisig, Jan Paul; Solga, Heike (2024) : Decomposi ion o
be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o young adul s,
Mapineq deli e ables, No. D4.1, INVEST Resea ch Flagship Cen e, Uni e si y o Tu ku, Tu ku,
h ps://doi.o g/10.5281/zenodo.13364399
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Decomposi ion o
be ween and wi hin-
coun y ( egional)
di e ences in he
labou ma ke
a ainmen o
young adul s
Ca la Ho nbe g
WZB – Be lin Social
Science Cen e
Jan Paul Heisig
WZB – Be lin Social
Science Cen e
F eie Uni e si ä Be lin
Heike Solga
WZB – Be lin Social
Science Cen e
F eie Uni e si ä Be lin
Sep embe 2024
Mapineq deli e able D4.1
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o
young adul s
2
Mapineq – Mapping inequali ies h ough he li e cou se– is a h ee-yea p ojec (2022-
2025) ha s udies he ends and d i e s o in e gene a ional, educa ional, labou ma ke ,
and heal h inequali ies o e he li e cou se du ing he las decades. The esea ch is un by
a conso ium o eigh pa ne s: Uni e si y o Tu ku, Uni e si y o G oningen, Na ional
Dis ance Educa ion Uni e si y, WZB Be lin Social Science Cen e , S ockholm Uni e si y,
Tallinn Uni e si y, Popula ion Eu ope, and Uni e si y o Ox o d
Websi e: www.mapineq.eu
The Mapineq p ojec has ecei ed unding om he Eu opean Union’s Ho izon Eu ope
esea ch and inno a ion p og amme unde he g an ag eemen No. 101061645.
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o hei a ilia ed ins i u ions. Nei he he Eu opean Union no he g an ing au ho i y can
be held esponsible o hem.
Acknowledgemen :
This documen was e iewed by Elina Kilpi-Jakonen (Uni e si y o Tu ku) and Ma ge Un
(Tallinn Uni e si y) as pa o Mapineq quali y assu ance p ocedu es. The con en o he
documen , including opinions exp essed and any emaining e o s, is he esponsibili y o
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Summa y his o y
Ve sion
Da e
Commen s
1.0
22.08.2024
Manusc ip o e iew
2.0
26.09.2024
Re iewed manusc ip o submission
Sugges ed ci a ion:
Ho nbe g, Ca la, Jan Paul Heisig, and Heike Solga (2024). Decomposi ion o be ween-
and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o young adul s.
Mapineq deli e ables. Tu ku: INVEST Resea ch Flagship Cen e / Uni e si y o Tu ku. DOI:
10.5281/zenodo.13364399
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o
young adul s
3
Execu i e summa y
Enhancing he labou ma ke p ospec s o young adul s is a majo conce n in Eu opean
coun ies. F om a li e-cou se pe spec i e, young people’s en y in o he labou ma ke in
gene al, and in o ewa ding jobs in pa icula , is impo an o p omo e posi i e ca ee
ajec o ies. Resea ch has widely demons a ed ha labou ma ke en y is an impo an
phase in indi iduals’ li e cou ses, as i also s ongly in luences hei subsequen ca ee
ajec o ies and hei success in o he li e domains such as hei abili y o s a a amily.
This epo looks a inequali ies in school- o-wo k ansi ions (he ea e STWT). We explo e
he ole o con ex ual and indi idual ac o s in shaping young people’s ea ly-ca ee labou
ma ke ou comes. We examine di e ences be ween 27 Eu opean coun ies and, o 14 o
hem, also be ween he main socio-economic (NUTS 1) egions wi hin coun ies, using he
2021 wa e o EU-SILC and compa ing i wi h 2018 o assess any po en ial impac o he
COVID-19 pandemic. We map success and inequali ies in STWTs o young adul s (aged
16–34) using six indica o s – o labou ma ke in eg a ion: unemploymen and NEET isks
o and occupa ional a ainmen ; o income in/secu i y: young adul s’ disposable income
and po e y isks; and o young adul s’ well-being: li e sa is ac ion. We also explo e
whe he hese di e en STWT aspec s (indica o s) a e associa ed wi h inequali ies in o he
ansi ions o adul hood, such as economic independence (lea ing pa en al home) o
s a ing a amily (en y in o ma iage/cohabi a ion and pa en hood). In o he wo ds,
whe he he e a e spillo e s ac oss li e domains a he ime o labou ma ke in eg a ion.
We also examine whe he success and inequali ies in STWTs a e associa ed wi h
inequali ies in young adul s’ heal h, and no only wi h di e ences in educa ion sys em
cha ac e is ics and labou ma ke egula ions, bu also wi h coun y and egional
di e ences in heal h policies (i.e., spillo e s ac oss policy domains) – bo h ac o s a e
o en missing in STWT esea ch. The esea ch ques ions add essed in his epo a e:
1. Whe he di e ences in ea ly labou ma ke ou comes and well-being (li e
sa is ac ion) a e ela ed no only o s anda d demog aphic cha ac e is ics o young
adul s (such as gende , age, mig a ion backg ound) and hei educa ional
a ainmen bu also o hei heal h s a us and o he ansi ions in o adul hood (such
as pa ne ship, pa en hood and li ing a angemen s) a he indi idual le el.
2. Whe he , and o wha ex en , di e ences be ween and wi hin coun ies in ea ly
labou ma ke inequali ies and li e sa is ac ion can be explained by ( egional)
composi ional di e ences in young adul s’ educa ional a ainmen , socio-
demog aphic cha ac e is ics and s a us ansi ions in o adul hood.
3. Whe he addi ional con ex ual ac o s (beyond composi ional di e ences)
in luence young people’s ea ly ca ee s.
Ou analyses show:
−
conside able egional a ia ions in young adul s’ labou ma ke a ainmen ,
economic in/secu i y, and li e sa is ac ion.
−
ha looking beyond he s anda d de e minan s in STWT esea ch – such as age,
gende , mig a ion backg ound, o educa ion – is impo an . Mo eo e , young adul s’
heal h and s a us in he amily o ma ion p ocesses (pa ne ship and pa en hood)
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o
young adul s
4
and he ansi ion o economic independence (lea ing he pa en al home) a e also
e y impo an . Young adul s wi h highe educa ional a ainmen and be e heal h
ha e be e employmen ou comes, highe disposable income and g ea e li e
sa is ac ion. Pa en hood (especially single pa en hood) makes i mo e likely ha
young adul s will be unemployed o poo . Being unemployed o poo makes i ha de
o young adul s o become economically independen (as indica ed by he ac ha
hey a e mo e likely o s ill li e wi h hei pa en s). No ably, once educa ion and
amily o ma ion a e aken in o accoun , he e a e only small gende di e ences in
he six STWT ou comes.
−
ha di e ences in hese socio-demog aphic and socio-economic p o iles o young
adul s accoun o subs an ial pa o coun y-le el and egional a ia ion in he
labou ma ke a ainmen and well-being. Family composi ion and, o labou
ma ke a ainmen , also heal h seem o be mos impo an o unde s anding c oss-
na ional a ia ion. Educa ion seems o be he mos impo an ac o o
unde s anding egional a ia ion in young adul s’ inancial well-being and li e
sa is ac ion.
−
ha , in addi ion o he a o emen ioned composi ional di e ences ac oss coun ies
and egions, young adul s’ labou ma ke in eg a ion and economic secu i y a e
in luenced by con ex ual ac o s a bo h he na ional and egional le els.
Fa ou able ac o s a e educa ion sys ems ha esul in high(e ) educa ional
a ainmen , an economic s uc u e comp ising la ge i ms and inno a i e
indus ies, good o e all employmen le els, good childca e p o ision and highe
heal h expendi u e. Cha ac e is ics o a ou able egions a e again high(e ) o e all
educa ional a ainmen and good o e all employmen le els.
−
inally, ha young adul s li ing in u al a eas a e se e ely disad an aged in
compa ison o hei u ban coun e pa s: They a e mo e likely o be NEET, o ha e
lowe occupa ional s a us, and o expe ience income insecu i y (in e ms o bo h
disposable income and po e y isk), despi e acing lowe unemploymen isks. This
sugges s ha hey a e mo e likely o accep s “any” job a ailable in u al a eas (as
indica ed by hei concu en lowe occupa ional a ainmen and lowe
unemploymen isk) o o be inac i e (as indica ed by highe NEET a es). They lack
bo h “good jobs” (wi h highe income and s a us) and childca e acili ies o
econcile wo k and childca e.
Inequali ies in young adul s’ labou ma ke a ainmen a e a phenomenon common o
many coun ies and egions, wi h some coun ies and egions pe o ming be e han
o he s. The egional a ia ions and hei explana ions iden i ied in his epo hus p o ide
oppo uni ies o mu ual lea ning, e en beyond imes o c isis, as indica ed by he
consis ency o esul s obse ed o he yea s 2018 and 2021 (i.e., p e- and du ing he
COVID-19 pandemic). The alloca ion o esou ces owa ds he c ea ion o quali y
employmen oppo uni ies and he p o ision o ca ee guidance ep esen s a pi o al
app oach o add ess he p essing issue o young people’s unemploymen and
unde employmen . Simila ly, in es men s aimed a enhancing he educa ional and
heal hca e ou comes o young adul s, bo h be o e and du ing hei en y in o he labou
ma ke , eme ge as a p omising a enue o conside a ion. In addi ion, i is i al o add ess
egional dispa i ies in labou ma ke ou comes, wi h a pa icula ocus on young adul s in
u al a eas. This may include a ge ed in e en ions in educa ion, job oppo uni ies and
childca e. Impo an ly, s a egies o di ec ly educe po e y should also be p io i ised, as
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o
young adul s
5
young adul s wi h child en (especially single pa en s) a e a highe isk o po e y and he
spillo e e ec s o po e y on hei child en a e de imen al o hei cogni i e de elopmen
and educa ional a ainmen .
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o
young adul s
6
Abb e ia ions
AME A e age ma ginal e ec s
EPL Employmen p o ec ion legisla ion
ESS Eu opean Social Su ey
EU-LFS EU-Labou Fo ce Su ey
EU-SILC Eu opean Union S a is ics on Income and Li ing Condi ions Su ey
EVS Eu opean Value Su ey
GDP G oss domes ic p oduc
ISCED In e na ional S anda d Classi ica ion o Educa ion
ISEI In e na ional Socio-Economic Index
NUTS Nomencla u e o Te i o ial Uni s o S a is ics
PISA P og amme o In e na ional S uden Assessmen
STWT School- o-wo k ansi ion
VET Voca ional educa ion and aining
WVS Wo ld Value Su ey
ISO codes o coun ies included
Aus ia – AT – AUT
I aly – IT – ITA
Belgium – BE – BEL
La ia – LV – LVA
Bulga ia – BG – BGR
Li huania – LT – LTU
C oa ia – HR – HRV
Luxembou g – LU – LUX
Cyp us – CY – CYP
Mal a – MT – MLT
Czech Republic – CZ – CZE
Poland – PL – POL
Denma k – DK – DNK
Po ugal – PT – PRT
Es onia – EE – EST
Romania – RO – ROU
Finland – FI – FIN
Se bia – RS – SRB
F ance – FR – FRA
Slo akia – SK – SVK
Ge many – DE – DEU
Spain – ES – ESP
G eece – GR – GRC
Sweden – SE – SWE
Hunga y – HU – HUN
Swi ze land – CH – CHE
I eland – IE – IRL
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o
young adul s
7
Con en
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 3
ABBREVIATIONS 6
ISO CODES OF COUNTRIES INCLUDED 6
1. INTRODUCTION 10
2. MAPPING INEQUALITIES IN LABOUR MARKET ATTAINMENT OF YOUNG ADULTS 11
3. LITERATURE REVIEW 13
3.1. THE ROLE OF YOUNG ADULTS’ SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS 13
3.2. CONTEXTUAL (REGIONAL) INFLUENCES 17
3.3. SUMMARY AND IMPLICATIONS 21
4. DATA AND METHODS 22
4.1. DATA AND SAMPLE 22
4.2. INDIVIDUAL-LEVEL VARIABLES 23
4.3. CONTEXTUAL VARIABLES 26
4.4. ANALYTICAL STRATEGY 29
5. RESULTS 31
5.1. REGIONAL VARIATIONS IN YOUNG ADULTS’ STWT OUTCOMES 31
5.2. THE ROLE OF SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS FOR YOUNG ADULTS’ STWT
OUTCOMES 38
5.3. EXPLANATIONS FOR REGIONAL DIFFERENCES 43
6. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 57
REFERENCES 60
APPENDIX 69
SECTION A: DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS 70
SECTION B: THREE-LEVEL REGRESSIONS 2021 88
SECTION C: RESULTS FOR 2018 90
SECTION D: COUNTRY-SPECIFIC REGRESSIONS OF SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS,
2021 103
Tables
TABLE 1. OVERVIEW OF CONTEXTUAL FACTORS COVERED BY PRIOR RESEARCH _________________________________ 18
TABLE 2. INDIVIDUAL-LEVEL VARIABLES USED IN THE ANALYSES ___________________________________________ 25
TABLE 3. CONTEXTUAL VARIABLES USED IN THE ANALYSES _______________________________________________ 28
TABLE 4. COUNTRY VARIATION IN STWT OUTCOMES ___________________________________________________ 34
TABLE 5. TWO-LEVEL REGRESSIONS OF LABOUR MARKET INTEGRATION ON SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC PROFILE
CHARACTERISTICS ______________________________________________________________________ 39
TABLE 6. TWO-LEVEL REGRESSIONS OF INCOME SECURITY AND LIFE SATISFACTION ON SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC AND SOCIO-
ECONOMIC PROFILE CHARACTERISTICS ________________________________________________________ 41
TABLE 7. TWO-LEVEL REGRESSIONS OF LABOUR MARKET INTEGRATION ON NATIONAL CONTEXTUAL FACTORS ____________ 48
TABLE 8. TWO-LEVEL REGRESSIONS OF INCOME SECURITY AND LIFE SATISFACTION ON NATIONAL CONTEXTUAL FACTORS ____ 51
TABLE 9. THREE-LEVEL REGRESSIONS OF LABOUR MARKET INTEGRATION ON REGIONAL CONTEXTUAL FACTORS ___________ 54
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o
young adul s
8
TABLE 10. THREE-LEVEL REGRESSIONS OF INCOME SECURITY AND LIFE SATISFACTION ON REGIONAL CONTEXTUAL FACTORS __ 56
Figu es
FIGURE 1: REGIONAL VARIATION IN UNEMPLOYMENT RATES OF YOUNG ADULTS.................................................................. 35
FIGURE 2. REGIONAL VARIATION IN POVERTY RATES OF YOUNG ADULTS............................................................................. 36
FIGURE 3. REGIONAL VARIATION IN LIFE SATISFACTION OF YOUNG ADULTS ......................................................................... 37
FIGURE 4. DECOMPOSITIONS OF REGIONAL VARIATIONS IN LABOUR MARKET OUTCOMES ..................................................... 44
FIGURE 5. DECOMPOSITIONS OF REGIONAL VARIATIONS IN INCOME SECURITY AND LIFE SATISFACTION .................................. 45
Appendix Tables and Figu es
TABLE A 1. DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS OF STWT OUTCOME VARIABLES AT NUTS 1 LEVEL .................................................... 70
TABLE A 2. DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS OF INDIVIDUAL-LEVEL SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC PROFILE VARIABLES AT
NATIONAL LEVEL .............................................................................................................................................. 73
TABLE A 3. DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS OF INDIVIDUAL-LEVEL SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC PROFILE VARIABLES AT
NUTS 1 LEVEL................................................................................................................................................ 75
TABLE A 4. DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS OF CONTEXTUAL FACTORS AT NATIONAL LEVEL ............................................................ 79
TABLE A 5. DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS OF CONTEXTUAL FACTORS AT NUTS 1 LEVEL ............................................................. 81
TABLE A 6. CORRELATION MATRIX OF CONTEXTUAL FACTORS AT NATIONAL LEVEL ............................................................... 86
TABLE A 7. CORRELATION MATRIX OF CONTEXTUAL FACTORS AT NUTS 1 LEVEL ................................................................ 87
TABLE B 1. THREE-LEVEL REGRESSIONS OF LABOUR MARKET INTEGRATION ON SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC
PROFILE CHARACTERISTICS, 2021..................................................................................................................... 88
TABLE B 2. THREE-LEVEL REGRESSIONS OF INCOME SECURITY AND LIFE SATISFACTION ON SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC AND SOCIO-
ECONOMIC PROFILE CHARACTERISTICS, 2021 ..................................................................................................... 89
TABLE C 1. TWO-LEVEL REGRESSIONS OF LABOUR MARKET INTEGRATION ON SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC
PROFILE CHARACTERISTICS, 2018..................................................................................................................... 90
TABLE C 2. TWO-LEVEL REGRESSIONS OF INCOME SECURITY AND LIFE SATISFACTION ON SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC AND SOCIO-
ECONOMIC PROFILE CHARACTERISTICS, 2018 ..................................................................................................... 91
TABLE C 3. THREE-LEVEL REGRESSIONS OF LABOUR MARKET INTEGRATION ON SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC
PROFILE CHARACTERISTICS, 2018..................................................................................................................... 92
TABLE C 4. THREE-LEVEL REGRESSIONS OF INCOME SECURITY AND LIFE SATISFACTION ON SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC AND SOCIO-
ECONOMIC PROFILE CHARACTERISTICS, 2018 ..................................................................................................... 93
TABLE C 5. TWO-LEVEL REGRESSIONS OF LABOUR MARKET INTEGRATION ON NATIONAL CONTEXTUAL FACTORS, 2018 ........... 95
TABLE C 6. TWO-LEVEL REGRESSIONS OF INCOME SECURITY AND LIFE SATISFACTION ON NATIONAL CONTEXTUAL FACTORS, 2018
..................................................................................................................................................................... 97
TABLE C 7. THREE-LEVEL REGRESSIONS OF LABOUR MARKET INTEGRATION ON REGIONAL CONTEXTUAL FACTORS, 2018 ....... 99
TABLE C 8. THREE-LEVEL REGRESSIONS OF INCOME SECURITY AND LIFE SATISFACTION ON REGIONAL CONTEXTUAL FACTORS,
2018 .......................................................................................................................................................... 100
FIGURE C 1. DECOMPOSITIONS OF REGIONAL VARIATIONS IN LABOUR MARKET OUTCOMES, 2018 ..................................... 101
FIGURE C 2. DECOMPOSITIONS OF REGIONAL VARIATIONS IN LABOUR MARKET OUTCOMES, 2018 ..................................... 102
TABLE D 1. TWO-LEVEL COUNTRY-SPECIFIC REGRESSIONS OF UNEMPLOYMENT ON SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC
PROFILE CHARACTERISTICS .............................................................................................................................. 103
TABLE D 2. TWO-LEVEL COUNTRY-SPECIFIC REGRESSIONS OF NEET ON SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC PROFILE
CHARACTERISTICS .......................................................................................................................................... 105
TABLE D 3. TWO-LEVEL COUNTRY-SPECIFIC REGRESSIONS OF ISEI ON SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC PROFILE
CHARACTERISTICS .......................................................................................................................................... 106
TABLE D 4. TWO-LEVEL COUNTRY-SPECIFIC REGRESSIONS OF LOG EQUALISED DISPOSABLE INCOME ON SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC
AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC PROFILE CHARACTERISTICS .............................................................................................. 108
TABLE D 5. TWO-LEVEL COUNTRY-SPECIFIC REGRESSIONS OF POVERTY ON SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC PROFILE
CHARACTERISTICS .......................................................................................................................................... 110
TABLE D 6. TWO-LEVEL COUNTRY-SPECIFIC REGRESSIONS OF LIFE SATISFACTION ON SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC
PROFILE CHARACTERISTICS .............................................................................................................................. 112
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o
young adul s
15
3.1.2. Income in/secu i y
Employmen wi h decen ea nings is an impo an p e equisi e o young adul s’ economic
independence and amily o ma ion (Aass e e al., 2013). Delays in lea ing he pa en al
home a e associa ed wi h pos poning o ming s able pa ne ships and ansi ioning o
pa en hood, hus p olonging he o e all ansi ion o adul hood (Billa i and Lie b oe ,
2010; Aass e e al., 2013). Majo isk ac o s o economic insecu i y among young adul s
a e unemploymen , NEET and hus lack o pe sonal income (Aass e e al., 2006, 2013;
Kłobuszewska e al., 2021). Wha ma e s o li ing condi ions is he disposable income a
household le el and whe he his ansla es in o po e y isk. Tha is, how many people
con ibu e o he household income and how many people ha e o li e on his income. This
is why we use disposable income.
As young people's disposable income depends on hei employmen si ua ion,
occupa ional a ainmen and li ing condi ions, i a ies conside ably be ween and wi hin
coun ies (Aass e e al., 2006). Mo eo e , he educa ional a ainmen o young adul s is
an impo an de e minan o hei pe sonal ea nings and hus s ongly in luences hei
disposable income and, in u n, hei isk o po e y (see o e iew in Mendola e al., 2009).
Resea ch also shows ha young adul s li ing in u al a eas ea n less han hose li ing in
u ban a eas (due o mo e limi ed oppo uni ies o highe -skilled employmen ). A he same
ime, hey a e mo e likely o li e wi h hei pa en s, as he cos o li ing is o en highe
(because o highe en s due o lack o a o dable housing in he o m o small o sha ed
la s, lack o public anspo and he need o a ca , which is hen o en sha ed wi h
pa en s) (Culliney, 2014a). Di e ences in educa ion and li ing a angemen s also
ansla e in o di e ences be ween young men and women, and be ween young adul s wi h
and wi hou a mig an backg ound. Finally, heal h p oblems may educe access o (well-
paid) secu e jobs and hus lead o lowe disposable income (Sal kjel and Malmbe g-
Heimonen, 2017).
