Kohne , Di k
P ep in
Money launde ing and ax e asion : Do in e na ional
measu es ha e a signi ican impac in sub-Saha an A ica?
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Kohne , Di k (2024) : Money launde ing and ax e asion : Do in e na ional
measu es ha e a signi ican impac in sub-Saha an A ica?, Zenodo, Genè e,
h ps://doi.o g/10.5281/zenodo.12570406 ,
h ps://zenodo.o g/ eco ds/12570406
This Ve sion is a ailable a :
h ps://hdl.handle.ne /10419/300868
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1
Money launde ing and ax e asion :
Do in e na ional measu es ha e a signi ican impac
in sub-Saha an A ica ?
Di k Kohne
1
Go e nmen o s ep up e o s agains
money launde ing and e o is inancing?
Sou ce: © S ano Olonde, The New Times (Rwanda), 29 No embe 2017
Abs ac : Sub-Saha an A ica (SSA) accoun s o a hi d o he coun ies on he Financial
Ac ion Task Fo ce (FATF) g ey lis . In he Money Launde ing and Te o is Financing (ML/TF)
Ranking and Risk Assessmen Tool, he egion pe o med poo ly in e ms o esilience o
ML/TF, wi h mo e han 60% o coun ies alling in o he high- isk ca ego y. Al hough coun ies
on he g ey lis a e no subjec o sanc ions, inclusion on he lis has a signi ican impac on hei
economies. This includes a signi ican educ ion in capi al in lows and o eign di ec
in es men . The ou main sou ces o illici inancial lows om SSA, Sou h A ica, he
Democ a ic Republic o Congo, E hiopia and Nige ia, accoun ed o mo e han 50% o o al
illici inancial lows. While SSA ecei ed nea ly $2 illion in o eign di ec in es men (FDI)
and o icial de elopmen assis ance (ODA) be ween 1980 and 2018, i issued o e $1 illion in
illici inancial lows. These illici ly acqui ed unds and di e ed om he egion con inue o
pose a de elopmen challenge. Illici inancial lows inc eased o e all, bu no conce ning ade.
In he 38 yea s om 1980 o 2018, hey inc eased signi ican ly in he 2000s, in pa allel wi h he
g ow h o A ican ade. Eme ging and de eloping coun ies in Asia and he Middle Eas ha e
become key a ge s. P e ious ini ia i es o cu b money launde ing and imp o e he exchange o
ax in o ma ion be ween coun ies ha e la gely ailed, including he h ee mos impo an : he
Financial Ac ion Task Fo ce ( ounded in 1998), he Global Fo um on T anspa ency and
Exchange o In o ma ion o Tax Pu poses ( ounded in 2009 ) and he Inclusi e F amewo k on
Base E osion and P o i Shi ing ( ounded in 2016). Fi s , A ican coun ies lack he esou ces
and capaci y o add ess illici inancial lows. Second, many ad anced economies a e no
su icien ly engaged in hese ini ia i es. Howe e , he epa ia ion o illegal unds is an
impo an ool o s eng hening he esou ce base o A ican coun ies. In 2020, o example,
he Uni ed S a es and he sel -go e ning B i ish C own Dependency o Je sey, one o he
wo ld's mos no o ious ax and money launde ing ha ens, eached an ag eemen wi h Nige ia o
epa ia e mo e han $300 million s olen by Nige ia's o me mili a y dic a o Gene al Sani
Abacha.
Keywo ds: Money launde ing, Money Launde ing Con ol Ac , Embezzlemen , Co up ion, ax
e asion, Te o ism inancing, In o mal economy, Illegal d ug ade, Human a icking, Blood
diamonds, Good go e nance, Sub-Saha an A ica, Sou h A ica, Kenya, DR Congo, E hiopia,
Mozambique, Uganda, Rwanda, Nige ia, Ghana, Mali, Came oon
JEL-Code: D23, D25, D53, D63, D74, E21, E26, E42, F35, F38, F53, F54, G28, H26, K42, N27,
N47, O17, Z13
1
Di k Kohne , associa ed expe , GIGA-Ins i u e o A ican A ai s, Hambu g. D a : 30 June 2024
2
1. In oduc ion
Ca oon 2: Kickbacks, one o A ica's mos common o ms o co up ion
Sou ce: © Mdogo, Pan A ican Visions, June 2015
O ganised c iminal ac i i y is endemic in many pa s o he wo ld. Whe he in he o m o
d ug a icking, audulen ac i i ies o scams, no ma ke is immune om he h ea . Illici
unds ind hei way in o he inancial sys em whe e e he e is o ganised c iminal ac i i y,
especially in A ica. C iminals use a a ie y o legi ima e business ac i i ies o conceal he
sou ce and des ina ion o illici unds. Unde s anding how money launde ing wo ks and
common ac ics can help p e en legi ima e businesses om becoming ehicles o launde ing
c iminal p oceeds is he e o e c ucial (Wes , 2021).