Di e ences in labou ma ke in eg a ion and in ea ned and disposable income ansla e
in o di e ences in (economic) po e y among young adul s (Aass e e al., 2006). This is
also why he educa ional a ainmen o young adul s is so impo an : i is impo an bo h
o ge ing a job and o ge ing a well-paid job (Aass e e al., 2006; Kłobuszewska e al.,
2021). The same may be ue o he ela ionship be ween di e ences in young adul s'
heal h and hei isk o po e y (see abo e). Simila ly, esea ch has shown ha young
adul s wi h mig a ion backg ounds ace a highe isk o po e y (Kłobuszewska e al.,
2021). In e ms o li ing a angemen s, li ing wi h pa en s is a p o ec i e ac o agains
po e y o young adul s wi h low o no income (Aass e e al., 2006). In almos all Eu opean
coun ies, young adul s wi h child en a e a highe isk o po e y, especially i hey a e
lone pa en s, especially young single mo he s (Aass e e al., 2006; Kłobuszewska e al.,
2021; Mendola e al., 2009). This, oge he wi h hei lowe ea nings, is one o he easons
why women ace a highe isk o po e y han men (Kłobuszewska e al., 2021). The
di e ence in po e y isks by age e lec s he inc easing p opo ion o young people who
ha e le he pa en al home and he inc ease in ea nings a e adjus ing o amily
o ma ion ac o s (such as pa ne ship and child en) (Aass e e al., 2006). Howe e , he
iming o lea ing he pa en al home, en e ing a i s union o ma iage and ha ing a i s
child a ies widely ac oss coun ies (Billa i and Lie b oe , 2010) and may he e o e explain
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o
young adul s
16
some o he c oss-coun y a ia ion in he p opo ion o young adul s li ing in po e y
(Aass e e al., 2006). Finally, di e ences in disposable income may ansla e in o
di e ences in he isk o po e y be ween young adul s li ing in u al and u ban a eas.
3.1.3. Li e sa is ac ion
Young adul s’ li e sa is ac ion a ies widely ac oss Eu ope (OECD, 2024). Coun y
di e ences in unemploymen a es a e one explana ion. A he indi idual le el,
unemploymen is s ongly and nega i ely co ela ed wi h li e sa is ac ion (D’Agos ino e al.,
2019; Dolan e al., 2008; Högbe g e al., 2019; Nizalo a e al., 2021; Tah e al., 2020;
Wul g amm, 2014). Unemployed young adul s may no only su e om economic
insecu i y (see abo e) and g ea e social isola ion, bu may also be mo e wo ied abou
hei u u e and hei deg ee o con ol o e hei li e cou se (S andh, 2000). The e is a
possibili y o e e se causali y: unhappy young adul s may be mo e likely o be unemployed
(e.g. hey may be less p oduc i e o in poo e heal h). Howe e , s udies ha e ound ha
he unemployed do no e u n o hei p e-unemploymen le els o li e sa is ac ion,
con adic ing his assump ion (Dolan e al., 2008).
Li e sa is ac ion is posi i ely associa ed wi h educa ional a ainmen (D'Agos ino e al.,
2019; Tah e al., 2020) and good heal h (D’Agos ino e al., 2019; Dolan e al., 2008) –
bo h o which a e ela ed o income (see abo e). This may pa ly explain he posi i e
co ela ion be ween income and li e sa is ac ion (D’Agos ino e al., 2019; Dolan e al.,
2008; Nizalo a e al., 2021).
Women a e mo e sa is ied han men, and ma ied young adul s a e mo e sa is ied han
unma ied indi iduals (D’Agos ino e al., 2019; Dolan e al., 2008; Tah e al., 2020).
Ha ing child en is also posi i ely ela ed o li e sa is ac ion, bu only o couples. In
con as , single pa en s a e less sa is ied – o hem, child en may ep esen an addi ional
challenge in managing e e yday li e and impac on hei sense o pe sonal con ol (Dolan
e al., 2008). Young adul s li ing wi h hei pa en s a e also less sa is ied (D’Agos ino e
al., 2019) – pe haps due o a delay in amily o ma ion ansi ions. On he o he hand, li e
sa is ac ion has been shown o decline wi h age (D’Agos ino e al., 2019; Dolan e al.,
2008; Tah e al., 2020) – likely due o age- ela ed di e ences in li e ci cums ances.
Some s udies ha e shown ha people li ing in la ge ci ies a e less sa is ied, while hose
li ing in u al a eas a e mo e sa is ied (Dolan e al., 2008). Howe e , many o hese s udies
con ol o income, and as income is likely o be lowe in u al a eas (discussed abo e),
hey may gi e he misleading imp ession ha o e all li e sa is ac ion is highe in u al a eas
(Dolan e al., 2008).
In conclusion, and add essing esea ch ques ion 1 o his epo , we will examine whe he
and how his b oad ange o indi idual-le el ac o s – educa ional a ainmen , socio-
demog aphic cha ac e is ics (gende , age g oups wi hin he 16–34 age b acke , mig a ion
backg ound), amily o ma ion s a us (pa ne ship and child en), economic independence
(lea ing pa en al home), heal h, and le el o u banisa ion o he place o esidence –
in luence young adul s’ labou ma ke in eg a ion and ela ed ou comes.
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o
young adul s
17
3.2. Con ex ual ( egional) in luences
Composi ional di e ences in hese indi idual-le el cha ac e is ics (including di e ences in
ansi ions o adul hood, such as amily o ma ion o lea ing pa en al home) be ween and
wi hin coun ies may also pa ly explain egional di e ences in young adul s’ labou ma ke
in eg a ion and ela ed ou comes. Resea ch ques ion 2 o his epo examines whe he
his is he case, and which indi idual-le el cha ac e is ics a e mos impo an o which
ou comes.
Se e al o he compa a i e s udies e iewed in Subsec ion 3.1 do no include con ex ual
indica o s. Howe e , li e cou se oppo uni ies and cons ain s a e condi ioned by he
ins i u ional and s uc u al con ex s in which young people li e (Bloss eld e al., 2005;
Buchmann and K iesi, 2011). These con ex s a e shaped by policies in di e en a eas and
by na ional ins i u ional a angemen s. They can in luence labou ma ke in eg a ion and
i s consequences o economic in/secu i y and li e sa is ac ion, o e and abo e
composi ional di e ences ac oss coun ies and egions. This is he e o e esea ch
ques ion 3 add essed in his epo .
In he ollowing, we e iew esea ch on con ex ual ac o s (see Table 1). We conside
ac o s ha ha e been used in se e al s udies. Fo he policy a eas o amily and heal h,
he e a e oo ew s udies on con ex ual ac o s; in his case we use he single s udies ha
do exis o indica e he ac o s used. Ou aim is o iden i y hose ac o s ha ha e eme ged
as impo an om he exis ing esea ch. We use his o e iew o help us selec he
con ex ual ac o s o ou analyses, as we ha e a limi ed numbe o cases a he
coun y/ egional le el in ou eg ession (see Sec ion 4). We p esen his o e iew in abula
o m o imp o e he eadabili y and accessibili y o he la ge numbe o esul s.
The majo i y o he s udies epo ed in Table 1 a e c oss-coun y compa isons, and he ew
ha examine egional di e ences wi hin coun ies a e ei he mac o-le el s udies (i.e., hey
do no include indi idual-le el a iables) o single-coun y s udies (e.g., Bache e al., 2017;
B adley e al., 2020; Cinqueg ana e al., 2023; Vog enhube , 2014). Table 1 also shows
ha he in luence o con ex ual ac o s has been s udied much mo e equen ly o labou
ma ke in eg a ion han o economic in/secu i y and li e sa is ac ion. Thus, ac o s ha
cap u e he “economy”, “labou ma ke s” and “educa ion sys ems” ha e been s udied
mo e o en han con ex ual ac o s in he a eas o amily and heal h. This is in e es ing
because he la e wo a eas a e impo an no only o economic in/secu i y (income and
po e y) bu also o li e sa is ac ion, as he discussion in Subsec ion 3.1 has shown.
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o young adul s
18
Table 1. O e iew o con ex ual ac o s co e ed by p io esea ch
Domains
Ope a ionaliza ions
(Indica o s used wi h
di e en speci ica ions)
S udies on
labou ma ke in eg a ion
S udies on
income and po e y
S udies on
li e sa is ac ion
A. Economy
Economic si ua ion
GDP (mos ly: pe capi a)
A agianou e al. 2022; Ca oleo e al. 2020; Ce alo and
Scandu a 2023; Hö be g e al. 2019; Passa e a and
Wolbe s 2019; Raileanu Szeles and Simionescu 2021;
Scandu a e al. 2021; Sche e 2005; Spö lein 2018
Kłobuszewska e al.
2021; Passa e a and
Wolbe s 2019
Ande son 2009;
Nizalo a e al. 2021;
Voßeme e al. 2018
Inequali y
Gini coe icien o income
inequali y
Tah e al. 2020
Po e y le els
Raileanu Szeles and Simionescu 2021
Business cycles
(and labou ma ke
compe i ion)
To al unemploymen a e
Ba anowska and Gebel 2010; B adley e al. 2020; De
Lange e al. 2014; Gangl 2002; Högbe g e al. 2019;
Mo is 2003; Passa e a and Wolbe s 2019; Sche e
2005; Spö lein 2018; Wolbe s 2007
Gangl 2002;
Passa e a and
Wolbe s 2019;
Vog enhube 2014;
Wolbe s 2007
Ande son 2009;
Högbe g e al. 2019;
Lage and B embe g
2009; Nizalo a e al.
2021; Voßeme e
al. 2018
You h unemploymen a e
Gangl 2003; Sche e 2005
Kłobuszewska e al.
2021; Vog enhube
2014
Adul unemploymen a e
B een 2005; Hö be g e al. 2019; Sche e 2005
Employmen a e
Scandu a e al. 2021
Ande son 2009;
Lage and B embe g
2009
In a-coho compe i ion
and labou supply
Median age
Tomić 2018
Size o bi h coho
Sche e 2005
Age a io: young people
as % o popula ion
Speckesse e al. 2019; B adley e al. 2020; Gebel and
Giesecke 2016; Gangl 2002; A agianou e al. 2022
Gangl 2002
% mig an s
B adley e al. 2020; Ce alo and Scandu a 2023
(bo h s udies a he coun y le el only)
B. Labou ma ke s
Quali ica ional s uc u e
Sha e o popula ion wi h
e ia y educa ional
a ainmen (ISCED 5-8)
(also used as indica o
o ex en o educa ional
expansion, Gangl 2002)
B adley e al. 2020; Ce alo and Scandu a 2023;
Cinqueg ana e al. 2023; Die ich 2013; Fusa o and
Scandu a 2023; Raileanu Szeles and Simionescu 2021;
Scandu a e al. 2021; Tomić 2018
Högbe g e al. 2019
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o young adul s
19
Domains
Ope a ionaliza ions
(Indica o s used wi h
di e en speci ica ions)
S udies on
labou ma ke in eg a ion
S udies on
income and po e y
S udies on
li e sa is ac ion
Sha e o popula ion wi h
uppe seconda y
educa ional a ainmen
(ISCED 3-4)
Ce alo and Scandu a 2023; Cinqueg ana e al. 2023;
Die ich 2013; Fusa o and Scandu a 2023; Speckesse
e al. 2019
Sha e o popula ion wi h
less han uppe
seconda y educa ional
a ainmen (ISCED 0–2)
Ce alo and Scandu a 2023; Fusa o and Scandu a
2023; Raileanu Szeles and Simionescu 2021;
Speckesse e al. 2019
Flexibiliza ion and pa -
ime
Sha e o pa - ime
employmen
Speckesse e al. 2019
Sha e o ixed- e m
employees
B adley e al. 2020; Ca oleo e al. 2020
Die ich 2013; Passa e a and Wolbe s 2019; Speckesse
e al. 2019; Tomić 2018
Passa e a and
Wolbe s 2019
Indus ial s uc u e
Sec o sizes (se ice,
indus y, cons uc ion)
B adley e al. 2020; Ce alo and Scandu a 2023; Die ich
2013
Numbe o small and
medium en e p ises
B adley e al. 2020
Employmen P o ec ion
Legisla ion (EPL)
Face s o EPL
Assmann and B oschinski 2021; Ba anowska and Gebel
2010; B een 2005; B zinsky-Fay 2017; De Lange e al.
2014; Gangl 2003; Gebel and Giesecke 2016; Högbe g
e al. 2019; Noelke 2016; Passa e a and Wolbe s 2019;
Sche e 2005; Spö lein 2018; Tomić 2018; an Vug and
Le els 2022; Wolbe s 2007
Ba bie i e al. 2018;
Gangl 2003;
Passa e a and
Wolbe s 2019;
Wolbe s 2007
Voßeme e al. 2018
Ac i e Labou Ma ke
Policies (ALMP)
Di e en ac s o
expendi u e on ALMPs
Assman and B oschinski 2021; Bache e al. 2017;
Biege 2019; Ca oleo e al. 2020; Ce alo and Scandu a
2023; Gebel and Giesecke 2016; Speckesse e al.
2019; an Vug and Le els 2022
Kłobuszewska e al.
2021
Ande son 2009;
Högbe g e al. 2019;
Voßeme e al. 2018
T ade union powe
Le el o collec i e wage
ba gaining
Speckesse e al. 2019
Collec i e ba gaining
co e age
Ba anowska and Gebel 2010; Gebel and Giesecke 2016;
Högbe g e al. 2019; Noelke 2016
Union densi y
Biege 2019; Ca oleo e al. 2020; Noelke 2016;
Passa e a and Wolbe s 2019
Passa e a and
Wolbe s 2019
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o young adul s
20
Domains
Ope a ionaliza ions
(Indica o s used wi h
di e en speci ica ions)
S udies on
labou ma ke in eg a ion
S udies on
income and po e y
S udies on
li e sa is ac ion
C. Educa ion sys ems
Voca ional o ien a ion o
uppe seconda y educa ion
P e alence o oca ional
educa ion and aining
(VET)
Assman and B oschinski 2021; B een 2005; B zinsky-Fay
2017; Ca oleo e al. 2020; De Lange e al. 2014;
Högbe g e al. 2019; Sche e 2005; Speckesse e al.
2019; Spö lein 2018; an Vug e al. 2022b; Wolbe s
2007
Ba bie i e al. 2018;
Wolbe s 2007
Högbe g e al. 2019;
Voßeme e al. 2018
T acking in seconda y
educa ion
Deg ee o s a i ica ion
B zinsky-Fay 2017; Spö lein 2018; an Vug e al. 2022b
Högbe g e al. 2019;
Voßeme e al. 2018
S anda diza ion
Deg ee o s anda diza ion
B zinsky-Fay 2017; Spö lein 2018
Schmelze and Ramos
2016
Voßeme e al. 2018
D. Family & Heal h
Family
Leng h o ma e ni y
(pa en al) lea e
an Vug e al. 2022a
Li ing wi h pa en s (a
age 20–29)
Tomić 2018
Heal h
Expendi u es on heal h
ca e in % o GDP
Assmann and B oschinski 2021
No e: S udies epo ed in alphabe ical o de . Copy igh 2024 by Ho nbe g/Heisig/Solga.
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o
young adul s
21
3.3. Summa y and implica ions
Compa a i e esea ch on c oss-coun y a ia ions in young adul s’ labou ma ke
ou comes and li e sa is ac ion is well es ablished. The as majo i y o hese s udies a gue
ha educa ional a ainmen is he mos impo an ac o a he indi idual le el (see e.g.
Rahmani and G oo , 2023). Howe e , mos o hese s udies did no include indica o s o
heal h o amily o ma ion. I he e o e emains o be seen whe he his cen al impo ance
o educa ion emains when heal h and amily o ma ion indica o s a e included. We
he e o e ex end he lis o indica o s included in his epo (see esea ch ques ion 1).
In addi ion, we di ec ly examine how much o he egional a ia ion (de ined as di e ences
be ween and wi hin coun ies) is due o composi ional di e ences in his b oad se o
indi idual le el cha ac e is ics ( esea ch ques ion 2). Fo his, we will conduc a
decomposi ion analysis and he eby also examine he ela i e impo ance o di e en
cha ac e is ics in explaining egional di e ences in he di e en ou comes (labou ma ke
in eg a ion, economic insecu i y and li e sa is ac ion).
The impac o con ex ual ac o s has only been examined in ei he mac o-le el s udies o
single-coun y s udies, and limi ed a en ion has been paid o amily and heal h con ex ual
ac o s in exis ing esea ch on young adul s’ ea ly ca ee s and li e sa is ac ion (see
Subsec ion 3.2). In his epo , we ex end he examina ion o con ex ual ac o s in h ee
ways: (i), we examine hem by accoun ing o indi idual-le el ac o s; (ii) we include
27 Eu opean coun ies and egions wi hin coun ies (see Sec ion 4); and (iii) we include
con ex ual ac o s om a wide ange o policy a eas ( esea ch ques ion 3), ecognising
po en ial spillo e s om heal h and childca e policies o he labou ma ke .
We canno include all he indica o s (con ex ual ac o s) lis ed in Table 1, bu a e
cons ained by wha is a ailable o he Eu opean coun ies included in ou s udy,
especially a NUTS 1 le el (see Sec ion 4), and wha is possible wi h he limi ed numbe o
cases a he coun y le el. We ha e he e o e selec ed h ee o i e con ex ual indica o s
pe domain o be included in ou analyses, based on exis ing esea ch and addi ional
conside a ions:
−
A. Economy: GDP, o al unemploymen a e (no you h unemploymen because o
i s s ong co ela ion wi h he o al a e and wi h ou ou come a iable
“unemploymen ” and “NEET”), income inequali y (as he a io be ween he op and
bo om 20 pe cen o disposable income, o cap u e economic exclusion be e
han he GINI index) and he age a io 15–34 o 35–64 as a demog aphic
compe i ion ac o .
−
B. Labou ma ke s: EPL, o al employmen a e, employmen sha es o economic
sec o s and employmen sha es in la ge en e p ises (mo e han 50 employees).
Indica o s o ade union powe o ac i e labou ma ke policies a e no included
because o hei high co ela ion wi h o al unemploymen and employmen a es
( hus, hei impac is o some ex en co e ed by hese wo con ex indica o s).
−
C. Educa ion sys ems: he widely used indica o s o oca ional o ien a ion and
s a i ica ion ( acking) in (uppe ) seconda y educa ion, he sha e o less-educa ed
young adul s (ISCED 0–2) and o highly educa ed young adul s (ISCED 5+), and
expendi u e on e ia y educa ion.
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o
young adul s
22
−
D. Family and heal h (“ca e"): The a ailabili y o indica o s is a he limi ed. To
cap u e suppo o young pa en s wi h young child en, he sha e o young child en
in o mal childca e is included ( his indica o is only a ailable a na ional le el); a
he egional le el wi hin coun ies, “employmen - ela ed gende ole a i udes” a e
included as an indica o o he “accep ance” o o mal childca e ( his indica o has
been cons uc ed om su ey da a; see Sec ion 4). Fo heal h, heal h expendi u e
and he numbe o physicians pe 100,000 inhabi an s (con olled o median age
o accoun o egional di e ences in demand) a e included.
4. Da a and me hods
This sec ion desc ibes he da a and me hods used o examine egional a ia ions in labou
ma ke in eg a ion, income in/secu i y and li e sa is ac ion among young adul s.
Sec ion 4.1 begins wi h an o e iew o he EU-SILC su ey as he p ima y indi idual-le el
da abase used in his epo , along wi h he sample es ic ions implemen ed. Sec ions
4.2 and 4.3 de ail he ope a ionalisa ion o he a iables used a bo h he indi idual and
egional le els. Finally, Sec ion 4.4 ou lines ou analy ical s a egy.
4.1. Da a and sample
We use indi idual-le el da a om he Eu opean Union S a is ics on Income and Li ing
Condi ions (EU-SILC).
2
EU-SILC is an in e na ional household su ey, which was launched
by he Eu opean Commission in 2004 wi h he decla ed aim o collec ing “ imely and
compa able c oss-sec ional and longi udinal mul idimensional mic oda a on income,
po e y, social exclusion, and li ing condi ions” (Eu os a , 2021a). Since hen, da a
collec ion has been annual. No ably, da a on li e sa is ac ion, which is a cen al ou come
a iable examined in his epo , has only been collec ed in ou wa es (2013, 2018, 2021,
and 2022). We ocus on he wa e 2021 o he main analysis in o de o ob ain he
maximum numbe o coun ies and egions belonging o he EU (see below). As a
obus ness check, we eplica e all analyses o 2018 o e i y ha he esul s hold be o e
he ou b eak o he COVID-19 pandemic (see a he end o Sec ions 5.2, 5.3.1, and 5.3.2).
Howe e , due o missing egional in o ma ion, Ge many as he la ges EU membe s a e is
excluded om hese 2018 addi ional analyses.
Da a collec ion o EU-SILC 2021 ook place in all 27 EU membe s a es plus in No way,
Swi ze land, and Se bia. We exclude No way because da a iles a e no ye a ailable (as
o July 2024) and he Ne he lands and Slo enia because o missing a iables. Ou coun y
sample hus comp ises a o al o 27 Eu opean coun ies, 25 o which a e EU membe
s a es. Fo egions wi hin coun ies, we e e o majo socio-economic egions, de ined as
NUTS 1 geocodes. Mo e ine-g ained in o ma ion (e.g. a he NUTS 2 le el) is no a ailable
o all coun ies. A e excluding 12 coun ies om ou coun y sample because hey do
no ha e dis inc NUTS 1 egions (i.e. he adminis a i e egion is he same a he NUTS 1
and na ional le el) and Finland because o missing egional co e age, we emain wi h
75 NUTS 1 egions in 14 coun ies o he wi hin-coun y analysis (see Appendix, Table A
1).
2
Fo me ging iles, we used he S a a ou ine p o ided by GESIS.
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o
young adul s
23
Fo he analysis o STWTs and o he s a us ansi ions o adul hood, we ocus on young
adul s aged be ween 16 o 34 yea s. Mo eo e , we es ic ou sample o indi idual
esponden s
3
and u he exclude cases wi h missing in o ma ion on key indi idual-le el
p edic o s (i.e. highes educa ional deg ee, gende , age, mig a ion backg ound, amily
composi ion, heal h s a us, esiden ial a ea; see Sec ion 4.2 o mo e de ails).
A o al o 85,115 cases mee he abo e sample es ic ions, including 56,816 cases o
he egional subsample. The inal sample size a ies depending on he speci ic ou come
s udied, due o addi ional sampling es ic ions (e.g. ocus on he labou o ce o
unemploymen analysis) and missing da a on dependen a iables. Consequen ly, he inal
sample anges om 85,115 (56,816) cases o NEET o 51,401 (33,759) cases o
unemploymen .
The p ima y sou ce o con ex ual-le el a iables a bo h he na ional and NUTS 1 le el is
Eu os a . Addi ional indi idual indica o s come om a ious su eys and esea ch cen es
(see Sec ion 4.3). Due o limi ed da a a ailabili y, pa icula ly a he NUTS 1 le el, di e en
con ex ual domains equi ed u he adjus men s o he indi idual-le el sample o he
be ween- and wi hin-coun y analyses. Mo e de ails a e p o ided in Sec ion 4.3.
4.2. Indi idual-le el a iables
4.2.1. Measu es o STWT ou comes
To ope a ionalize young adul s’ labou ma ke in eg a ion and ela ed ou comes, we
conside a o al o six STWT ou come a iables (see Sec ion 2 and Table 2). Th ee key
a iables a e ela ed o he labou ma ke in eg a ion o young adul s: Unemploymen
s a us (yes/no), NEET s a us (yes/no), and ISEI sco es (as indica o occupa ional
a ainmen /s a us). Bo h unemploymen and NEET a e cons uc ed on he basis o he
main ac i i y s a us epo ed by esponden s. Unemploymen is de ined only o young
adul s who a e pa o he labou o ce (i.e. hey a e employed o ac i ely seeking
employmen ; hey a e no in educa ion, aining, o inac i e). In con as , indi iduals a e
classi ied as NEET i hey epo being ei he unemployed o inac i e, and as non-NEET i
hey a e in employmen , educa ion, o aining. ISEI sco es a e calcula ed based on wo-
digi 2008 In e na ional S anda d Classi ica ion o Occupa ion (ISCO) codes, ollowing he
amewo k es ablished by Ganzeboom and T eiman (1996). An excep ion is made o
Mal a, whe e only one-digi in o ma ion is a ailable. Fo employed esponden s, he ISEI
sco e e e s o he cu en job. Fo hose who a e no cu en ly employed bu ha e been
employed be o e, we use in o ma ion on hei las job.
Rega ding income in/secu i y, we include wo a iables: equi alised disposable income as
an absolu e measu e ( o di e ences ac oss Eu ope) and po e y isk (yes/no) as a ela i e
income measu e ( ha accoun o di e ences in he na ional income dis ibu ion).
4
Bo h
a iables a e supplied wi h he EU-SILC da a and a e gene a ed om EU-SILC
comp ehensi e income module. Equi alised disposable income is calcula ed om o al
3
The main sou ces a e he pe sonal esponden ile (i in o ma ion was no a ailable he e, we used
in o ma ion om he pe sonal egis e s) and income da a om household ile.
4
In addi ion, he ISEI sco e scale o measu ing occupa ional a ainmen , which co ela es wi h ela i e
income posi ions wi hin coun ies and egions, can also be conside ed as a p oxy o di e ences in ela i e
income posi ions.
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o
young adul s
24
disposable household income (i.e., income a e social ans e s), adjus ed o household
size and e e ing o a ixed 12-mon h pe iod.
5
Fo he analysis, we use he loga i hm o
he equi alised disposable income, as common in income analyses o minimize o e -
p opo ional in luence o ou lie s. Income da a a e no adjus ed o pu chasing powe
pa i ies. Po e y isk s a us is a measu e o social exclusion wi hin coun ies and egions
(a leas in economic e ms). Responden a e conside ed “poo ” i hei income is below
he 60 pe cen o he median income in hei coun y o esidence.
Finally, we include a a iable measu ing o e all li e sa is ac ion on a 10-poin scale. A e
e e se coding he a iable om he EU-SILC da a o easie in e p e a ion, i s alues ange
om (1) “no sa is ied a all” o (10) “ e y sa is ied”.
4.2.2. Measu es o young adul s’ socio-demog aphic and socio-economic
p o iles
The ope a ionalisa ion o young adul s’ socio-demog aphic and socio-economic p o iles
a e summa ised in Table 2. Educa ional a ainmen dis inguishes h ee b oad ca ego ies:
less-educa ed young adul s wi h o mal quali ica ions co esponding o ISCED le els 0–2,
in e media e-educa ed wo ke s a ISCED le els 3 and 4, and e ia y-educa ed wo ke s
wi h quali ica ions a le el 5 and abo e – based on he 2011 e ision o he ISCED.
Ou demog aphic and socio-economic cha ac e is ics include gende (male/ emale)
6
, age
(g ouped in o ou 5-yea ca ego ies), and mig a ion backg ound (yes/no). Mig a ion
backg ound indica es whe he a esponden ’s coun y o bi h and/o ci izenship is ou side
o he coun y o esidence.
To s udy spillo e s (dynamic associa ions) be ween li e domains, we include young adul s’
amily composi ion (indica ing amily o ma ion p ocesses) and lea ing he pa en al home
(as indica o o economic independence), we cons uc ed a a iable wi h i e ca ego ies
dis inguishing be ween couples wi hou child en, couples wi h child en, li ing wi h pa en s,
li ing alone, and o he o ms wi h child en.
Heal h is measu ed on a 4-poin scale anging om (1) “ e y good” o (4) “( e y) poo ”.
7
We also include a a iable indica ing he deg ee o u banisa ion o he place o esidence,
dis inguishing be ween ci ies, owns and subu bs, and u al a eas (Eu os a , 2021b).
8
Fo he analyses o occupa ional s a us, income in/secu i y and li e sa is ac ion, we also
include young adul s’ (sel - epo ed) employmen s a us, indica ing whe he a pe son is
employed, unemployed, in educa ion, o inac i e. The models on li e sa is ac ion
addi ionally include he wo income in/secu i y measu es (i.e., loga i hm o disposable
income and po e y s a us).
Table 2 shows an o e iew o he indi idual-le el socio-demog aphic and socio-economic
p o ile a iables used o he analysis and also he sample speci ica ion o each o he six
5
The income e e ence pe iod is usually he p e ious calenda yea . To s anda dise household income, EU-
SILC uses an equi alence scale which gi es a alue o 0.5 o each addi ional adul household membe and
o 0.3 o each child. Fo mo e de ailed in o ma ion, see Eu os a (2021a).
6
EU-SILC does no include “di e se” as an addi ional gende ca ego y.
7
We ha e me ged he ca ego ies “poo ” and “ e y poo ” in o one due o e y small case numbe s o bo h.
8
Fo Es onia and La ia, u ban and subu ban egions a e combined in o one ca ego y. Fo Ma a, subu ban
and u al egions a e combined.
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o
young adul s
31
egions wi hin coun ies. As discussed in Sec ion 4.3, his app oach also add esses issues
o mul icollinea i y be ween na ional and wi hin-coun y egional con ex ual a iables.
All ou models a e weigh ed using pe sonal esponden weigh s p o ided by EU-SILC o
ensu e ha ou samples a e ep esen a i e o all indi iduals aged 16 and olde esiding
wi hin households in each coun y (Eu os a , 2022). Howe e , hese sample weigh s
disp opo iona ely a ou esponden s om la ge coun ies o NUTS 1 egions, po en ially
skewing ou pooled model es ima es owa ds hese la ge g oups. To add ess his (and
gi e all coun ies and egions, espec i ely, he same weigh ), we escale su ey weigh s
using he escale_weigh s unc ion om he R package easys a s (Lüdecke e
al., 2022; see also Aspa ouho , 2006; Ca le, 2009).
The escaling p ocess in ol es wo me hods: Me hod A adjus s he sample weigh s by a
ac o ha equals he p opo ion o he g oup size o he o al o sampling weigh s wi hin
each g oup. This adjus men esul s in he new weigh s summing o he ac ual clus e
sample size. In me hod B, he adjus men ac o is calcula ed by di iding he sum o
sample weigh s wi hin each g oup by he sum o he squa ed sample weigh s wi hin he
same g oup. This esul s in he new weigh s summing o he e ec i e clus e size, which
is a measu e e lec ing he g oup’s ac ual con ibu ion o he o e all sample a iance (see
Ca le, 2009).
As ecommended, we es each model bo h unweigh ed and weigh ed wi h he wo
escaling me hods o see i in e ence decisions a e consis en ac oss app oaches. The
esul s o hese compa isons indica e ha ou es ima ions a e qui e obus . Fo eg ession
analyses, we op o me hod A, which is be e sui ed o discussing speci ic poin
es ima es and is ad isable when dealing wi h small o insu icien g oup sizes (see Ca le,
2009). Fo decomposi ions, we use me hod B, which is p e e ed o analyses ha ocus
on he esidual a iance be ween g oups.
5. Resul s
We s a he p esen a ion o ou empi ical analyses wi h some desc ip ions on a ia ions
in young adul s’ labou ma ke in eg a ion and ela ed ou comes be ween and wi hin
coun ies (Sec ion 5.1). We hen add ess ou h ee esea ch ques ions:
−
RQ 1: he in luence o socio-demog aphic/socio-economic p o ile cha ac e is ics,
including li e domain spillo e s (Sec ion 5.2)
−
RQ 2: whe he be ween- and wi hin-coun y composi ional di e ences in hese
young adul s’ p o ile explain egional a ia ions in young adul s’ STWT ou comes
(Sec ion 5.3.1)
−
RQ 3: he in luence o con ex ual ac o s (Sec ion 5.3.2).
5.1. Regional a ia ions in young adul s’ STWT ou comes
This sec ion de ails he six STWT ou come a iables o ou s udy, ocusing on a ia ions
be ween and wi hin coun ies in young adul s' labou ma ke in eg a ion, income
in/secu i y and li e sa is ac ion.
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o
young adul s
32
5.1.1. Di e ences be ween coun ies
Table A 4 p esen s desc ip i e s a is ics o ou six STWT ou come a iables ac oss he
27 coun ies s udied. S a ing wi h labou ma ke in eg a ion, he e is conside able
be ween-coun y a ia ion in all h ee dimensions conside ed: NEET a es ange om 7 pe
cen in Luxembou g o 25 pe cen in Se bia, unemploymen a es om 3 pe cen in
Luxembou g and Mal a o 33 pe cen in Se bia, and he a e age ISEI sco es om 37 in
Bulga ia o 51 in Luxembou g. As expec ed, he co ela ion be ween NEET and
unemploymen a es is high a coun y le el (Pea son’s = 0.76), wi h Luxembou g,
Swi ze land and Mal a ha ing e y low NEET and unemploymen a es, while Se bia,
G eece and I aly ha e e y high a es.
An examina ion o he a e age ISEI sco es shows ha high employmen is no a he
expense o occupa ional quali y. Coun ies such as Swi ze land, Luxembou g, and Mal a
show no only high employmen o young adul s, bu also employmen in high-s a us
occupa ions. Con e sely, coun ies wi h lowe employmen a es o en also ha e lowe
a e age ISEI sco es among young adul s, such as Bulga ia, G eece and Se bia. The
co ela ion is mo e p onounced wi h NEET (Pea son’s = 0.74) han wi h unemploymen
(Pea son’s = 0.59). Fo example, Romania has a e y low a e age ISEI despi e i s low
unemploymen a e.
Tu ning o income in/secu i y, Table 4 again e eals conside able di e ences be ween
coun ies. A e age equi alised disposable income pe yea anges om 4,614 eu o in
Se bia o 54,211 eu o in Swi ze land. I is impo an o no e ha disposable income is no
adjus ed o pu chasing powe pa i ies, so he di e ences also e lec subs an ial
di e ences in li ing s anda ds be ween coun ies. Mo e impo an howe e is he ac ha
disposable income depends on he composi ion o he household (and hus on he income
con ibu ions o he household membe s). In his espec , lea ing he pa en al home is
e y impo an – and his a ies g ea ly be ween coun ies (see Appendix, Table A 2): while
in Swi ze land 43 pe cen s ill li e wi h hei pa en s, in Se bia only 11 pe cen do. Po e y
a es ange om 8 pe cen in Czechia o 24 pe cen in I aly. As he po e y indica o akes
in o accoun na ional income dis ibu ions, he e is no signi ican co ela ion be ween he
wo measu es o income in/secu i y (Pea son’s = -0.21).
The e a e no able associa ions be ween labou ma ke in eg a ion and income in/secu i y.
As expec ed, occupa ional s a us (ISEI sco es) and income a e posi i ely co ela ed a he
coun y le el (Pea son’s = 0.63), indica ing ha young adul s’ a e age disposable income
is highe in coun ies wi h g ea e oppo uni ies o en e in o high-s a us occupa ions, such
as Swi ze land and Luxembou g, and lowe in coun ies wi h mo e low-s a us jobs, such as
Bulga ia, Romania, and Se bia. Po e y a es, in u n, a e mos s ongly co ela ed wi h
unemploymen a es (Pea son’s = 0.54), unde lining he ad e se economic impac s
associa ed wi h you h unemploymen . Coun ies hi pa icula ly ha d by he economic c isis
in 2008, such as G eece, Spain, and I aly, a e no able examples o his.
Finally, a e age li e sa is ac ion anges om 6 poin s in Bulga ia o 8 poin s in Aus ia,
Finland and Romania. In e es ingly, coun ies ha pe o m poo ly in e ms o labou
ma ke in eg a ion and economic secu i y do no necessa ily ha e he lowes le els o
sa is ac ion. Fo example, young Romanians ha e he highes a e age li e sa is ac ion,
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o
young adul s
33
despi e ha ing one o he highes po e y isks and low a e age occupa ional a ainmen .
Con e sely, despi e i s excellen employmen oppo uni ies and high disposable income,
li e sa is ac ion in Luxembou g is only a e age – he same as in I aly, whe e labou ma ke
in eg a ion is a he poo and economic insecu i y is high. Co espondingly, he co ela ion
wi h labou ma ke in eg a ion is mode a e (Pea son’s = -0.51 o unemploymen , -0.41
o NEET, and 0.37 o ISEI), and small and insigni ican wi h income secu i y (Pea son’s
= 0.23 o income and 0.30 o po e y). This dis inc i e coun y anking o li e
sa is ac ion highligh s unique egional a ia ions ha canno be solely p edic ed by
economic ac o s.
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o young adul s
34
Table 4. Coun y a ia ion in STWT ou comes
Coun y
ISO
codes
Unemploymen
a e (%)
NEET a e
(%)
ISEI sco es
(a e age)
Equi alised disposable income
pe yea (in Eu o)
Log disposable
income
Po e y a e
(in %)
Li e sa is ac ion
(a e age)
Aus ia
AT
9.25
14.46
45.58
28882.32
10.14
15.06
8.18
Belgium
BE
7.86
11.50
49.44
27925.70
10.15
11.84
7.71
Bulga ia
BG
20.09
21.00
36.89
6546.69
8.51
22.88
6.29
Swi ze land
CH
6.62
8.43
49.70
54210.77
10.75
11.30
7.81
Cyp us
CY
12.30
15.44
43.35
18798.50
9.73
12.46
7.15
Czechia
CZ
8.04
15.90
44.95
12779.21
9.34
7.83
7.77
Ge many
DE
7.18
15.02
47.50
28523.53
10.08
19.46
7.40
Denma k
DK
13.99
10.94
44.69
29914.60
10.19
23.42
7.09
Es onia
EE
10.54
16.50
48.44
15665.50
9.50
14.46
7.55
G eece
EL
31.73
23.83
40.11
9362.20
8.97
23.64
7.13
Spain
ES
22.50
17.46
41.96
17060.90
9.54
23.83
7.46
Finland
FI
12.49
14.96
43.73
25652.18
10.05
15.87
8.01
F ance
FR
17.61
14.51
43.41
25099.74
9.98
16.93
7.15
C oa ia
HR
20.80
15.47
43.21
9602.01
9.04
12.77
7.61
Hunga y
HU
12.44
17.85
42.03
7339.90
8.76
11.90
7.08
I eland
IE
14.13
14.87
42.26
33530.98
10.31
9.04
7.11
I aly
IT
23.58
20.67
41.27
18646.01
9.64
24.16
7.50
Li huania
LT
12.22
14.41
49.52
13225.13
9.28
16.11
7.67
Luxembou g
LU
3.22
6.89
50.62
45997.16
10.61
17.16
7.51
La ia
LV
9.81
14.35
46.38
12557.72
9.25
14.34
7.16
Mal a
MT
3.42
7.85
49.07
21518.79
9.84
9.48
7.36
Poland
PL
7.62
11.88
42.80
9427.44
9.02
13.68
7.94
Po ugal
PT
16.22
12.23
43.81
12393.18
9.26
17.24
7.66
Romania
RO
4.07
16.87
37.93
5527.17
8.37
23.11
8.00
Se bia
RS
33.45
24.79
39.80
4614.25
8.22
22.18
6.68
Sweden
SE
10.80
10.10
45.06
26180.73
10.05
18.55
7.56
Slo akia
SK
11.63
19.51
41.58
8970.30
9.01
12.60
7.71
Mean
13.47
15.10
44.26
19627.87
9.54
16.34
7.45
SD
7.77
4.45
3.67
12280.17
0.67
5.02
0.42
No es: Highes and small alues a e in bold. SD s anda d de ia ion. Weigh ed esul s. Copy igh 2024 by Ho nbe g/Heisig/Solga.
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o
young adul s
35
5.1.2. Regional di e ences wi hin coun ies
Nex , we look a he wi hin-coun y a ia ion be ween NUTS 1 egions o he six STWT
ou comes. The aim is o p o ide a b oad unde s anding o how ou comes a y no only
be ween coun ies, bu also wi hin coun ies. We ocus on g aphical isualisa ions o
selec ed ou comes ( o he ull able see Appendix, Table A 1).
Figu e 1 shows egional di e ences in unemploymen a es as an indica o o labou
ma ke in eg a ion. I highligh s ma ked di e ences be ween egions ac oss coun ies, wi h
a es anging om 0 pe cen o 41 pe cen . Fu he mo e, he e is a s ong co ela ion
be ween unemploymen a es a na ional and egional le el (Pea son’s = 0.82),
unde lining he in luence o na ional economic condi ions on egional employmen .
Figu e 1: Regional a ia ion in unemploymen a es o young adul s
No es: Focus on 14 coun ies wi h NUTS 1 egions. Fo ull coun y sample, see Table 4 (Sec ion
5.1.1). Weigh ed esul s. Copy igh 2024 by Ho nbe g/Heisig/Solga.
Unemploymen
0
10
20
30
40
Aço as (PT)
Cana ias (ES)
Madei a (PT)
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o
young adul s
36
The igu e also e eals conside able egional a ia ions wi hin many coun ies, pa icula ly
in sou he n Eu opean coun ies such as I aly, Spain and Po ugal. In I aly, o example,
unemploymen a es ange om 9 pe cen o 41 pe cen . This a ia ion ep esen s
de ia ions om he na ional a e age o as much as -14 o +17 pe cen age poin s. Such
p onounced egional dispa i ies wi hin a single coun y illus a e he subs an ial egional
di e ences ha can exis wi hin a uni o m na ional amewo k and highligh he complex
dynamics o labou ma ke in eg a ion wi hin coun ies.
Figu e 2 shows simila pa e ns o income in/secu i y, wi h signi ican egional a ia ions
bo h be ween and wi hin coun ies. Again, his a ia ion is pa icula ly p onounced in I aly
and Spain. The e a e also signi ican egional dispa i ies in se e al con inen al Eu opean
coun ies, including Belgium, F ance and Ge many, and in Eas e n Eu ope, pa icula ly
C oa ia and Se bia.
Figu e 2. Regional a ia ion in po e y a es o young adul s
No es: Focus on 14 coun ies wi h NUTS 1 egions. Fo ull coun y sample, see Table 4 (Sec ion
5.1.1) Weigh ed esul s. Copy igh 2024 by Ho nbe g/Heisig/Solga.