G aph 1: Money launde ing in Sub-Saha an A ica
in he Basel AML Index
Sou ce: © Bogusla ska, 2022
3
Money launde ing and ax e asion can unde mine he s abili y o a coun y's economy and
inancial sys em. I can acili a e co up ion by allowing pe pe a o s o hide he p oceeds o
co up ion, including a he ansna ional le el. Mos ax e enues a e nega i ely a ec ed by
co up ion, which unde mines compliance. Fo example, axpaye s can a oid paying axes by
paying b ibes o o he illegal compensa ion. O , companies p e e o join he in o mal
economy i ax exemp ions a e g an ed due o b ibes. In coun ies wi h weak ins i u ions,
go e nmen s may also use in es men spending as a ehicle o en -seeking, educing he
e iciency o public in es men (Newiak & Segu a-Ubie go & Wane, 2022).
Illici inancial lows a e no new o A ica. While sub-Saha an A ica (SSA) ecei ed nea ly
US$2 illion in o eign di ec in es men (FDI) and o icial de elopmen assis ance (ODA)
be ween 1980 and 2018, i emi ed mo e han US$1 illion in illici inancial lows. These
lows, illegally acqui ed and la gely channelled ou o he con inen , con inue o pose a
de elopmen challenge o he egion, as hey d ain domes ic esou ces c ucial o he
con inen 's de elopmen . Illici inancial lows mos o en esul om ade misin oicing,
which is one o he main ways o illegally ans e ing money o ano he coun y. I occu s
when expo e s o impo e s delibe a ely mis epo he alue, quan i y o na u e o goods and
se ices o e ade axes, bene i om ax incen i es, a oid capi al con ols o launde money
(Madden, 2020). T ans e p icing, i.e. he unde p icing o ou bound ans e s om he sou ce
o p o i s, e.g. in A ican ax ju isdic ions, o ax hea ens, and he o e p icing o inbound
ans e s o goods and se ices, cons i u e a se e e case o p o i shi ing and ax a bi age
(Ray, 2023).
G aph 2: E olu ion o agg ega e illici inancial lows ou o A ica
Sou ce: © Madden, 2020
Acco ding o he la ges and mos de ailed su ey o ci izens’ iews on b ibe y and o he
o ms o co up ion in A ica, conduc ed by T anspa ency In e na ional in pa ne ship wi h
A oba ome e be ween Sep embe 2016 and Sep embe 2018, mo e han 1 in 4 people who
accessed public se ices, such as heal h ca e and educa ion, paid a b ibe in he p e ious yea .
This is equi alen o app oxima ely 130 million people (In e na ional Edi o , 2019).
Sub-Saha an A ica now accoun s o a hi d o coun ies wo ldwide on he so-called ‘g ey
lis ’ o he Financial Ac ion Task Fo ce (FATF) (see g aph 1). In Oc obe 2022, he DR
4
Congo, Mozambique and Tanzania we e added o he lis . Acco ding o he Basel Ins i u e o
Go e nance's AML Index, a anking and isk assessmen ool o money launde ing and
e o is inancing (ML/TF), sub-Saha an A ica pe o med poo ly in e ms o ML/TF
esilience in 2022. Mo e han 60% o coun ies ell in o he high- isk ca ego y. Al hough
g ey-lis ed coun ies a e no subjec o sanc ions, being on he lis has se ious consequences
o hei economies. These include a signi ican educ ion in capi al in lows and o eign di ec
in es men (Bogusla ska, 2022).
Illici inancial lows om A ica ha e been inc easing o e all, bu no in e ms o sha e (%
o ade). O e he 38-yea ime span om 1980-2018, A ica expo ed an agg ega e o
US$1.3 illion o illici inancial lows. Illici inancial lows saw a no able inc ease in he
2000s in co espondence o inc eases in ade om A ica. While he high agg ega e amoun
o illici inancial lows may appea ala ming, i is impo an o no e ha he ela i e sha e o
illici inancial lows seems o be s eady o declining (G aph 2). In gene al, la ge economies
ha e highe le els o illici inancial lows han small economies. Fo example, he ou
la ges A ican sou ces o illici inancial lows, Sou h A ica, DR Congo, E hiopia and
Nige ia, accoun o mo e han 50 % o o al illici inancial lows om SSA (Madden, 2020).