Po e y
10
20
30
40
Aço as (PT)
Madei a (PT)
Cana ias (ES)
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o
young adul s
37
Figu e 3 illus a es he egional a ia ions in a e age li e sa is ac ion. Va ia ions wi hin
coun ies a e gene ally mo e mode a e han hose be ween coun ies. Ne e heless, he e
a e some no able di e ences wi hin ce ain coun ies. In F ance o Ge many, o example,
single egions exhibi an a e age li e sa is ac ion o young adul s ha is almos 1 poin
highe han he na ional a e age. No ably, he esul s again highligh only a mode a e
co ela ion be ween egional a ia ions in li e sa is ac ion and a ia ions in labou ma ke
in eg a ion and economic in/secu i y.
Figu e 3. Regional a ia ion in li e sa is ac ion o young adul s
No es: Focus on 14 coun ies wi h NUTS 1 egions. Fo ull coun y sample, see Table 4 (Sec ion
5.1.1). Weigh ed esul s. Copy igh 2024 by Ho nbe g/Heisig/Solga.
O e all, he esul s highligh conside able egional a ia ion, bo h be ween and wi hin
coun ies. The ollowing sec ions explo e possible explana ions o hese a ia ions,
ocusing on he con ibu ions o composi ional di e ences and con ex ual ac o s.
Li e sa is ac ion
6.5
7.0
7.5
8.0
Madei a (PT)
Aço as (PT)
Cana ias (ES)
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o
young adul s
38
5.2. The ole o socio-demog aphic and socio-economic
cha ac e is ics o young adul s’ STWT ou comes
The ocus o his sec ion is esea ch ques ion 1. Table 5 and Table 6 show he esul s o
he mul ile el eg essions o he six STWT ou come a iables on he socio-demog aphic
and socio-economic p o ile a iables. Table 5 ocuses on labou ma ke in eg a ion and
Table 6 on income in/secu i y and li e sa is ac ion. These es ima es a e o be in e p e ed
as a e age associa ions ac oss ou pooled sample o 27 coun ies in he wo-le el models
(depic ed in Table 5 and Table 6) and o 75 egions ac oss 14 coun ies in he h ee-le el
models (p esen ed in he Appendix B, Table B 1 and Table B 2). No ably, he coe icien
es ima es a e la gely simila ac oss bo h egional le el speci ica ion, highligh ing he
gene al ele ance o he ac o s conside ed ac oss di e en egions. We also conduc ed
coun y-speci ic eg essions o all six STWT ou comes, which b oadly con i m his
conclusion (see Appendix D).
15
S a ing wi h he labou ma ke a ainmen o young adul s, he esul s p esen ed in Table
5 closely align wi h he indings o p e ious esea ch as ou lined in Sec ion 3: Educa ional
a ainmen eme ges as a c ucial p edic o o success ul labou ma ke in eg a ion: highe
le els o educa ional a ainmen a e associa ed wi h a educed isk o being NEET and
unemployed, and a e co ela ed wi h highe occupa ional s a us. I should be emphasised
ha his is he “ emaining” e ec o educa ion, o e and abo e i s in luence on heal h,
amily o ma ion and i s associa ions wi h mig a ion backg ound, gende , and deg ee o
u banisa ion. Poo heal h – o en missing in STWT analyses – is a signi ican ba ie o
labou ma ke in eg a ion, pa icula ly a ec ing NEET and unemploymen isks, whe e i is
he mos in luen ial ac o .
Family composi ion is also signi ican ly associa ed wi h all h ee labou ma ke in eg a ion
ou comes. Single pa en hood eme ges as a key isk ac o o NEET s a us, unemploymen
and low occupa ional s a us. The p esence o child en in couple households also co ela es
wi h a isk o being NEET, p obably due o childca e esponsibili ies. Mo eo e , highe
unemploymen and NEET isks and lowe occupa ional s a us a ained a e associa ed wi h
s ill li ing in he pa en al home (i.e., economic dependence).
Rega ding he in luence o socio-demog aphic cha ac e is ics, we obse e also gende
di e ences: young men a e less likely o be NEET o unemployed han young women.
Howe e , con olled o o he ac o s such as amily composi ion, young women gene ally
achie e highe occupa ional s a us. The impac o age a ies: he unemploymen isk ends
o dec ease wi h age, while he NEET isk ends o inc ease (possibly because younge
people a e mo e likely o be in educa ion).
Age ends in occupa ional s a us a e less obse able, p obably because he as majo i y
o 16-19 yea olds a e s ill a school, making he employed popula ion mo e selec i e han
ha o 20-24 yea olds. Taking his in o accoun , occupa ional s a us also ends o inc ease
wi h age (o labou ma ke expe ience).
15
The e a e some di e ences in he impo ance o indi idual ac o s be ween coun ies. In es iga ing hese
is beyond he scope o he cu en epo , which ocuses p ima ily on composi ional di e ences, bu is
in e es ing o u u e esea ch.
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o
young adul s
39
Table 5. Two-le el eg essions o labou ma ke in eg a ion on socio-demog aphic and
socio-economic p o ile cha ac e is ics
Unemploymen
NEET
ISEI (sco e poin s)
(AME)
(AME)
(1)
(2)
Educa ional a ainmen ( e : less-educa ed)
In e media e-educa ed
-0.101***
-0.119***
6.726***
6.512***
(0.009)
(0.006)
(0.238)
(0.238)
Te ia y-educa ed
-0.155***
-0.161***
29.216***
28.773***
(0.013)
(0.008)
(0.253)
(0.253)
Heal h s a us ( e .: e y good)
Good
0.023***
0.028***
-1.293***
-1.246***
(0.004)
(0.003)
(0.157)
(0.157)
Fai
0.094***
0.116***
-2.841***
-2.493***
(0.010)
(0.008)
(0.283)
(0.282)
(Ve y) poo
0.234***
0.357***
-3.544***
-2.445***
(0.022)
(0.016)
(0.623)
(0.624)
Family composi ion ( e .: couples wi hou child en)
Couples wi h child en
0.042***
0.134***
-3.212***
-2.775***
(0.006)
(0.008)
(0.231)
(0.233)
Li ing wi h pa en s
0.094***
0.063***
-2.904***
-2.584***
(0.009)
(0.005)
(0.226)
(0.226)
Li ing alone
0.038***
0.021***
-1.911***
-1.719***
(0.006)
(0.004)
(0.241)
(0.241)
O he o ms wi h child en
0.104***
0.165***
-5.838***
-5.236***
(incl. single pa en hood)
(0.014)
(0.012)
(0.475)
(0.475)
Gende ( e .: Women): Men
-0.044***
-0.057***
-1.344***
-1.678***
(0.005)
(0.004)
(0.150)
(0.151)
Age ( e .: 16-19)
20-24
-0.031**
0.125***
-1.732***
-1.634***
(0.010)
(0.008)
(0.458)
(0.457)
25-29
-0.072***
0.171***
0.212
0.018
(0.011)
(0.010)
(0.458)
(0.460)
30-34
-0.089***
0.147***
0.820+
0.569
(0.012)
(0.009)
(0.467)
(0.470)
Mig a ion backg ound ( e .: no): Yes
0.025***
0.031***
-4.167***
-4.083***
(0.005)
(0.004)
(0.230)
(0.229)
Residen ial a ea ( e .: ci ies)
Towns and subu bs
0.001
0.009**
-2.682***
-2.725***
(0.004)
(0.003)
(0.183)
(0.182)
Ru al a eas
-0.015***
0.013***
-5.233***
-5.362***
(0.004)
(0.003)
(0.189)
(0.188)
Employmen s a us ( e .: employed)
Unemployed
-4.625***
(0.282)
In educa ion
-3.367***
(0.333)
Inac i e
-3.365***
(0.343)
(In e cep )
---
---
35.887***
36.883***
(0.818)
(0.810)
SD (In e cep iso3166)
0.699
0.435
3.346
3.279
SD (Obse a ions)
---
---
16.352
16.288
ICC
0.1
0.1
0.0
0.0
BIC
34149.8
59230.9
457688.1
457310.1
Numbe o obse a ions
51,401
85,115
52,504
52,504
Numbe o coun ies
27
27
27
27
No es: + p < 0.1, * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001. Fo bina y dependen a iables, AME epo ed.
Weigh ed esul s. Copy igh 2024 by Ho nbe g/Heisig/Solga.
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o
young adul s
40
Ha ing a mig a ion backg ound inc eases he likelihood o being NEET and unemployed,
al hough he associa ions a e ela i ely modes . Fo hose in employmen , he e is a
no able nega i e associa ion wi h lowe occupa ional s a us.
Las ly, he deg ee o u banisa ion o he place o esidence also plays a ole in labou
ma ke oppo uni ies. Young people li ing in u al a eas ace a lowe unemploymen isk
bu a highe isk o being NEET (may be due o ewe oppo uni ies o u he educa ion,
like app en iceships, pos -seconda y o e ia y educa ion) han hei u ban coun e pa s.
Mo eo e , employmen comes a he cos o lowe occupa ional s a us, which may be due
o a lack o highe -skilled jobs in u al a eas.
Wi h ega d o income in/secu i y, Table 6 again shows ha educa ional a ainmen is an
impo an ac o . Highe le els o educa ional a ainmen a e posi i ely associa ed wi h
highe disposable income and hus wi h a lowe isk o po e y. Pa o his educa ional
e ec is media ed by employmen s a us (see Models 2): unemployed young adul s ace
he highes isk o low income and po e y, ollowed by he economically inac i e and hen
young adul s in educa ion – and he educa ional e ec s a e educed om Models 1 o
Models 2. Bu e en beyond i s ole in in luencing employmen s a us and also heal h e c.,
educa ional a ainmen emains an impo an ac o . Poo heal h is also associa ed wi h
lowe disposable income and highe po e y isk, pa ly ansmi ed h ough young adul s’
employmen s a us.
Family composi ion and economic in/secu i y a e s ongly ela ed: Single-pa en
households ha e he lowes a e age disposable income and he highes po e y isk,
closely ollowed by young adul s li ing independen ly (i.e., wi hou a pa ne and/o
pa en s). Couples wi h child en end o ha e less disposable income han couples wi hou
child en, which is also e lec ed in a highe isk o po e y. In con as , young adul s li ing
wi h hei pa en s a e simila ly o couples wi hou child en in e ms o income secu i y,
con i ming he impo ance o addi ional ea ne s wi hin a household. Mo eo e , he
educ ion in he e ec o li ing wi h pa en s om Models 1 and 2 sugges s ha pa en s
a e he income/po e y bu e o hese young adul s' lack o employmen .
Gende does no appea o play a signi ican ole in de e mining income in/secu i y once
di e ences in educa ion and li ing a angemen s a e aken in o accoun . Age, howe e ,
s ill shows some impac : income insecu i y is highes among young adul s in hei ea ly
wen ies and lowes among hose in hei ea ly hi ies, possibly due o di e ences in wo k
expe ience (see also compa ison be ween Models 1 and 2). Young adul s wi h a mig a ion
backg ound a e ound o ha e lowe a e age disposable incomes and a highe isk o
po e y, e en a e con olling o di e ences in educa ional a ainmen and employmen
s a us.
Finally, young people li ing in u al a eas ha e a lowe a e age disposable income and a
highe isk o po e y han hei u ban coun e pa s. This does no seem o be due o lowe
employmen a es ( he size o he coe icien emains la gely unchanged in Models 2), bu
a he o poo oppo uni ies o highe s a us jobs (see Table 5 abo e, ISEI models).
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o
young adul s
47
unemploymen and NEET isks). As high employmen a es e lec , a leas in pa , good
employmen condi ions, hese associa ions may also e lec success ul e o s by ade
unions and ALMPs o acili a e young adul s’ in eg a ion in o he labou ma ke .
Economic condi ions a e also impo an con ex ual ac o s. Young adul s in coun ies wi h
highe GDP pe capi a ha e lowe unemploymen and NEET isks. Mo eo e , young adul s
in coun ies wi h a lowe o e all unemploymen a e ha e lowe unemploymen and NEET
isks (as would be expec ed), bu a he cos o lowe occupa ional a ainmen (ISEI sco es).
In e es ingly, highe income inequali y seems o be associa ed wi h be e labou ma ke
in eg a ion o young adul s (i.e. lowe unemploymen and NEET isks) – bu one has o keep
in mind ha social inequali y s ongly a ec s educa ional a ainmen a he indi idual le el,
which is con olled o (Heisig e al., 2020). Simila ly, highe sha es o young adul s ela i e
o hose aged 35–64 do no seem o inc ease labou ma ke compe i ion be ween labou
ma ke en an s; on he con a y, young adul s in coun ies wi h highe sha es o young
people ha e lowe NEET isks, so highe sha es seem o be mo e indica i e o o e all good
economic condi ions.
Finally, as ega ds amily and heal h ca e ac o s, only coun ies’ heal h expendi u e ends
o in luence young adul s' labou ma ke in eg a ion, apa om i s impac on he indi idual-
le el cha ac e is ics included: In coun ies wi h highe expendi u e, young adul s ha e a
lowe isk o unemploymen and a highe occupa ional a ainmen (ISEI).
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o young adul s
48
Table 7. Two-le el eg essions o labou ma ke in eg a ion on na ional con ex ual ac o s
Unemploymen (AME)
NEET (AME)
ISEI sco es
Educa ion
sys em
Labou
ma ke
Economy
Ca e
Educa ion
sys em
Labou
ma ke
Economy
Ca e
Educa ion
sys em
Labou
ma ke
Economy
Ca e
Socio-demog aphic and
socio-economic p o ile
cha ac e is ics included
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
T acking in seconda y
educa ion
-0.037*
-0.010
1.280+
0.016)
(0.010)
(0.723)
Voca ional o ien a ion in
uppe seconda y educa ion
-0.002
-0.007
0.746
(0.018)
(0.011)
(0.827)
% ISCED 5+
-0.021
-0.028**
1.051
(0.018)
(0.011)
(0.795)
% ISCED 0–2
-0.010
-0.017+
0.620
(0.016)
(0.009)
(0.725)
Public spending on e ia y
educa ion
0.008
0.006
0.015
(0.015)
(0.009)
(0.678)
Employmen a e
-0.034+
-0.029**
0.267
(0.018)
(0.010)
(0.749)
% employmen in p ima y
sec o
-0.014
-0.004
-1.436*
(0.017)
(0.010)
(0.724)
% employmen in la ge-
scale enginee ing sec o
0.016
0.023**
0.276
(0.014)
(0.008)
(0.599)
% employmen in la ge
i ms (>50 employees)
-0.031*
-0.010
1.408*
(0.014)
(0.008)
(0.588)
EPL
-0.009
-0.014+
-0.577
(0.015)
(0.008)
(0.629)
GDP pe capi a
-0.025*
-0.021**
1.022
(0.012)
(0.008)
(0.668)
Income inequali y
(P80/P20)
-0.022+
-0.014+
-0.006
(0.012)
(0.008)
(0.710)
Unemploymen a e
0.054***
0.022**
-1.466*
(0.011)
(0.007)
(0.623)
Age a io:
15–34/35–64
-0.013
-0.015+
-0.303
(0.012)
(0.008)
(0.702)
% 0–2 childca e
0.018
-0.013
-0.310
(0.016)
(0.009)
(0.731)
Public spending on
heal hca e
-0.033+
-0.013
1.974*
(0.018)
(0.010)
(0.792)
Num. o physicians pe
100 000 inhabi an s
0.016
0.005
-0.834
(0.015)
(0.009)
(0.668)
Median age
0.017
0.014
0.878
(0.016)
(0.009)
(0.707)
(In e cep )
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
36.877**
*
37.289**
*
36.873**
*
36.864**
*
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o young adul s
49
(0.802)
(0.710)
(0.762)
(0.777)
SD (In e cep iso3166)
0.627
0.506
0.433
0.594
0.627
0.506
0.433
0.594
3.225
2.338
2.954
3.054
SD (Obse a ions)
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
16.288
16.205
16.288
16.288
ICC
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
BIC
34198.6
30349.9
34168.4
34184.8
34198.6
30349.9
34168.4
34184.8
457353.2
417285.8
457340.6
457342.0
Num. o obse a ions
51,401
46,621
51,401
51,401
51,401
46,621
51,401
51,401
52,504
47,928
52,504
52,504
Num. o coun ies
27
25 (w/o EE,
RS)
27
27
27
25 (w/o EE,
RS)
27
27
27
25 (w/o EE,
RS)
27
27
No es: + p < 0.1, * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001; w/o wi hou . Fo bina y dependen a iables, AME epo ed. Fo indi idual-le el p edic o s included see
Table 2. Weigh ed esul s. Copy igh 2024 by Ho nbe g/Heisig/Solga.
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o
young adul s
50
Income in/secu i y
Table 8 he esul s o di e ences be ween coun ies in young adul s’ income in/secu i y.
Se e al aspec s o he educa ion sys em a e impo an . Voca ional o ien a ion in uppe
seconda y educa ion, highe le els o educa ional a ainmen in coun ies (highe sha es
o e ia y educa ed)
18
and public expendi u e on e ia y educa ion a e associa ed wi h
highe disposable income and lowe po e y isks. T acking is also associa ed wi h highe
po e y isk.
19
Rega ding labou ma ke condi ions, bo h highe employmen sha es in he adi ional
p ima y and la ge-scale enginee ing sec o s a e associa ed wi h lowe le els o disposable
income among young adul s.
20
As o po e y, highe o e all employmen (and hus less
compe i ion) also educes he po e y isks o young adul s.
Na ional economic condi ions also in luence young adul s’ income in/secu i y. As
expec ed, highe GDP pe capi a is associa ed wi h highe le els o disposable income.
Mo oe e , young adul s ace highe po e y isks in coun ies wi h highe income inequali y
and highe unemploymen a es.
Rega ding ( amily and heal h) ca e condi ions, he e is a posi i e associa ion o heal h
expendi u e wi h disposable income and a co esponding nega i e associa ion wi h
po e y (which emain s able e en a e adjus ing o GDP pe capi a). I is also wo h no ing
ha he sha e o e y young child en in ex e nal childca e is posi i ely associa ed wi h
disposable income – and hus wi h be e oppo uni ies o young pa en s o be employed
– bu also wi h a highe isk o po e y. These may no be he same coun ies: The la e
may indica e coun ies whe e young pa en s “ha e o” wo k.
Li e sa is ac ion
Looking a he a ia ion in li e sa is ac ion be ween coun ies, Table 8 shows ha none o
he con ex ual indica o s conside ed a e associa ed wi h le els o li e sa is ac ion beyond
hei impac on indi idual-le el cha ac e is ics o young adul s (such as educa ional
a ainmen , heal h o amily composi ion).
18
Highe p opo ions o less-educa ed adul s seem o be also associa ed wi h highe income. Again, his
inding should be in e p e ed wi h cau ion as he models con ol o he s ong nega i e associa ions be ween
low le els o educa ional a ainmen and labou ma ke in eg a ion a he indi idual le el.
19
To e i y ha hese associa ions do no simply e lec b oade na ional di e ences in weal h, we i ed
models including GDP pe capi a as a obus ness check. The s abili y o he esul s indica es ha hese
cha ac e is ics o he educa ion sys em in luence income independen ly o o e all na ional economic
pe o mance.
20
This ela ionship pe sis s e en a e con olling o di e ences in GDP pe capi a.
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o young adul s
51
Table 8. Two-le el eg essions o income secu i y and li e sa is ac ion on na ional con ex ual ac o s
Equi alised disposable income
Po e y (AME)
Li e sa is ac ion
Educa ion
sys em
Labou
ma ke
Economy
Ca e
Educa ion
sys em
Labou
ma ke
Economy
Ca e
Educa ion
sys em
Labou
ma ke
Economy
Ca e
Socio-demog aphic and
socio-economic p o ile
cha ac e is ics included
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
T acking in seconda y
educa ion
0.134
-0.015+
-0.014
(0.082)
(0.008)
(0.092)
Voca ional o ien a ion in
uppe seconda y educa ion
0.213*
0.000
0.103
(0.094)
(0.009)
(0.105)
% ISCED 5+
0.667***
-0.018*
-0.060
(0.090)
(0.009)
(0.101)
% ISCED 0–2
0.225**
0.015+
-0.006
(0.083)
(0.008)
(0.092)
Public spending on e ia y
educa ion
0.175*
0.007
0.005
(0.077)
(0.008)
(0.086)
Employmen a e
0.113
-0.017+
0.063
(0.109)
(0.009)
(0.114)
% employmen in p ima y
sec o
-0.287**
0.017*
0.103
(0.106)
(0.008)
(0.110)
% employmen in la ge-
scale enginee ing sec o
-0.335***
-0.011
0.068
(0.087)
(0.007)
(0.091)
% employmen in la ge
i ms (>50 employees)
0.019
-0.008
0.096
(0.085)
(0.007)
(0.089)
EPL
0.050
0.004
0.107
(0.092)
(0.007)
(0.096)
GDP pe capi a
0.511***
-0.003
-0.009
(0.078)
(0.006)
(0.107)
Income inequali y
(P80/P20)
-0.115
0.027***
-0.015
(0.083)
(0.007)
(0.090)
Unemploymen a e
0.038
0.015**
-0.011
(0.073)
(0.006)
(0.099)
Age a io:
15–34/35–64
0.068
-0.001
0.096
(0.082)
(0.007)
(0.095)
% 0–2 childca e
0.102+
0.021**
-0.011
(0.058)
(0.008)
(0.099)
Public spending on
heal hca e
0.544***
-0.024**
-0.009
(0.063)
(0.009)
(0.107)
Num. o physicians pe
100 000 inhabi an s
0.022
0.008
-0.015
(0.053)
(0.007)
(0.090)
Median age
-0.086
0.016*
0.096
(0.056)
(0.008)
(0.095)
(In e cep )
9.635***
9.668***
9.635***
9.635***
---
---
---
---
5.764***
5.783***
5.762***
5.766***
(0.072)
(0.071)
(0.068)
(0.048)
(0.164)
(0.168)
(0.162)
(0.164)
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o young adul s
52
Equi alised disposable income
Po e y (AME)
Li e sa is ac ion
Educa ion
sys em
Labou
ma ke
Economy
Ca e
Educa ion
sys em
Labou
ma ke
Economy
Ca e
Educa ion
sys em
Labou
ma ke
Economy
Ca e
Socio-demog aphic and
socio-economic p o ile
cha ac e is ics included
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
SD (In e cep iso3166)
0.370
0.345
0.350
0.244
0.286
0.216
0.217
0.265
0.410
0.358
0.391
0.415
SD (Obse a ions)
0.552
0.550
0.552
0.552
---
---
---
---
1.591
1.573
1.591
1.591
ICC
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.0
0.1
0.1
BIC
166476.2
150509.3
166460.1
166444.4
61652.6
56156.9
61627.1
61636.8
287872.1
255841.1
287856.8
287859.3
Numbe o obse a ions
84,878
76,759
84,878
84,878
85,114
76,985
85,114
85,114
70,936
63,288
70,936
70,936
Numbe o coun ies
27
25 (w/o
EE, RS)
27
27
27
25 (w/o
EE, RS)
27
27
27
25 (w/o
EE, RS)
27
27
No es: + p < 0.1, * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001; w/o wi hou . Fo bina y dependen a iables, AME epo ed. Fo indi idual-le el p edic o s included see
Table 2. Weigh ed esul s. Copy igh 2024 by Ho nbe g/Heisig/Solga.
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o
young adul s
53
5.3.2.1. Regional di e ences wi hin coun ies
This sec ion looks a egional a ia ions wi hin coun ies and asks whe he egional
di e ences in con ex ual ac o s a e ela ed o a ia ions in young adul s' labou ma ke
a ainmen wi hin coun ies. Table 9 and Table 10 p esen esul s om h ee-le el
eg ession models, ocusing on coe icien es ima es o NUTS 1 le el de ia ions om
na ional a e ages. These es ima es p o ide insigh s in o how egional con ex ual
condi ions, ela i e o he na ional a e age, a e co ela ed wi h ou six STWT ou come
a iables. I should be no ed ha , due o da a a ailabili y, he analyses now only co e
14 coun ies.
Labou ma ke in eg a ion
Table 9 e eals signi ican associa ions be ween egional a ia ions in he educa ion
sys em and he labou ma ke in eg a ion o young adul s wi hin coun ies. Regions wi h
less oca ional o ien a ion in uppe seconda y educa ion and lowe educa ional
a ainmen (i.e. highe sha es o less-educa ed adul s and lowe sha es o e ia y-
educa ed adul s) compa ed o he na ional le el end o ha e highe a e age
unemploymen and NEET isks and lowe a e age occupa ional s a us.
Regional di e ences in he labou ma ke a e no ably linked o labou ma ke ou comes.
Highe employmen sha es in he p ima y sec o a e associa ed wi h sligh ly highe
unemploymen isks and lowe occupa ional s a us, sugges ing limi ed oppo uni ies o
upwa d mobili y in hese egions. Con e sely, young adul s ha e lowe unemploymen and
NEET isks in egions wi h abo e-a e age employmen in la ge-scale enginee ing sec o s.
Howe e , he e emains a nega i e associa ion wi h ISEI sco es, sugges ing ha young
adul s in hese egions a e less likely o en e in o highe -skilled jobs wi hin his sec o .
Among he mos in luen ial ac o s a e egional employmen a es, which bene i young
adul s by signi ican ly educing hei NEET and unemploymen isks and inc easing hei
occupa ional a ainmen (ISEI sco es), possibly h ough he acquisi ion o mo e wo k
expe ience han young adul s in o he egions.
As ega ds economic condi ions, ou analysis sugges s ha unemploymen and NEET isks
a e highe in egions wi h abo e a e age unemploymen a es o he o al adul
popula ion. Di e ences in occupa ional a ainmen a e associa ed wi h egional GDP
di e ences wi hin coun ies.
Regional a ia ions in ca e- ela ed ac o s do no seem o play a key ole in he labou
ma ke in eg a ion o young adul s. Mos no ably, he e is a posi i e associa ion be ween
he numbe o physicians pe 100,000 inhabi an s and occupa ional a ainmen (ISEI
sco es). A possible explana ion o his ela ionship could be ha egions wi h la ge
hospi als (and hus mo e physicians) o e mo e employmen oppo uni ies o highe
s a us heal h occupa ions.
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o young adul s
54
Table 9. Th ee-le el eg essions o labou ma ke in eg a ion on egional con ex ual ac o s
Unemploymen (AME)
NEET (AME)
ISEI sco es
Educa ion
sys em
Labou
ma ke
Economy
Ca e
Educa ion
sys em
Labou
ma ke
Economy
Ca e
Educa ion
sys em
Labou
ma ke
Economy
Ca e
Socio-demog aphic and
socio-economic p o ile
cha ac e is ics included
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Respec i e na ional-le el
indica o s included
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Voca ional o ien a ion in
uppe seconda y educa ion
-0.009+
-0.027***
-0.114
(0.005)
(0.008)
(0.215)
% ISCED 5+
-0.006
-0.017+
0.833**
(0.006)
(0.009)
(0.267)
% ISCED 0–2
0.019***
0.014+
-0.015
(0.005)
(0.008)
(0.221)
Employmen a e
-0.019***
-0.025***
0.493**
(0.003)
(0.005)
(0.179)
% employmen in p ima y
sec o
0.005+
0.002
-0.644***
(0.003)
(0.004)
(0.159)
% employmen in la ge- scale
enginee ing sec o
-0.006+
-0.015**
-0.737***
(0.004)
(0.005)
(0.191)
GDP pe capi a
0.000
-0.005
0.775**
(0.004)
(0.049)
(0.251)
Unemploymen a e
0.025***
0.310***
-0.112
(0.004)
(0.041)
(0.223)
Age a io:
15–34/35–64
-0.001
-0.078
-0.129
(0.005)
(0.059)
(0.298)
Conse a i e gende ole
a i udes
0.002
0.001
-0.094
(0.005)
(0.008)
(0.216)
Num. o physicians pe
100 000 inhabi an s
-0.006
0.000
0.592*
(0.006)
(0.009)
(0.240)
Median age
-0.005
-0.005
-0.465
(0.007)
(0.011)
(0.285)
(In e cep )
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
36.316***
37.085***
37.357***
36.503***
(1.194)
(0.871)
(0.840)
(1.103)
SD (In e cep iso3166:nu s1)
0.213
0.152
0.168
0.303
0.310
0.216
0.213
0.430
0.982
0.891
1.176
1.307
SD (In e cep iso3166)
0.350
0.254
0.253
0.212
0.648
0.424
0.375
0.530
3.397
1.956
1.742
2.561
SD (Obse a ions)
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
16.090
16.122
16.089
16.049
ICC
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
BIC
41607.2
38472.6
41576.9
34894.7
24500.5
22184.6
24456.2
20978.7
292530.3
279068.4
292528.0
237841.3
Numbe o obse a ions
56,816
53,536
56,816
47,300
34,157
31,982
34,157
28,328
33,759
32,186
33,759
27,362
Numbe o NUTS1 egions
75
73
75
55
75
73
75
55
75
73
75
55
Numbe o coun ies
14
13 (w/o RS)
14
12 (w/o DE,
PT)
14
13 (w/o RS)
14
12 (w/o DE,
PT)
14
13 (w/o RS)
14
12 (w/o DE,
PT)
No es: + p < 0.1, * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001; w/o wi hou . Fo bina y dependen a iables, AME epo ed. Fo indi idual-le el p edic o s included see Table 2 and o na ional-
le el con ex ual p edic o s see Table 3. Weigh ed esul s. Copy igh 2024 by Ho nbe g/Heisig/Solga.
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o
young adul s
55
Income in/secu i y
Table 10 p esen s he esul s o egional a ia ion in income in/secu i y o young adul s.
Rega ding he educa ion sys em, young adul s ha e highe disposable incomes and lowe
po e y isks in egions wi h mo e oca ional o ien a ion in uppe seconda y educa ion and
highe educa ional a ainmen han he na ional a e age. This highligh s he impo ance
o educa ional oppo uni ies o young adul s also a he egional le el.
Conce ning he labou ma ke condi ions, a ia ions in o e all employmen a es again
eme ge as an in luen ial con ex ual ac o o young adul s’ disposable income and po e y
isks: Young adul s expe ience highe economic secu i y and lowe po e y isks in egions
wi h abo e-a e age o e all employmen a es. In addi ion, egional dispa i ies in
employmen sha es wi hin di e en economic sec o s a e signi ican ly associa ed wi h
income le els: highe employmen sha es in he adi ional p ima y sec o a e associa ed
wi h lowe a e age disposable incomes; con e sely, abo e-a e age employmen in la ge-
scale enginee ing sec o s is posi i ely co ela ed wi h income s abili y. This la e inding
con as s wi h he associa ion a he na ional le el (see Sec ion 5.3.2.1). This may be due
o speci ic egional indus ial policies o labou ma ke condi ions, o o di e ences in he
(numbe o ) coun ies included in he analyses, which wa an u he in es iga ion.
Regional economic pe o mance is also signi ican ly ela ed o income secu i y. Young
adul s ha e highe disposable incomes and lowe po e y isks in egions wi h highe GDP
pe capi a, while hey ha e highe po e y isks and lowe incomes in egions wi h highe
o e all unemploymen . These indings highligh how mac oeconomic condi ions a he
egional le el di ec ly in luence he inancial well-being o young adul s. Fo he ca e
domain, we ind no signi ican associa ions beyond he na ional le el.
Li e sa is ac ion
The esul s p esen ed in Table 10 show only wo signi ican associa ions ac oss all ou
domains, sugges ing ha he con ex ual ac o s included do no con ibu e much o
explaining di e ences in li e sa is ac ion wi hin coun ies – bu , in e es ingly, mo e han
be ween coun ies (see Sec ion 5.3.2.1). Li e sa is ac ion among young adul s is highe in
less a luen egions (as indica ed by lowe GDP pe capi a and highe sha es o
employmen in he adi ional p ima y sec o han a na ional le el). I should be no ed,
howe e , ha hese coe icien s apply o young adul s all hings being equal, ha is,
con olled o indi idual cha ac e is ics o young adul s and ea ly employmen ou comes
(see Table 2). This inding unde lines ha ce ain aspec s o li e sa is ac ion appea o go
beyond adi ional economic easons.
In concluding Sec ion 5.3.2, coun ies wi h high(e ) educa ional a ainmen , an economic
s uc u e wi h la ge i ms and inno a i e indus ies, good o e all employmen le els, good
childca e p o ision and highe heal h expendi u e p o ide a ou able con ex ual ac o s
o young adul s’ STWT ou comes, o e and abo e hei impac a he indi idual le el.
Cha ac e is ics o a ou able egions wi hin coun ies a e again high(e ) educa ional
a ainmen and good o e all employmen le els. The wi hin-coun y analyses unde line
ha a ia ions in young adul s' labou ma ke ou comes and li e sa is ac ion a e gene a ed
a bo h le els, he na ional and he egional con ex . Impo an ly, he analyses o 2018
p esen ed in Appendix C (Table C 7 and Table C 8) show e y simila esul s.
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o young adul s
56
Table 10. Th ee-le el eg essions o income secu i y and li e sa is ac ion on egional con ex ual ac o s
Equi alised disposable income
Po e y (AME)
Li e sa is ac ion
Educa ion
sys em
Labou
ma ke
Economy
Ca e
Educa ion
sys em
Labou
ma ke
Economy
Ca e
Educa ion
sys em
Labou
ma ke
Economy
Ca e
Socio-demog aphic and socio-
economic p o ile
cha ac e is ics included
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Respec i e na ional-le el
indica o s included
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Voca ional o ien a ion in
uppe seconda y educa ion
0.036*
-0.016*
0.019
(0.015)
(0.008)
(0.026)
% ISCED 5+
0.052**
-0.013
-0.021
(0.018)
(0.009)
(0.032)
% ISCED 0–2
-0.028+
0.017*
-0.003
(0.015)
(0.008)
(0.027)
Employmen a e
0.065***
-0.028***
0.011
(0.009)
(0.005)
(0.022)
% employmen in p ima y
sec o
-0.020*
0.005
0.042*
(0.008)
(0.004)
(0.020)
% employmen in la ge- scale
enginee ing sec o
0.065***
-0.014**
0.030
(0.009)
(0.005)
(0.024)
GDP pe capi a
0.030**
-0.012+
-0.046+
(0.012)
(0.007)
(0.028)
Unemploymen a e
-0.077***
0.032***
-0.034
(0.010)
(0.006)
(0.024)
Age a io:
15–34/35–64
0.007
0.001
0.028
(0.013)
(0.007)
(0.033)
Conse a i e gende ole
a i udes
-0.005
0.010
0.014
(0.017)
(0.008)
(0.021)
Num. o physicians pe
100 000 inhabi an s
0.020
0.001
-0.023
(0.020)
(0.009)
(0.024)
Median age
0.004
-0.004
0.051+
(0.024)
(0.011)
(0.029)
(In e cep )
9.549***
9.643***
9.731***
9.323***
---
---
---
---
6.147***
6.252***
6.270***
6.221***
(0.175)
(0.111)
(0.053)
(0.124)
(0.233)
(0.241)
(0.235)
(0.244)
SD (In e cep iso3166:nu s1)
0.093
0.059
0.063
0.126
0.339
0.221
0.256
0.428
0.136
0.131
0.136
0.135
SD (In e cep iso3166)
0.587
0.365
0.164
0.389
0.167
0.168
0.124
0.122
0.506
0.516
0.483
0.521
SD (Obse a ions)
0.568
0.563
0.568
0.574
---
---
---
---
1.596
1.568
1.596
1.583
ICC
0.5
0.3
0.1
0.3
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
BIC
112817.4
105520.5
112750.7
95926.4
44455.3
41765.3
44421.2
36695.3
178997.0
164772.0
178995.6
159336.1
Numbe o obse a ions
56,613
53,336
56,613
47,105
56,816
53,536
56,816
47,300
44,156
40,953
44,156
39,216
Numbe o NUTS1 egions
75
73
75
55
75
73
75
55
75
73
75
55
Numbe o coun ies
14
13 (w/o RS)
14
12 (w/o DE,
PT)
14
13 (w/o RS)
14
12 (w/o DE,
PT)
14
13 (w/o RS)
14
12 (w/o DE,
PT)
No es: + p < 0.1, * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001. Fo bina y dependen a iables, AME epo ed. Fo indi idual-le el p edic o s included see Table 2 and o na ional-le el
con ex ual p edic o s see Table 3. Weigh ed esul s. Copy igh 2024 by Ho nbe g/Heisig/Solga.
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young adul s
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Appendix
APPENDIX 69
SECTION A: DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS ......................................................................................................... 70
SECTION B: THREE-LEVEL REGRESSIONS 2021 .......................................................................................... 88
SECTION C: RESUTLS FOR 2018 ............................................................................................................... 90
SECTION D: COUNTRY-SPECIFIC REGRESSIONS OF SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS,
2021 .................................................................................................................................................. 103
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o young adul s
70
Sec ion A: Desc ip i e S a is ics
Table A 1. Desc ip i e s a is ics o STWT ou come a iables a NUTS 1 le el
Coun y,
NUTS 1
Unemploymen (%)
NEET (%)
A e age
ISEI sco es
Equi alised disposable
income pe yea (€)
Log. equi . disp.
income
Po e y (%)
Li e sa is ac ion
( a ing poin s)
Aus ia
AT1
15.99
13.96
46.65
27596.24
10.06
20.04
8.05
AT2
13.99
6.15
44.18
29440.78
10.20
12.49
8.27
AT3
12.79
5.08
45.00
30257.13
10.20
10.14
8.29
Belgium
BE1
17.42
11.10
50.03
24403.78
9.99
22.41
7.45
BE2
7.05
5.44
50.48
30470.33
10.25
5.19
7.87
BE3
16.85
11.42
47.07
24985.14
10.04
19.17
7.55
Bulga ia
BG3
23.41
24.10
35.18
5644.25
8.43
24.63
6.22
BG4
18.67
16.37
38.49
7418.96
8.58
21.19
6.35
Ge many
DE1
12.29
5.51
47.05
30168.74
10.17
14.41
7.50
DE2
15.15
3.75
48.04
33626.07
10.23
14.79
7.53
DE3
11.03
7.31
54.51
27986.64
10.02
24.24
7.56
DE4
8.08
7.44
43.34
26787.17
10.11
13.08
7.56
DE5
18.11
9.93
51.65
28747.41
10.10
16.60
7.70
DE6
20.53
9.44
53.47
27345.43
10.03
21.42
7.39
DE7
18.90
6.78
46.66
27669.21
10.09
18.19
7.26
DE8
12.84
9.02
46.12
25413.22
10.02
19.35
6.95
DE9
16.05
8.43
44.81
28462.76
10.02
24.28
7.26
DEA
18.80
10.58
47.21
28775.52
10.07
20.90
7.19
DEB
16.65
3.90
45.83
31527.73
10.18
16.75
7.49
DEC
13.35
0.00
51.34
28115.96
10.06
22.33
7.23
DED
10.44
6.57
47.21
23929.85
9.96
22.23
7.44
DEE
19.41
11.46
43.39
22872.51
9.88
26.24
7.36
DEF
9.84
4.50
48.80
25944.05
10.04
21.39
7.89
DEG
9.96
7.30
46.89
25706.67
10.01
25.17
7.58
G eece
EL3
16.86
24.60
45.07
11121.89
9.14
15.08
7.00
EL4
21.65
24.95
35.77
9518.40
8.99
20.63
7.09
EL5
26.97
37.46
38.23
8162.26
8.83
31.51
7.22
EL6
33.22
39.63
35.62
8487.51
8.86
30.28
7.28
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o young adul s
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Coun y,
NUTS 1
Unemploymen (%)
NEET (%)
A e age
ISEI sco es
Equi alised disposable
income pe yea (€)
Log. equi . disp.
income
Po e y (%)
Li e sa is ac ion
( a ing poin s)
Spain
ES1
15.70
20.62
41.20
15519.42
9.46
23.86
7.32
ES2
10.07
14.28
45.44
20830.57
9.77
14.88
7.55
ES3
12.48
16.49
46.66
20357.24
9.74
16.57
7.52
ES4
18.80
23.11
37.57
16211.02
9.52
23.73
7.65
ES5
14.89
17.23
44.04
18402.21
9.64
18.55
7.54
ES6
23.02
31.17
37.53
13767.54
9.32
35.77
7.29
ES7
33.45
47.15
37.46
13259.67
9.08
36.68
7.22
F ance
FR1
12.38
15.51
51.62
30892.39
10.09
15.39
6.94
FRB
12.73
13.95
45.06
25814.43
10.04
12.76
7.23
FRC
18.72
18.14
38.88
24128.30
9.96
17.15
7.36
FRD
14.46
17.55
38.35
27530.27
10.08
9.47
7.31
FRE
16.42
21.15
38.72
22410.75
9.91
18.53
7.28
FRF
14.16
14.40
40.12
24707.63
9.98
17.60
7.21
FRG
9.61
13.48
43.53
25239.91
10.02
12.31
7.23
FRH
11.57
12.17
40.39
23453.58
9.97
12.49
7.98
FRI
14.60
18.54
41.51
24662.40
9.98
12.77
6.89
FRJ
21.46
28.76
40.36
21063.56
9.84
23.02
6.82
FRK
13.77
18.26
43.22
23411.90
9.92
18.22
7.13
FRL
15.84
17.21
46.46
22657.16
9.88
28.87
7.03
FRM
18.87
15.04
38.44
25225.06
10.07
10.69
7.27
Hunga y
HU1
14.06
10.14
50.21
8438.57
8.88
11.02
7.17
HU2
15.77
11.10
39.92
7568.07
8.81
8.29
7.33
HU3
22.18
15.13
37.04
6376.26
8.62
15.13
6.83
I aly
ITC
14.67
14.67
42.64
21853.20
9.83
15.12
7.71
ITF
29.68
40.72
40.02
14815.87
9.37
37.21
7.11
ITG
30.09
35.72
38.26
14254.62
9.33
43.70
7.51
ITH
12.06
9.26
40.30
21982.53
9.86
11.17
7.64
ITI
19.30
22.90
43.19
19262.65
9.70
19.41
7.58
Poland
PL2
10.12
5.81
45.03
9609.44
9.02
15.82
7.90
PL4
11.86
5.93
40.28
9295.50
9.02
11.95
8.26
PL5
9.75
4.45
45.10
10610.01
9.16
7.40
7.72
PL6
13.81
9.61
42.86
9075.31
8.99
15.26
7.76
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o young adul s
72
Coun y,
NUTS 1
Unemploymen (%)
NEET (%)
A e age
ISEI sco es
Equi alised disposable
income pe yea (€)
Log. equi . disp.
income
Po e y (%)
Li e sa is ac ion
( a ing poin s)
PL7
13.23
10.26
40.38
9244.41
8.98
13.54
7.93
PL8
12.25
8.76
40.01
8441.51
8.93
15.99
7.89
PL9
11.93
8.72
45.71
10199.26
9.08
13.52
7.96
Po ugal
PT1
11.87
15.81
43.93
12498.05
9.27
16.85
7.64
PT2
15.16
17.78
40.00
10796.76
9.13
22.41
8.08
PT3
21.80
29.46
43.64
10307.76
9.11
25.73
7.71
Romania
RO1
18.75
4.48
36.31
5489.39
8.37
19.99
8.02
RO2
18.99
5.02
36.73
4813.39
8.18
30.88
7.85
RO3
12.07
2.21
42.57
6995.43
8.65
13.60
7.95
RO4
17.68
5.07
34.09
4909.86
8.26
28.80
8.25
Se bia
RS1
21.61
28.72
42.97
5267.12
8.36
16.44
6.81
RS2
28.10
38.47
35.92
3948.52
8.09
28.13
6.54
Sweden
SE1
9.46
10.16
48.21
28208.16
10.09
16.96
7.57
SE2
10.45
11.59
43.73
25359.30
10.03
19.94
7.60
SE3
10.76
10.31
40.99
23988.18
9.99
18.78
7.41
No e: Weigh ed. Copy igh 2024 by Ho nbe g/Heisig/Solga.
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o young adul s
79
Table A 4. Desc ip i e s a is ics o con ex ual ac o s a na ional le el
Coun y
codes
Educa ion sys em
Labou ma ke ins i u ions
T acking
% oca ional
o ien ed uppe
seconda y
educa ion
% ISCED
0–2
% ISCED
5+
Public spending
in e ia y
educa ion (k€)
% employmen
in adi ional
p ima y sec o
% employmen in
la ge-scale
enginee ing sec o
% employmen
in la ge
en e p ises
EPL
Employmen
a e (%)
AT
2.38
68.9
14.1
34.6
6197.40
3.41
26.54
43.79
0.51
73.35
BE
0.15
53.6
18.5
44.9
6664.10
0.99
22.97
47.40
0.66
66.34
BG
0.13
52.0
16.6
29.6
945.20
6.43
31.96
21.27
0.54
69.12
CH
0.12
61.9
12.6
45.0
5745.80
1.58
18.88
34.81
0.32
80.24
CY
-0.46
17.6
15.4
47.0
229.90
2.12
15.78
24.31
0.48
72.25
CZ
1.81
69.1
5.6
26.4
2953.60
2.63
38.99
36.47
0.66
74.46
DE
2.40
47.2
16.3
32.1
42720.00
1.13
30.37
51.16
0.66
76.86
DK
-1.01
39.1
17.9
41.9
5687.90
1.78
21.19
11.65
0.37
76.47
EE
-1.01
40.3
10.5
41.2
387.50
N/A
N/A
N/A
0.58
N/A
EL
0.11
33.8
20.2
34.6
1588.70
10.58
20.88
15.52
0.38
58.38
ES
-0.44
38.7
36.6
40.4
12835.30
4.00
22.42
29.63
0.79
63.54
FI
-0.98
67.3
11.1
42.3
2986.60
3.25
24.81
28.80
0.51
73.61
FR
-0.42
40.1
17.8
40.7
27264.20
2.33
21.10
43.68
0.64
68.41
HR
-0.45
70.0
12.8
24.9
743.40
6.46
30.38
31.05
0.61
64.47
HU
0.13
49.7
13.7
29.3
1646.00
4.29
33.39
39.98
0.40
74.24
IE
-0.45
23.9
12.5
52.9
2625.30
3.71
23.99
39.85
NA
69.94
IT
0.13
51.9
37.3
20.0
14654.50
3.83
28.67
28.06
0.74
59.12
LT
0.13
25.8
5.1
45.4
680.40
5.15
30.67
48.73
0.49
73.40
LU
1.26
60.8
19.7
50.5
228.60
1.04
11.52
33.44
0.54
70.12
LV
-1.01
40.1
7.8
39.0
346.50
5.57
28.68
25.59
0.55
71.09
MT
0.68
27.0
37.1
32.1
224.50
0.84
21.20
55.86
0.55
75.49
PL
-0.46
53.8
6.7
33.7
9981.90
8.29
32.84
37.44
0.82
71.29
PT
-0.41
38.8
43.8
28.5
2056.00
2.44
26.84
32.02
0.55
71.26
RO
-0.43
56.9
19.0
18.8
3367.60
11.24
32.88
34.00
0.58
62.83
RS
-0.46
73.2
17.1
24.9
902.40
N/A
N/A
N/A
0.53
N/A
SE
-1.01
35.4
12.5
46.6
7253.70
1.34
21.29
42.05
0.65
76.71
SK
1.82
67.6
6.7
27.9
1050.20
2.45
37.62
27.91
0.62
69.44
Mean
0.08
48.31
17.22
36.12
5998.79
3.87
26.23
34.58
0.57
70.50
SD
1.02
15.84
10.17
9.34
9458.93
2.87
6.69
10.81
0.12
5.55
No e: N/A no a ailable. Weigh ed. Copy igh 2024 by Ho nbe g/Heisig/Solga.
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o young adul s
80
Table A 4. Desc ip i e s a is ics o con ex ual ac o s a na ional le el (con inued)
Coun y
code
(Family & heal h) Ca e sys em
Economy
% 0-2 in
childca e
Gende ole
a i udes
Public spending in
heal hca e (k€)
Physicians pe
100 000 inhabi an s
GDP pe
capi a (k€)
Income
inequali y
(P80/P20)
Unemploymen
(%)
Ra io
15-34/35-64
Median
age
AT
39.7
2.08
5485.57
540.91
45300
4.00
6.2
56.90
43.6
BE
63.2
1.77
4789.57
324.78
43800
3.42
6.3
61.38
41.8
BG
24.7
2.82
884.18
429.55
10300
7.45
5.3
49.43
45.0
CH
37.0
1.99
9175.30
443.60
75200
4.87
5.1
56.86
42.70
CY
36.5
3.03
2515.24
427.23
27700
4.23
7.5
75.85
38.0
CZ
6.7
2.61
2151.86
425.59
22300
3.43
2.8
50.80
43.6
DE
43.9
1.87
5599.48
452.97
43500
4.98
3.7
54.87
45.9
DK
90.7
1.48
6223.01
437.66
58600
3.93
5.1
66.87
42.2
EE
44.3
2.04
1769.74
346.90
23400
5.03
6.2
56.67
42.5
EL
32.7
2.94
1576.75
629.22
17100
5.79
14.7
50.06
45.5
ES
67.1
1.95
2733.59
448.66
25800
6.19
14.9
47.77
44.7
FI
54.8
1.60
4590.30
361.15
45200
3.58
7.7
62.54
43.3
FR
67.2
1.76
4542.27
318.34
36700
4.41
7.9
61.44
42.0
HR
49.6
2.36
1195.09
371.10
14800
4.77
7.6
54.64
45.3
HU
21.0
2.46
1170.72
329.83
15900
4.15
4.1
55.21
43.6
IE
19.6
1.74
5688.64
402.45
86500
3.75
6.2
61.37
38.5
IT
44.0
2.64
2837.00
410.47
30800
5.86
9.5
47.26
47.6
LT
29.8
2.60
1568.36
447.47
20100
6.14
7.1
56.42
44.1
LU
78.4
N/A
6402.14
298.49
1.1e+05
4.59
5.3
63.09
39.6
LV
39.1
2.50
1612.14
326.73
17700
6.63
7.6
53.33
43.9
MT
31.6
N/A
3064.16
397.21
29600
5.03
3.8
70.58
40.1
PL
25.1
2.48
983.14
344.11
15100
4.03
3.4
54.94
41.9
PT
53.0
2.36
2308.06
562.04
21000
5.66
6.7
50.41
45.8
RO
13.6
3.11
817.47
350.88
12600
7.10
5.6
54.03
43.0
RS
23.7
2.56
781.29
302.93
7800
5.95
11.1
54.99
44.0
SE
79.2
1.41
5812.60
431.92
51900
4.04
8.9
68.07
40.6
SK
3.1
3.06
1427.52
368.02
18400
3.20
6.8
55.23
41.4
Mean
41.46
2.29
3248.34
404.82
34451.85
4.90
6.93
57.45
42.97
SD
22.35
0.51
2244.42
79.96
25099.39
1.17
2.96
7.06
2.31
No e: N/A no a ailable. Weigh ed. Copy igh 2024 by Ho nbe g/Heisig/Solga.
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o young adul s
81
Table A 5. Desc ip i e s a is ics o con ex ual ac o s a NUTS 1 le el
NUTS 1
Educa ion sys em
Labou ma ke ins i u ions
% oca ional o ien ed
uppe seconda y
educa ion
% ISCED
0–2
% ISCED 5+
% employmen in
adi ional p ima y
sec o
% employmen in
la ge-scale
enginee ing sec o
% employmen in
la ge en e p ises
Employmen a e
(%)
AT1
64.2
14.8
39.0
2.58
23.79
44.93
70.85
AT2
69.4
12.2
31.3
4.78
26.84
40.62
73.18
AT3
73.7
14.2
31.0
3.62
29.50
44.19
76.52
BE1
42.1
24.1
52.2
0.05
17.01
47.48
57.80
BE2
56.1
15.9
45.4
1.07
24.90
48.54
71.15
BE3
54.1
21.2
41.3
1.13
20.92
44.95
60.70
BG3
55.7
20.2
23.9
8.34
32.47
21.76
66.51
BG4
48.3
13.2
35.1
4.76
31.52
20.85
71.57
DE1
48.6
17.3
34.2
0.67
37.82
54.65
79.07
DE2
57.2
13.2
34.9
1.32
33.93
53.27
80.40
DE3
34.4
15.0
46.7
0.08
23.60
49.34
74.67
DE4
32.4
9.3
31.3
1.71
23.03
46.60
79.35
DE5
55.3
23.9
33.4
0.06
29.20
52.21
71.16
DE6
43.2
14.3
41.3
0.11
25.13
48.72
75.32
DE7
48.4
19.5
32.1
0.71
29.69
50.89
74.48
DE8
46.6
9.8
27.4
2.54
20.28
46.34
77.16
DE9
49.5
19.8
28.5
2.31
28.78
50.40
76.54
DEA
40.8
20.9
29.4
0.83
29.22
52.35
73.50
DEB
48.7
18.9
29.7
1.03
30.77
50.80
76.78
DEC
47.4
18.8
27.3
0.57
25.51
49.72
75.51
DED
47.2
5.8
31.7
1.37
29.24
46.14
79.09
DEE
50.6
7.5
25.1
1.64
28.13
43.83
77.07
DEF
49.8
14.5
28.2
1.77
24.43
47.82
78.60
DEG
48.2
7.4
28.4
1.85
29.96
47.98
78.19
EL3
26.6
11.2
45.0
0.77
24.23
22.74
61.88
EL4
40.9
26.2
26.6
11.74
15.46
8.73
56.84
EL5
40.0
23.1
30.8
14.12
21.68
9.98
55.47
EL6
32.7
27.7
26.7
22.45
16.77
12.12
56.80
ES1
41.6
34.7
42.4
4.91
22.76
28.29
63.98
ES2
42.3
27.5
48.7
2.81
29.30
33.71
68.14
ES3
34.4
25.6
49.7
0.12
21.05
39.78
69.88
ES4
42.4
42.8
34.3
7.27
23.28
26.86
63.19
ES5
40.9
36.3
40.4
1.45
25.49
27.92
66.00
ES6
33.7
45.1
33.9
9.49
16.44
24.81
56.64
ES7
39.7
39.1
35.6
3.95
14.23
26.88
52.99
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o young adul s
82
NUTS 1
Educa ion sys em
Labou ma ke ins i u ions
% oca ional o ien ed
uppe seconda y
educa ion
% ISCED
0–2
% ISCED 5+
% employmen in
adi ional p ima y
sec o
% employmen in
la ge-scale
enginee ing sec o
% employmen in
la ge en e p ises
Employmen a e
(%)
FR1
31.3
17.1
54.4
0.08
19.76
52.20
71.55
FRB
42.2
19.1
32.7
2.98
24.08
46.09
68.61
FRC
43.9
18.2
34.5
3.34
23.84
40.58
69.75
FRD
43.8
18.7
34.1
5.41
23.85
41.92
67.43
FRE
43.4
20.7
34.5
2.08
24.47
48.73
64.66
FRF
42.5
19.6
33.5
2.56
26.11
43.97
65.44
FRG
43.7
14.1
38.6
4.11
24.39
46.22
72.38
FRH
41.5
12.9
40.4
3.01
20.78
42.02
70.65
FRI
42.5
15.1
37.7
4.67
17.70
33.68
70.14
FRJ
41.0
16.4
41.5
2.77
16.41
40.19
66.36
FRK
40.3
15.0
42.3
1.94
23.61
41.66
69.51
FRL
39.0
19.2
40.8
0.79
16.73
38.48
67.92
FRM
38.3
27.5
27.8
2.20
14.31
28.00
70.71
HU1
38.6
7.0
45.9
1.25
28.66
39.33
78.32
HU2
56.1
14.3
23.1
4.77
37.85
42.16
74.61
HU3
53.6
18.8
20.3
6.63
33.95
38.75
70.65
ITC
55.0
34.9
20.9
2.05
33.61
32.24
66.86
ITF
49.7
44.8
16.8
6.82
22.23
22.06
45.87
ITG
50.6
47.2
15.5
7.96
15.56
19.88
44.84
ITH
59.0
32.3
21.2
3.15
34.12
29.69
68.26
ITI
44.2
31.2
23.7
2.86
26.58
28.78
63.42
PL2
55.9
5.6
33.8
2.93
36.59
40.65
69.48
PL4
58.1
6.3
28.6
8.06
35.65
35.14
72.44
PL5
54.9
6.0
34.5
6.00
34.69
42.34
72.57
PL6
56.9
8.7
30.3
9.55
32.07
35.54
70.75
PL7
52.6
8.6
30.3
11.63
33.86
35.41
71.16
PL8
54.2
7.5
31.2
14.72
28.24
32.41
67.57
PL9
42.3
5.3
46.1
8.24
27.78
40.02
75.86
PT1
39.0
43.0
29.0
2.29
27.51
32.21
71.53
PT2
41.0
62.1
15.7
7.42
15.87
25.23
65.55
PT3
31.8
51.7
23.5
3.54
11.94
31.04
66.99
RO1
58.5
18.4
18.0
8.69
36.48
37.51
64.29
RO2
59.4
25.8
12.6
20.09
26.68
27.31
60.83
RO3
50.3
14.9
26.9
5.14
31.44
33.43
66.81
RO4
59.7
16.1
16.9
11.40
39.48
40.03
58.18
RS1
71.0
13.9
29.9
NA
NA
NA
NA
RS2
75.3
20.6
19.4
NA
NA
NA
NA
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o young adul s
83
NUTS 1
Educa ion sys em
Labou ma ke ins i u ions
% oca ional o ien ed
uppe seconda y
educa ion
% ISCED
0–2
% ISCED 5+
% employmen in
adi ional p ima y
sec o
% employmen in
la ge-scale
enginee ing sec o
% employmen in
la ge en e p ises
Employmen a e
(%)
SE1
32.6
11.6
51.6
0.67
21.22
45.96
77.68
SE2
35.6
13.6
44.8
1.52
21.81
40.82
76.08
SE3
41.3
12.0
38.7
2.57
20.08
35.19
75.94
No es: T acking and public spending in e ia y educa ion no a ailable a NUTS 1. Weigh ed. Copy igh 2024 by Ho nbe g/Heisig/Solga.
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o young adul s
84
Table A 5. Desc ip i e s a is ics o con ex ual ac o s a NUTS 1 le el (con inued)
NUTS 1
(Family & heal h) Ca e sys em
Economy
Gende ole a i udes
Physicians pe 100 000 inhabi an s
GDP pe capi a (k€)
Unemploymen (%)
Ra io 15-34/35-64
Median age
AT1
1.89
587.95
45000
8.6
58.36
42.9
AT2
2.28
516.02
40800
4.7
52.80
46.0
AT3
2.19
497.77
48000
4.2
57.48
43.1
BE1
1.70
399.84
73400
12.4
75.57
36.0
BE2
1.78
303.75
45200
3.9
58.16
43.3
BE3
1.77
337.93
31500
8.8
62.66
41.6
BG3
2.85
382.39
7500
7.0
47.67
46.1
BG4
2.77
441.43
13100
3.7
51.13
43.9
DE1
1.92
N/A
48700
3.2
58.37
44.4
DE2
1.92
N/A
50800
2.8
56.46
44.8
DE3
1.65
N/A
45200
5.8
63.82
41.2
DE4
1.97
N/A
31900
3.1
39.03
50.6
DE5
1.80
N/A
52100
6.5
64.46
43.5
DE6
1.61
N/A
71000
4.6
65.24
40.9
DE7
1.92
N/A
48600
3.9
56.23
45.0
DE8
1.82
N/A
30900
3.8
42.77
50.7
DE9
2.00
N/A
39500
3.4
55.12
46.7
DEA
1.86
N/A
41700
4.2
56.62
45.6
DEB
1.84
N/A
39600
3.6
53.77
46.9
DEC
2.09
N/A
37000
3.2
51.55
49.4
DED
1.70
N/A
33400
3.4
47.85
49.0
DEE
1.86
N/A
31400
4.3
42.80
51.4
DEF
1.67
N/A
36100
3.2
51.95
48.0
DEG
1.89
N/A
31400
3.5
43.29
50.6
EL3
2.65
804.26
23300
11.9
48.48
44.9
EL4
2.70
502.68
14100
16.6
57.87
42.3
EL5
3.24
609.65
13100
16.8
50.40
46.4
EL6
3.09
455.06
14200
15.9
48.54
46.8
ES1
1.85
473.86
23700
11.7
38.57
48.9
ES2
1.66
540.00
30900
10.5
44.49
46.4
ES3
2.28
555.66
35400
11.70
49.76
43.4
ES4
2.34
353.42
22400
14.8
45.38
46.7
ES5
1.93
438.94
26900
13.5
49.18
44.1
ES6
1.89
382.86
19700
20.9
51.02
43.0
ES7
1.05
502.29
19700
23.5
48.64
44.2
FR1
1.51
358.89
61100
8.0
69.39
37.8
FRB
1.92
241.50
30000
7.2
56.85
44.6
FRC
1.93
285.88
28900
7.1
56.98
45.3
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o young adul s
85
NUTS 1
(Family & heal h) Ca e sys em
Economy
Gende ole a i udes
Physicians pe 100 000 inhabi an s
GDP pe capi a (k€)
Unemploymen (%)
Ra io 15-34/35-64
Median age
FRD
1.60
275.55
30100
7.1
59.64
43.6
FRE
2.28
282.74
28900
9.1
64.85
40.3
FRF
1.87
304.61
29800
8.1
59.95
43.0
FRG
1.73
277.85
32500
6.0
60.72
42.4
FRH
1.69
315.71
31000
5.8
57.38
44.6
FRI
1.67
326.05
30900
7.6
55.50
46.2
FRJ
1.78
331.73
30100
8.5
58.96
44.5
FRK
1.62
322.38
35300
7.2
61.70
41.7
FRL
1.76
383.52
37000
8.1
56.70
44.9
FRM
NA
296.22
28900
9.1
50.99
46.1
HU1
2.12
417.74
24300
2.9
55.75
42.6
HU2
2.68
277.41
13400
2.9
52.05
44.5
HU3
2.56
291.72
10900
6.0
57.32
43.8
ITC
2.51
386.97
38300
6.5
45.47
48.2
ITF
3.05
391.70
20600
16.0
52.39
46.0
ITG
2.97
453.09
19900
17.2
49.66
47.0
ITH
2.37
391.14
36600
5.3
45.53
48.1
ITI
2.42
459.47
32600
8.6
44.37
48.2
PL2
2.58
351.07
14700
3.1
54.45
42.0
PL4
2.57
288.63
14600
2.6
55.01
41.5
PL5
2.32
340.74
15700
3.7
52.95
42.6
PL6
2.40
305.16
12800
3.4
55.73
41.4
PL7
2.50
367.34
13200
4.5
51.52
43.8
PL8
2.59
327.90
10500
4.6
56.02
42.2
PL9
2.30
449.58
24000
2.8
57.41
40.6
PT1
NA
568.23
21100
6.7
50.01
46.0
PT2
NA
383.13
18800
7.3
61.49
40.6
PT3
NA
501.28
19800
8.1
55.12
43.6
RO1
3.32
359.74
11800
4.0
56.27
42.1
RO2
3.00
255.91
8900
6.5
57.17
42.7
RO3
3.12
409.95
18400
5.6
50.45
43.2
RO4
2.97
403.50
11100
6.4
51.86
44.5
RS1
2.47
310.26
10000
9.2
54.23
43.1
RS2
2.69
295.14
5500
13.1
55.81
45.1
SE1
1.32
457.65
59900
8.9
69.31
39.2
SE2
1.47
422.23
46800
9.3
67.98
40.8
SE3
1.44
396.30
46300
8.0
65.29
44.0
No es: N/A no a ailable. % 0-2 childca e, Public spending in heal hca e, and income inequali y (P80/P20) a e no a ailable. Weigh ed. Copy igh 2024 by
Ho nbe g/Heisig/Solga.
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o young adul s
86
Table A 6. Co ela ion ma ix o con ex ual ac o s a na ional le el
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
1: % oca ional
o ien a ion in uppe
seconda y educa ion
1
2: T acking
0,36
1
3: % ISCED 0-2
-0,24
-0,06
1
4: % ISCED 5+
-0,47*
-0,23
-0,24
1
5: Public spending in
e ia y educa ion
-0,03
0,29
0,13
-0,05
1
6: Employmen (%)
-0,03
0,16
-0,34
0,37
0,05
1
7: % employmen in
adi ional p ima y
sec o
0,06
-0,26
-0,15
-0,43*
-0,22
-0,59*
1
8: % employmen in
la ge-scale enginee ing
sec o
0,40*
0,27
-0,32
-0,70*
0,02
-0,06
0,37
1
9: % employmen in
la ge en e p ises
-0,06
0,37
-0,02
0,09
0,34
0,34
-0,35
0,07
1
10: EPL
0,10
0,07
0,17
-0,24
0,40*
-0,33
0,01
0,31
0,29
1
11: GDP pe capi a (k€)
-0,05
0,14
-0,01
0,68*
0,10
0,32
-0,53*
-0,65*
0,12
-0,22
1
12: Income inequali y
(P80/P20)
-0,16
-0,23
0,34
-0,34
-0,05
-0,39
0,53*
0,07
-0,21
-0,03
-0,40*
1
13: Unemploymen (%)
-0,15
-0,33
0,31
0,04
-0,04
-0,63*
0,28
-0,31
-0,39
0,06
-0,19
0,33
1
14: Ra io 15-34/35-64
-0,38*
-0,16
-0,13
0,58*
-0,11
0,48*
-0,49*
-0,58*
0,20
-0,26
0,42*
-0,49*
-0,25
1
15: % 0-2 childca e
-0,18
-0,32
0,30
0,48*
0,25
0,07
-0,42*
-0,67*
-0,10
0,02
0,47*
-0,12
0,22
0,34
1
16: Gende ole
a i udes
0,09
0,22
-0,02
-0,58*
-0,36
-0,43*
0,58*
0,46*
-0,31
-0,04
-0,71*
0,43*
0,06
-0,38
-0,74*
1
17: Public spending
heal hca e
-0,02
0,15
0,02
0,61*
0,32
0,49*
-0,64*
-0,62*
0,19
-0,25
0,87*
-0,42*
-0,17
0,42*
0,54*
-0,74*
1
18: Numbe o
physicians pe 100 000
inhabi an s
-0,28
0,22
0,30
-0,04
0,04
-0,06
0,14
-0,07
-0,22
-0,26
-0,07
0,14
0,29
-0,21
0,01
0,08
0,10
1
19: Median age
0,32
0,10
0,27
-0,63*
0,27
-0,36
0,34
0,45*
-0,18
0,12
-0,49*
0,51*
0,28
-0,81*
-0,06
0,19
-0,32
0,34
1
No es: * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001. Copy igh 2024 by Ho nbe g/Heisig/Solga.
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o young adul s
87
Table A 7. Co ela ion ma ix o con ex ual ac o s a NUTS 1 le el
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
1: % oca ional o ien a ion in uppe
seconda y educa ion
1
2: % ISCED 0-2
-0,23*
1
3: % ISCED 5+
-0,46*
-0,32*
1
4: Employmen (%)
0,10
-0,61*
0,27*
1
5: % employmen in adi ional
p ima y sec o
0,17
0,14
-0,48*
-0,49*
1
6: % employmen in la ge-scale
enginee ing sec o
0,62*
-0,44*
-0,26*
0,38*
0,02
1
7: % employmen in la ge en e p ises
0,16
-0,50*
0,33*
0,69*
-0,64*
0,29*
1
8: GDP pe capi a (k€)
0,37*
0,14
-0,65*
-0,45*
0,67*
0,37*
-0,59*
1
9: Unemploymen (%)
-0,28*
0,19
0,21
-0,17
-0,08
-0,18
-0,40*
0,09
1
10: Ra io 15-34/35-64
0,06
0,07
-0,42*
0,11
-0,03
0,08
-0,11
0,08
0,20
1
11: Gende ole a i udes
-0,21*
-0,14
0,55*
0,41*
-0,68*
-0,16
0,64*
-0,68*
0,12
-0,17
1
12: Numbe o physicians pe
100 000 inhabi an s
-0,32*
0,62*
0,04
-0,80*
0,27*
-0,63*
-0,63*
0,07
0,35*
-0,07
-0,18
1
13: Median age
-0,06
-0,15
0,39*
0,08
-0,18
-0,18
0,38*
-0,33*
-0,31*
-0,83*
0,47*
-0,07
1
No es: * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001. Copy igh 2024 by Ho nbe g/Heisig/Solga.
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o
young adul s
88
Sec ion B: Th ee-le el eg essions 2021
Table B 1. Th ee-le el eg essions o labou ma ke in eg a ion on socio-demog aphic
and socio-economic p o ile cha ac e is ics, 2021
Unemploymen
NEET
ISEI sco es
(AME)
(AME)
1
2
Educa ional a ainmen ( e .: less-educa ed)
In e media e-educa ed
-0.100***
-0.133***
6.473***
6.232***
(0.010)
(0.008)
(0.278)
(0.278)
Te ia y-educa ed
-0.155***
-0.176***
28.499***
28.053***
(0.016)
(0.010)
(0.298)
(0.299)
Heal h s a us ( e .: e y good)
Good
0.026***
0.030***
-1.150***
-1.086***
(0.005)
(0.004)
(0.193)
(0.192)
Fai
0.104***
0.121***
-3.183***
-2.835***
(0.013)
(0.009)
(0.354)
(0.354)
(Ve y) poo
0.265***
0.348***
-4.051***
-2.953***
(0.027)
(0.019)
(0.762)
(0.765)
Family composi ion ( e .: couples wi hou child en)
Couples wi h child en
0.054***
0.125***
-3.469***
-3.097***
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.289)
(0.291)
Li ing wi h pa en s
0.104***
0.063***
-2.864***
-2.573***
(0.013)
(0.006)
(0.278)
(0.278)
Li ing alone
0.044***
0.018***
-1.314***
-1.163***
(0.008)
(0.005)
(0.303)
(0.302)
O he o ms wi h child en
0.107***
0.158***
-5.153***
-4.622***
(including single pa en hood)
(0.018)
(0.015)
(0.602)
(0.601)
Gende ( e .: women): Men
-0.052***
-0.056***
-1.747***
-2.023***
(0.006)
(0.004)
(0.185)
(0.185)
Age ( e .: 16-19)
20-24
-0.045***
0.138***
-1.659**
-1.445*
(0.013)
(0.010)
(0.564)
(0.563)
25-29
-0.098***
0.183***
-0.127
-0.098
(0.015)
(0.012)
(0.563)
(0.565)
30-34
-0.123***
0.155***
0.340
0.314
(0.016)
(0.011)
(0.572)
(0.575)
Mig a ion backg ound ( e .; no): Yes
0.025***
0.038***
-4.859***
-4.777***
(0.007)
(0.005)
(0.288)
(0.287)
Residen ial a ea ( e .: ci ies)
Towns and subu bs
0.003
0.008*
-2.091***
-2.115***
(0.005)
(0.004)
(0.231)
(0.231)
Ru al a eas
-0.020***
0.008*
-4.852***
-4.968***
(0.006)
(0.004)
(0.240)
(0.239)
Employmen s a us ( e .: employed)
Unemployed
-4.229***
(0.335)
In educa ion
-2.535***
(0.425)
Inac i e
-3.330***
(0.446)
(In e cep )
---
---
35.542***
36.240***
(1.038)
(1.041)
SD (In e cep iso3166:nu s1)
0.408
0.297
1.425
1.392
SD (In e cep iso3166)
0.667
0.341
3.019
3.031
SD (Obse a ions)
---
---
16.141
16.089
ICC
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.0
BIC
24459.5
41569.3
292688.5
292496.7
Numbe o obse a ions
34,157
56,816
33,759
33,759
Numbe o NUTS1 egions
75
75
75
75
Numbe o coun ies
14
14
14
14
No es: + p < 0.1, * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001. Fo bina y dependen a iables, AME epo ed.
Weigh ed. Copy igh 2024 by Ho nbe g/Heisig/Solga.
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o young adul s
95
Table C 5. Two-le el eg essions o labou ma ke in eg a ion on na ional con ex ual ac o s, 2018
Unemploymen (AME)
NEET (AME)
ISEI sco es
Educa ion
sys em
Labou
ma ke
Economy
Ca e
Educa ion
sys em
Labou
ma ke
Economy
Ca e
Educa ion
sys em
Labou
ma ke
Economy
Ca e
Indi idual-le el
p edic o s included
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
T acking in seconda y
educa ion
-0.028
-0.007
1.146
(0.019)
(0.012)
(0.713)
Voca ional o ien a ion in
uppe seconda y educa ion
0.011
0.002
1.586*
(0.020)
(0.013)
(0.763)
% ISCED 5+
-0.012
-0.026*
1.436+
(0.020)
(0.013)
(0.768)
% ISCED 0–2
0.008
-0.007
0.971
(0.020)
(0.013)
(0.768)
Public spending on e ia y
educa ion
0.008
0.003
-0.240
(0.018)
(0.011)
(0.663)
Employmen a e
-0.043**
-0.027**
0.506
(0.013)
(0.009)
(0.805)
% employmen in p ima y
sec o
-0.015
0.004
-0.865
(0.012)
(0.008)
(0.764)
% employmen in la ge-
scale enginee ing sec o
-0.014
0.009
-0.384
(0.012)
(0.008)
(0.790)
% employmen in la ge
i ms (>50 employees)
-0.041***
-0.023**
1.328+
(0.012)
(0.009)
(0.763)
EPL
-0.009
-0.008
-0.092
(0.011)
(0.008)
(0.700)
GDP pe capi a
-0.005
-0.017*
1.749**
(0.010)
(0.008)
(0.646)
Income inequali y
(P80/P20)
0.015
0.006
-0.333
(0.011)
(0.009)
(0.720)
Unemploymen a e
0.070***
0.031***
-1.268*
(0.011)
(0.009)
(0.619)
Age a io:
15–34/35–64
-0.004
-0.008
-0.621
(0.011)
(0.009)
(0.659)
% 0–2 childca e
0.021
-0.019
0.008
(0.021)
(0.012)
(0.844)
Public spending on
heal hca e
-0.029
-0.016
2.251**
(0.022)
(0.013)
(0.822)
Num. o physicians pe
100 000 inhabi an s
0.003
0.009
-0.510
(0.018)
(0.010)
(0.697)
Median age
0.033+
0.012
0.817
(0.019)
(0.011)
(0.739)
(In e cep )
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
35.775**
*
35.956**
*
35.698**
*
35.624**
*
(0.815)
(0.808)
(0.754)
(0.791)
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o young adul s
96
SD (In e cep iso3166)
0.666
0.363
0.343
0.617
0.431
0.261
0.298
0.367
3.190
2.876
2.797
3.037
SD (Obse a ions)
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
15.836
15.754
15.836
15.836
ICC
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
BIC
38718.9
34568.3
38675.3
38704.1
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
443092.4
404534.1
443078.3
443081.2
Num. o obse a ions
53066
47998
53066
53066
62632.8
56393.1
62603.6
62613.9
51227
46844
51227
51227
Num. o coun ies
26 (w/o
DE)
24 (w/o
DE, EE, RS)
26 (w/o
DE)
26 (w/o
DE)
26 (w/o
DE)
24 (w/o
DE, EE, RS)
26 (w/o
DE)
26 (w/o
DE)
25 (w/o
DE, SK)
23 (w/o
DE, EE, RS,
SK)
25 (w/o
DE, SK)
25 (w/o
DE, SK)
No es: + p < 0.1, * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001; w/o wi hou . Fo bina y dependen a iables, AME epo ed. Fo indi idual-le el p edic o s included see
Table 2. Weigh ed. Copy igh 2024 by Ho nbe g/Heisig/Solga.
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o young adul s
97
Table C 6. Two-le el eg essions o income secu i y and li e sa is ac ion on na ional con ex ual ac o s, 2018
Equi alised disposable income
Po e y (AME)
Li e sa is ac ion
Educa ion
sys em
Labou
ma ke
Economy
Ca e
Educa ion
sys em
Labou
ma ke
Economy
Ca e
Educa ion
sys em
Labou
ma ke
Economy
Ca e
Indi idual-le el p edic o s
included
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
T acking in seconda y
educa ion
0.200*
-0.021**
-0.038
(0.090)
(0.007)
(0.090)
Voca ional o ien a ion in
uppe seconda y educa ion
0.202*
-0.002
0.088
(0.099)
(0.008)
(0.098)
% ISCED 5+
0.708***
-0.007
0.008
(0.098)
(0.008)
(0.098)
% ISCED 0–2
0.287**
0.010
-0.023
(0.098)
(0.008)
(0.098)
Public spending on e ia y
educa ion
0.186*
0.001
0.053
(0.086)
(0.007)
(0.086)
Employmen a e
0.148
-0.007
0.140
(0.109)
(0.008)
(0.091)
% employmen in p ima y
sec o
-0.317**
0.021**
0.119
(0.097)
(0.007)
(0.081)
% employmen in la ge-
scale enginee ing sec o
-0.369***
-0.020**
0.019
(0.098)
(0.008)
(0.082)
% employmen in la ge
i ms (>50 employees)
0.050
-0.003
0.059
(0.101)
(0.008)
(0.084)
EPL
0.046
0.005
0.198*
(0.095)
(0.007)
(0.079)
GDP pe capi a
0.555***
0.001
-0.012
(0.070)
(0.006)
(0.079)
Income inequali y
(P80/P20)
-0.262***
0.022***
-0.149+
(0.075)
(0.007)
(0.084)
Unemploymen a e
0.098
0.016**
-0.144+
(0.070)
(0.006)
(0.078)
Age a io:
15–34/35–64
0.036
0.003
-0.095
(0.074)
(0.006)
(0.082)
% 0–2 childca e
0.120
0.023**
-0.091
(0.082)
(0.009)
(0.101)
Public spending on
heal hca e
0.569***
-0.018*
0.092
(0.085)
(0.009)
(0.105)
Num. o physicians pe
100 000 inhabi an s
0.048
0.001
-0.111
(0.071)
(0.007)
(0.088)
Median age
-0.108
0.012
-0.011
(0.074)
(0.008)
(0.091)
(In e cep )
9.417***
9.458***
9.417***
9.417***
---
---
---
---
5.967***
5.944***
5.976***
5.965***
(0.082)
(0.083)
(0.063)
(0.063)
(0.170)
(0.173)
(0.164)
(0.168)
SD (In e cep iso3166)
0.416
0.393
0.316
0.315
0.235
0.222
0.201
0.241
0.414
0.327
0.352
0.388
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o young adul s
98
Equi alised disposable income
Po e y (AME)
Li e sa is ac ion
Educa ion
sys em
Labou
ma ke
Economy
Ca e
Educa ion
sys em
Labou
ma ke
Economy
Ca e
Educa ion
sys em
Labou
ma ke
Economy
Ca e
Indi idual-le el p edic o s
included
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
SD (Obse a ions)
0.570
0.565
0.570
0.570
---
---
---
---
1.588
1.586
1.588
1.588
ICC
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.1
BIC
169196.6
152355.3
169171.6
169171.1
62988.3
57295.1
62969.0
62977.6
242033.0
218153.3
242013.1
242016.9
Numbe o obse a ions
84208
76602
84208
84208
84540
76849
84540
84540
59748
53934
59748
59748
Numbe o coun ies
26 (w/o
DE)
24 (w/o
DE, EE, RS)
26 (w/o
DE)
26 (w/o
DE)
26 (w/o
DE)
24 (w/o
DE, EE, RS)
26 (w/o
DE)
26 (w/o
DE)
26 (w/o
DE)
24 (w/o
DE, EE, RS)
26 (w/o
DE)
26 (w/o
DE)
No es: + p < 0.1, * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001; w/o wi hou . Fo bina y dependen a iables, AME epo ed. Fo indi idual-le el p edic o s included see
Table 2. Weigh ed. Copy igh 2024 by Ho nbe g/Heisig/Solga.
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o young adul s
99
Table C 7. Th ee-le el eg essions o labou ma ke in eg a ion on egional con ex ual ac o s, 2018
Unemploymen (AME)
NEET (AME)
ISEI sco es
Educa ion
sys em
Labou
ma ke
Economy
Ca e
Educa ion
sys em
Labou
ma ke
Economy
Ca e
Educa ion
sys em
Labou
ma ke
Economy
Ca e
Indi idual-le el p edic o s
included
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Resp. na ional-le el
indica o s incl.
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Voca ional o ien a ion in
uppe seconda y educa ion
-0.028**
-0.017**
0.306
(0.009)
(0.006)
(0.234)
% ISCED 5+
-0.033*
-0.012
1.348***
(0.014)
(0.008)
(0.351)
% ISCED 0–2
0.017
0.026***
0.393
(0.012)
(0.007)
(0.298)
Employmen a e
-0.041***
-0.030***
0.247
(0.005)
(0.003)
(0.191)
% employmen in p ima y
sec o
0.010*
0.005
-0.856***
(0.005)
(0.003)
(0.186)
% employmen in la ge- scale
enginee ing sec o
0.001
-0.003
-0.485*
(0.006)
(0.004)
(0.229)
GDP pe capi a
-0.017**
-0.008*
0.609**
(0.006)
(0.004)
(0.233)
Unemploymen a e
0.039***
0.027***
-0.113
(0.006)
(0.004)
(0.253)
Age a io:
15–34/35–64
0.004
0.011**
0.023
(0.007)
(0.004)
(0.275)
Conse a i e gende ole
a i udes
0.016+
0.014*
-0.068
(0.009)
(0.006)
(0.215)
Num. o physicians pe
100 000 inhabi an s
-0.002
-0.004
0.661**
(0.010)
(0.006)
(0.218)
Median age
-0.003
-0.014*
-0.259
(0.010)
(0.007)
(0.237)
(In e cep )
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
35.284***
35.975***
36.052***
35.929***
(1.012)
(0.980)
(0.794)
(1.073)
SD (In e cep iso3166:nu s1)
0.298
0.186
0.201
0.416
0.180
0.137
0.136
0.283
0.987
1.034
1.246
1.239
SD (In e cep iso3166)
0.659
0.354
0.263
0.496
0.458
0.228
0.261
0.267
2.538
2.374
1.417
2.508
SD (Obse a ions)
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
15.503
15.542
15.503
15.655
ICC
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
BIC
28898.7
25907.4
28853.6
25648.5
44895.0
41104.3
44861.8
40259.4
299588.0
285471.5
299592.4
269378.8
Numbe o obse a ions
35442
32945
35442
31687
56885
53321
56885
50794
35014
33352
35014
31404
Numbe o NUTS1 egions
59
57
59
55
59
57
59
55
59
57
59
55
Numbe o coun ies
13 (w/o
DE)
12 (w/o DE,
RS)
13 (w/o DE)
12 (w/o
DE, PT)
13 (w/o DE)
12 (w/o DE,
RS)
13 (w/o DE)
12 (w/o DE,
PT)
13 (w/o DE)
12 (w/o DE,
RS)
13 (w/o DE)
12 (w/o DE,
PT)
No es: + p < 0.1, * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001; w/o wi hou . Fo bina y dependen a iables, AME epo ed. Fo indi idual-le el p edic o s included see Table 2 and o
na ional-le el con ex ual p edic o s see Table 3. Weigh ed. Copy igh 2024 by Ho nbe g/Heisig/Solga.
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o young adul s
100
Table C 8. Th ee-le el eg essions o income secu i y and li e sa is ac ion on egional con ex ual ac o s, 2018
Equi alised disposable income
Po e y (AME)
Li e sa is ac ion
Educa ion
sys em
Labou
ma ke
Economy
Ca e
Educa ion
sys em
Labou
ma ke
Economy
Ca e
Educa ion
sys em
Labou
ma ke
Economy
Ca e
Indi idual-le el p edic o s
included
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Resp. na ional-le el
indica o s incl.
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Voca ional o ien a ion in
uppe seconda y educa ion
0.045**
-0.020**
0.036
(0.016)
(0.008)
(0.036)
% ISCED 5+
0.053*
-0.018
-0.040
(0.023)
(0.011)
(0.052)
% ISCED 0–2
-0.052**
0.027**
-0.028
(0.020)
(0.009)
(0.045)
Employmen a e
0.067***
-0.034***
0.024
(0.007)
(0.004)
(0.030)
% employmen in p ima y
sec o
-0.041***
0.010*
0.017
(0.007)
(0.004)
(0.028)
% employmen in la ge- scale
enginee ing sec o
0.025**
-0.011*
0.009
(0.008)
(0.005)
(0.034)
GDP pe capi a
0.035**
-0.013**
-0.066*
(0.011)
(0.005)
(0.029)
Unemploymen a e
-0.069***
0.030***
-0.065*
(0.012)
(0.005)
(0.032)
Age a io:
15–34/35–64
-0.030*
0.018**
0.023
(0.013)
(0.006)
(0.035)
Conse a i e gende ole
a i udes
-0.015
0.013+
-0.017
(0.017)
(0.007)
(0.026)
Num. o physicians pe
100 000 inhabi an s
0.029
-0.008
-0.066*
(0.018)
(0.008)
(0.027)
Median age
0.026
-0.016*
0.025
(0.019)
(0.008)
(0.029)
(In e cep )
9.317***
9.425***
9.494***
9.124***
---
---
---
---
6.232***
6.387***
6.359***
6.272***
(0.193)
(0.126)
(0.070)
(0.160)
(0.254)
(0.253)
(0.244)
(0.254)
SD (In e cep iso3166:nu s1)
0.079
0.041
0.064
0.117
0.256
0.154
0.179
0.353
0.167
0.176
0.163
0.161
SD (In e cep iso3166)
0.617
0.400
0.209
0.479
0.222
0.163
0.191
0.195
0.573
0.534
0.492
0.541
SD (Obse a ions)
0.588
0.582
0.588
0.591
---
---
---
---
1.586
1.574
1.586
1.571
ICC
0.5
0.3
0.1
0.4
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
BIC
114037.6
105684.5
113995.7
102398.3
45873.4
42687.4
45843.8
40580.8
157237.5
144986.3
157233.7
147834.0
Numbe o obse a ions
56591
53101
56591
50500
56884
53320
56884
50793
39238
36334
39238
37064
Numbe o NUTS1 egions
59
57
59
55
59
57
59
55
59
57
59
55
Numbe o coun ies
13 (w/o DE)
12 (w/o DE,
RS)
13 (w/o DE)
12 (w/o DE,
PT)
13 (w/o
DE)
12 (w/o DE,
RS)
13 (w/o DE)
12 (w/o
DE, PT)
13 (w/o DE)
12 (w/o DE,
RS)
13 (w/o DE)
12 (w/o DE,
PT)
No es: + p < 0.1, * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001; w/o wi hou . Fo bina y dependen a iables, AME epo ed. Fo indi idual-le el p edic o s included see Table 2 and o
na ional-le el con ex ual p edic o s see Table 3. Weigh ed. Copy igh 2024 by Ho nbe g/Heisig/Solga.
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o
young adul s
101
Figu e C 1. Decomposi ions o egional a ia ions in labou ma ke ou comes, 2018
No es: Weigh ed esul s. Copy igh 2024 by Ho nbe g/Heisig/Solga.
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o
young adul s
102
Figu e C 2. Decomposi ions o egional a ia ions in labou ma ke ou comes, 2018
No es: Weigh ed esul s. Copy igh 2024 by Ho nbe g/Heisig/Solga.
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o young adul s
103
Sec ion D: Coun y-speci ic eg essions o socio-demog aphic and socio-economic cha ac e is ics, 2021
Table D 1. Two-le el coun y-speci ic eg essions o unemploymen on socio-demog aphic and socio-economic p o ile cha ac e is ics
AT
BE
BG
CH
CY
CZ
DE
DK
EE
EL
ES
FI
FR
HR
HU
IE
IT
LT
LU
LV
MT
PL
PT
RO
RS
SE
SK
Educa ional a ainmen ( e : less-educa ed)
In e media e-educa ed
-0.09
***
-0.08
***
-0.27
***
-0.07
**
0.04
-0.26
***
-0.12
***
-0.17
***
-0.06
**
-0.05
-0.10
***
-0.16
***
-0.09
***
-0.15
**
-0.16
***
-0.19
***
-0.14
***
-0.11
+
0.02
-0.03
-0.03
*
-0.09
***
-0.03
0.00
-0.30
***
-0.22
***
-0.27
***
Te ia y-educa ed
-0.16
***
-0.17
***
-0.32
***
-0.10
***
0.01
-0.29
***
-0.12
***
-0.15
**
-0.12
***
-0.11
*
-0.13
***
-0.22
***
-0.19
***
-0.22
***
-0.22
***
-0.29
***
-0.21
***
-0.11
+
-0.01
-0.10
**
-0.05
***
-0.14
***
-0.07
***
-0.01
-0.38
***
-0.23
***
-0.31
***
Heal h s a us ( e .: e y good)
Good
-0.01
0.03
*
0.04
*
0.01
0.02
0.04
**
0.01
0.00
0.01
0.02
0.03
*
0.05
*
0.03
*
0.01
0.01
0.04
0.04
**
0.04
-0.01
-0.01
-0.01
0.03
***
0.00
0.01
0.05
*
0.00
0.01
Fai
0.10
***
0.08
**
0.07
0.13
***
0.15
**
0.14
***
0.10
***
0.12
**
0.10
***
0.13
+
0.10
***
0.10
**
0.10
***
0.09
*
0.04
0.05
0.17
***
0.07
+
0.00
0.04
0.02
0.10
***
0.05
*
0.04
0.23
***
0.06
*
0.03
(Ve y) poo
0.43
***
0.19
***
0.10
0.10
0.31
**
0.12
*
0.29
***
0.24
**
0.12
*
0.06
0.47
***
0.33
**
0.15
***
0.42
***
0.44
***
0.12
-0.01
0.58
***
-0.03
0.14
+
0.26
***
0.17
***
0.15
*
0.23
+
0.51
***
0.14
**
0.19
*
Family composi ion ( e .: couples wi hou child en)
Couples wi h child en
0.07
**
-0.01
-0.01
0.01
0.01
0.05
**
0.02
-0.04
-0.02
0.09
*
0.13
***
-0.05
+
0.06
***
-0.01
-0.03
0.03
0.05
0.05
0.03
0.01
-0.02
0.02
0.04
0.00
0.08
*
0.01
0.08
*
Li ing wi h pa en s
0.08
***
0.09
***
0.03
0.04
*
0.09
***
0.08
***
0.03
*
0.03
0.06
**
0.19
***
0.10
***
0.18
***
0.19
***
0.09
*
0.05
*
0.07
*
0.10
***
0.14
***
0.06
***
0.07
**
0.03
+
0.04
**
0.07
**
0.03
*
0.17
***
0.04
0.09
**
Li ing alone
0.04
*
0.10
***
0.09
+
0.01
-0.03
0.02
0.03
**
0.02
0.01
0.04
0.00
0.05
*
0.05
**
0.04
0.00
0.02
0.00
0.01
0.02
0.04
0.01
0.05
*
-0.02
-0.02
0.05
0.03
0.02
O he o ms wi h
child en (incl. single p.)
0.09
0.05
-0.03
0.06
0.06
0.29
***
0.12
***
-0.02
0.02
0.00
0.20
***
0.11
0.18
***
0.07
0.17
**
0.24
***
0.01
0.17
**
0.03
0.07
+
0.01
0.04
0.22
***
0.00
0.03
0.01
0.07
Gende ( e .: women):
Men
-0.02
-0.02
-0.09
***
0.02
-0.04
*
-0.03
*
0.01
-0.05
*
-0.05
***
-0.12
***
-0.06
***
0.01
0.00
-0.11
***
-0.07
***
0.00
-0.09
***
0.00
-0.01
-0.04
*
0.00
-0.06
***
-0.04
*
0.03
**
-0.15
***
-0.01
-0.03
+
Age ( e .: 16-19)
20-24
0.09
**
0.07
-0.04
0.03
-0.25
***
-0.29
***
0.05
*
0.12
*
-0.19
**
-0.06
-0.17
***
0.02
0.00
-0.33
***
-0.19
***
0.14
*
-0.27
***
-0.41
**
-0.06
-0.07
-0.02
-0.17
***
-0.10
*
-0.05
-0.22
***
0.07
-0.27
***
25-29
0.09
**
0.04
-0.10
+
0.07
*
-0.27
***
-0.34
***
0.05
*
0.15
*
-0.26
***
-0.10
-0.23
***
-0.04
-0.03
-0.34
***
-0.29
***
0.09
-0.39
***
-0.49
***
-0.08
-0.05
-0.05
-0.22
***
-0.20
***
-0.09
**
-0.34
***
0.05
-0.30
***
30-34
0.09
**
0.06
-0.11
*
0.06
+
-0.25
***
-0.36
***
0.03
0.16
*
-0.20
***
-0.15
*
-0.26
***
-0.01
-0.04
-0.34
***
-0.29
***
0.01
-0.46
***
-0.46
**
-0.08
-0.03
-0.03
-0.22
***
-0.21
***
-0.11
***
-0.37
***
0.01
-0.35
***
Mig a ion backg ound
( e .: no): Yes
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.06
***
0.05
*
-0.02
0.04
***
0.10
**
0.09
**
-0.01
0.01
0.02
0.08
***
-0.06
0.04
0.02
-0.08
***
0.14
0.02
0.05
0.01
-0.05
0.00
-0.10
*
0.07
**
-0.05
Residen ial a ea ( e .: ci ies)
Towns and subu bs
-0.07
***
-0.03
*
0.10
***
-0.01
0.04
+
-0.02
-0.03
0.08
***
0.00
0.02
0.01
0.02
-0.01
-0.05
+
-0.06
***
0.09
*
-0.03
*
0.01
0.00
0.00
0.02
-0.01
0.02
Ru al a eas
-0.11
***
-0.03
0.16
***
-0.03
+
0.09
***
-0.04
*
-0.04
**
-0.01
-0.01
0.04
+
-0.01
0.02
-0.07
***
-0.02
-0.02
-0.08
**
-0.09
***
0.04
+
-0.04
**
-0.02
-0.01
-0.01
-0.03
+
-0.02
0.02
-0.01
-0.01
(In e cep )
0.12
**
0.12
+
0.46
***
0.04
0.30
***
0.63
***
0.08
***
0.13
+
0.39
***
0.38
***
0.46
***
0.24
**
0.23
***
0.70
***
0.55
***
0.28
***
0.76
***
0.56
***
0.11
*
0.18
**
0.09
*
0.37
***
0.34
***
0.11
**
0.86
***
0.23
***
0.63
***
R2
.099
.100
.168
.057
.073
.197
.098
.070
.084
.062
.091
.121
.118
.092
.139
.125
.135
.135
.036
.039
.050
.067
.058
.049
.145
.134
.123
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o young adul s
104
AT
BE
BG
CH
CY
CZ
DE
DK
EE
EL
ES
FI
FR
HR
HU
IE
IT
LT
LU
LV
MT
PL
PT
RO
RS
SE
SK
Numbe o
obse a ions
1564
1934
1642
1865
1295
1669
3503
945
1652
2088
4897
969
3399
1850
1657
953
2898
723
1134
1366
1404
3334
2304
1525
2175
1237
1419
No es: + p < 0.1, * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001. Copy igh 2024 by Ho nbe g/Heisig/Solga.
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o young adul s
111
AT
BE
BG
CH
CY
CZ
DE
DK
EE
EL
ES
FI
FR
HR
HU
IE
IT
LT
LU
LV
MT
PL
PT
RO
RS
SE
SK
(In e cep )
0.22
***
0.11
***
0.34
***
0.12
***
0.09
*
0.07
**
0.09
***
0.20
***
0.19
***
0.20
***
0.18
***
0.02
0.24
***
0.13
***
0.18
***
0.07
*
0.11
**
0.19
**
0.12
*
0.06
0.13
***
0.03
0.13
***
0.13
**
0.14
***
-0.09
*
0.20
***
R2
.163
.221
.244
.095
.165
.134
.201
.256
.116
.098
.159
.327
.125
.104
.123
.072
.111
.178
.133
.115
.189
.076
.098
.230
.205
.193
.36
Numbe o
obse a ions.
2259
3476
2427
2629
2190
2892
5349
1579
2846
3785
8699
1548
5747
3129
2805
2003
5006
988
2044
2079
1955
5224
4131
2789
3280
1839
2416
No es: + p < 0.1, * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001. Copy igh 2024 by Ho nbe g/Heisig/Solga.
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o young adul s
112
Table D 6. Two-le el coun y-speci ic eg essions o li e sa is ac ion on socio-demog aphic and socio-economic p o ile cha ac e is ics
AT
BE
BG
CH
CY
CZ
DE
DK
EE
EL
ES
FI
FR
HR
HU
IE
IT
LT
LU
LV
MT
PL
PT
RO
RS
SE
SK
Educa ional a ainmen ( e : less-educa ed)
In e media e-educa ed
-0.21
*
0.15
*
0.48
***
0.00
0.06
0.19
+
0.38
***
-0.44
**
0.07
0.57
***
0.17
***
-0.07
-0.01
-0.04
0.78
***
-0.03
0.25
***
0.90
***
-0.03
0.14
0.01
0.08
-0.41
*
0.55
***
0.35
**
-0.03
0.42
**
Te ia y-educa ed
-0.12
0.34
***
0.78
***
0.17
0.27
+
0.52
***
0.59
***
-0.38
*
0.27
*
0.87
***
0.24
***
0.03
0.14
0.18
0.92
***
0.08
0.54
***
1.00
***
0.00
0.36
**
0.13
0.09
-0.35
*
0.66
***
0.66
***
-0.05
0.80
***
Heal h s a us ( e .: e y good)
Good
-0.65
***
-0.28
***
-0.77
***
-0.49
***
-0.36
***
-0.47
***
-0.78
***
-0.82
***
-0.46
***
-0.38
***
-0.87
***
-0.42
***
-0.53
***
-0.75
***
-0.58
***
-0.52
***
-0.40
***
-0.33
*
-0.54
***
-0.47
***
-0.32
***
-0.62
***
-0.53
***
-0.43
***
-0.39
***
-0.66
***
-0.34
***
Fai
-1.41
***
-1.17
***
-1.12
***
-1.29
***
-0.66
***
-0.81
***
-1.86
***
-2.02
***
-1.19
***
-1.15
***
-1.99
***
-1.54
***
-1.19
***
-1.28
***
-1.74
***
-1.34
***
-0.94
***
-1.19
***
-1.60
***
-1.20
***
-1.10
***
-1.36
***
-1.30
***
-0.70
**
-1.94
***
-1.56
***
-0.81
***
(Ve y) poo
-2.95
***
-2.12
***
-2.80
***
-2.58
***
-2.34
***
-2.24
***
-3.56
***
-4.07
***
-2.35
***
-2.08
***
-2.84
***
-4.01
***
-2.48
***
-3.24
***
-3.30
***
-2.27
***
-1.50
***
-2.55
***
-2.07
***
-2.17
***
-3.21
***
-1.33
***
-2.58
***
-0.46
+
-2.32
***
-2.68
***
-2.75
***
Family composi ion ( e .: couples wi hou child en)
Couples wi h child en
0.23
*
-0.02
0.11
0.40
***
0.09
0.42
***
0.30
**
0.49
**
0.18
+
0.12
0.18
*
0.36
***
0.17
+
0.57
***
0.39
**
0.55
**
0.30
**
0.85
***
0.11
0.30
*
0.14
0.32
***
0.59
***
0.03
0.11
0.39
***
0.53
**
Li ing wi h pa en s
-0.32
***
-0.36
***
-0.13
-0.52
***
-0.54
***
-0.06
-0.21
*
-0.61
**
-0.54
***
-0.34
**
-0.30
***
-0.46
***
-0.39
**
-0.02
-0.28
+
-0.48
**
-0.15
0.53
*
-0.15
-0.43
***
-0.17
-0.23
*
-0.18
-0.07
-0.13
-0.50
***
-0.15
Li ing alone
-0.43
***
-0.45
***
-0.23
-0.46
***
-0.45
**
0.04
-0.31
***
-0.57
***
-0.32
**
-0.10
-0.45
***
-0.32
***
-0.51
***
0.26
-0.23
0.16
-0.10
0.53
*
-0.41
***
-0.15
0.14
-0.08
-0.34
+
0.01
-0.51
*
-0.60
***
-0.47
*
O he o ms wi h
child en (incl. single p.)
-0.60
*
-0.12
-0.11
0.14
-0.47
-0.42
+
-0.08
0.31
-0.40
+
-0.63
-0.40
**
-0.29
-0.26
-1.05
***
-0.52
+
-0.35
-0.53
**
0.27
-0.65
*
-0.18
-0.29
-0.01
-0.37
-0.65
**
-0.57
+
-0.68
**
-0.22
Gende ( e .: women):
Men
0.04
0.01
-0.10
-0.06
0.04
-0.10
-0.16
**
-0.06
-0.06
-0.05
-0.06
0.00
0.10
-0.04
-0.25
**
0.09
-0.01
0.04
-0.09
-0.06
-0.12
-0.07
-0.14
0.07
-0.15
*
-0.06
0.09
Age ( e .: 16-19)
20-24
-0.11
-0.07
-0.63
***
-0.47
***
-0.11
-0.20
-0.09
0.02
-0.36
**
-0.49
***
-0.33
***
-0.31
*
-0.74
***
-0.02
-0.62
**
-0.07
-0.34
***
-1.29
***
0.37
**
-0.32
*
-0.15
-0.17
0.32
-0.38
***
-0.51
***
-0.18
-0.48
**
25-29
-0.20
-0.23
*
-0.61
***
-0.71
***
-0.20
-0.52
**
-0.36
**
0.14
-0.65
***
-0.71
***
-0.59
***
-0.59
***
-0.91
***
-0.38
**
-0.76
***
-0.16
-0.45
***
-1.64
***
-0.13
-0.58
***
-0.05
-0.21
0.32
-0.36
**
-0.85
***
-0.25
-0.80
***
30-34
-0.25
+
-0.35
**
-0.82
***
-0.80
***
-0.41
*
-0.49
**
-0.35
**
-0.21
-0.60
***
-0.70
***
-0.70
***
-0.74
***
-0.91
***
-0.65
***
-0.84
***
-0.09
-0.54
***
-1.49
***
-0.07
-0.43
*
-0.29
-0.18
-0.04
-0.34
**
-0.98
***
-0.45
*
-0.96
***
Mig a ion backg ound
( e .: no): Yes
-0.07
-0.18
**
0.27
-0.09
-0.11
0.00
-0.25
***
-0.06
-0.15
-0.03
-0.08
-0.67
***
0.01
0.03
-0.74
*
0.10
0.01
-1.25
+
-0.20
*
-0.04
0.02
0.10
0.34
+
0.12
0.00
0.17
Residen ial a ea ( e .: ci ies)
Towns and subu bs
0.04
0.10
*
-0.09
0.02
0.09
0.20
**
0.10
-0.14
*
-0.07
+
0.01
0.12
0.25
***
-0.16
-0.05
0.09
+
0.18
0.16
-0.04
0.15
0.27
***
0.16
+
0.23
**
0.24
*
Ru al a eas
0.25
***
0.27
***
-0.29
***
-0.02
0.26
*
0.29
***
0.04
0.09
0.03
0.12
+
0.14
*
0.07
0.17
*
0.33
***
-0.22
+
0.10
0.14
*
0.03
0.38
***
0.10
0.24
**
0.07
0.04
0.10
0.07
0.31
**
0.02
Employmen s a us ( e .: employed)
Unemployed
-0.74
***
-0.30
**
-0.79
***
-0.50
***
-0.99
***
-0.95
***
-1.08
***
-1.24
***
-0.80
***
-0.51
***
-0.70
***
-0.53
***
-0.57
***
-0.76
***
-0.98
***
-0.51
**
-0.78
***
-1.22
***
-1.55
***
-0.20
-1.26
***
-0.07
-1.27
***
-0.15
-0.80
***
-0.74
***
-1.24
***
In educa ion
-0.25
**
-0.11
0.18
-0.02
0.37
**
0.20
+
-0.03
-0.24
*
-0.04
0.51
***
-0.07
-0.25
**
-0.35
**
-0.01
0.39
*
0.06
0.03
-0.63
*
-0.12
0.37
**
-0.04
0.36
*
0.35
0.28
**
0.42
***
0.12
0.76
***
Inac i e
0.11
-0.38
***
-0.56
***
0.02
-0.38
*
-0.03
-0.34
***
-0.87
***
-0.24
*
0.05
-0.14
0.18
-0.07
-0.63
**
-0.17
-0.41
*
-0.59
***
0.22
-0.65
***
-0.22
+
-0.32
+
-0.32
**
-1.09
*
-0.21
*
-0.06
0.03
-0.20
Decomposi ion o be ween and wi hin-coun y ( egional) di e ences in he labou ma ke a ainmen o young adul s
113
AT
BE
BG
CH
CY
CZ
DE
DK
EE
EL
ES
FI
FR
HR
HU
IE
IT
LT
LU
LV
MT
PL
PT
RO
RS
SE
SK
Log. equalised
disposable income
0.08
0.12
+
0.22
**
0.29
***
0.35
***
0.54
***
0.22
**
0.28
*
0.29
***
0.19
**
0.23
***
0.12
0.03
0.51
***
0.31
**
0.25
*
0.22
***
0.30
*
0.45
***
0.45
***
0.12
0.12
+
0.36
*
0.18
**
0.23
**
0.28
**
0.47
***
Po e y ( e .: no): Yes
-0.07
-0.08
-0.10
0.10
0.14
-0.07
-0.12
0.03
0.24
*
-0.08
-0.02
0.08
0.01
0.22
+
-0.30
-0.19
0.14
+
-0.20
-0.20
0.32
**
-0.19
-0.15
0.49
*
-0.48
***
-0.64
***
0.04
-0.02
(In e cep )
8.26
***
6.95
***
5.41
***
5.82
***
4.20
***
2.88
***
6.07
***
5.87
***
5.96
***
5.65
***
6.70
***
8.03
***
8.16
***
3.41
***
5.17
***
5.07
***
5.91
***
5.43
***
3.37
**
3.76
***
6.66
***
7.35
***
4.98
***
6.48
***
5.63
***
5.91
***
3.65
**
R2
.205
.190
.208
.144
.113
.169
.244
.300
.174
.122
.187
.320
.160
.235
.245
.154
.118
.171
.217
.192
.101
.130
.267
.162
.209
.267
.214
Numbe o
obse a ions
2227
3380
2426
2627
2187
2687
4226
1547
2705
3712
8499
1545
2589
2876
1416
1740
4987
960
1894
1895
1931
2197
700
2764
3203
1830
2186
No es: + p < 0.1, * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001. Copy igh 2024 by Ho nbe g/Heisig/Solga.