Highe axes and in la ion lead o highe illici inancial ou lows. Eme ging and de eloping
economies in Asia and he Middle Eas ha e become majo des ina ions o hese illici lows
om A ica in ecen yea s. The h ee ini ia i es o cu b he ou low, he Financial Ac ion
Task Fo ce (se up in 1998), he Global Fo um on T anspa ency and Exchange o In o ma ion
o Tax Pu poses (2009) and he OECD comp ehensi e amewo k on base e osion and p o i
shi ing (2016), ha e so a had li le impac . Many SSA coun ies lack he esou ces and
capaci y o ackle illici inancial lows. In addi ion, he eluc ance o many ad anced
economies o ully commi o hese ini ia i es has p e en ed ull anspa ency and con ibu ed
o he con inua ion o ha m ul ax p ac ices, including a lack o coope a ion in he eco e y o
unds. Unde hese cons ain s, he epa ia ion o illici unds appea s o be he easies way o
consolida e he domes ic esou ce base o A ican coun ies. Thus, in 2022, he U.S. and
B i ish C own Dependency o Je sey, one o he wo ld's mos no o ious ax and money
launde ing ha ens, eached an ag eemen wi h Nige ia o epa ia e mo e han US$300
million, s olen by Nige ia's o me mili a y dic a o , Gene al Sani Abacha. Howe e , he e
seems o be a lack o coope a ion om de eloped economies when i comes o eco e ing
unds (Madden, 2020).
G aph 3: h ee s ages o money launde ing p ocess
Sou ce: © Wes , RANE, S a o , 2021
5
O ende s use a a ie y o legi ima e business ac i i ies o conceal he sou ce and des ina ion
o illici unds. Bo h legi ima e and illegi ima e business ac i i ies gene a e e enue
dis ibu ed o employees, o ganiza ional leade s, in es o s, and ou side endo s ha p o ide
essen ial se ices. Fo c iminal o ganiza ions, he p ocess o collec ing and dis ibu ing
e enue is augh wi h legal challenges. In mos coun ies, d ug a icke s canno simply
open a bank accoun unde hei own name, deposi p oceeds om cocaine sales, and
edis ibu e he unds o a ious leade s, employees and endo s. The ansac ion eco ds le
behind would allow in es iga o s o iden i y and a es he en i e c iminal ne wo k. Ins ead,
hey ha e o ely on clouding o manage hei inancial esou ces and mo e hem a ound.
Also, go e nmen s can engage in money launde ing. Examples each om No h Ko ea,
seeking o epa ia e unds om inancially mo i a ed cybe a acks o I an, ying o e ade
U.S.-led sanc ions on i s economy (Wes , 2021).
Ca oon 3: One in ou people in A ica pay b ibes o access se ices
Sou ce: © In e na ional Edi o , 11 July 2019
Money launde ing can ake many o ms. The h ee mos impo an a e: Fi s ly, 'placemen ',
i.e. placing illici asse s ( ypically cash) in a inancial ne wo k whe e he unds can be mo e
easily s o ed and ans e ed, o seeking o place hei p oceeds in mo e manageable and
secu e bank accoun s, inancial ins umen s o o he asse s such as eal es a e, p ecious me als
o wo ks o a . Second, 'laye ing', which is he p ocess o disguising he sou ce o he unds
and he des ina ion whe e hey end up, o a leas c ea ing enough con usion o a oid legal
liabili y. Thi d, 'in eg a ion', which is he inal s ep in con e ing illici unds in o legi ima e
goods and se ices. Once he o igin o he unds has been su icien ly disguised, he ecipien
can use hem o buy p ope y o luxu y i ems o in es hem in inancial p oduc s ha a e
indis inguishable om goods and se ices pu chased wi h legally ob ained unds (Wes ,
2021). To achie e hese s eps, money launde ing schemes ely on a a ie y o ac ics. These
include exchanging illegal cu ency on he black ma ke , b eaking up he o al amoun
ans e ed in o smalle amoun s, e.g. below he US Suspicious Ac i i y Repo h eshold o
$10,000, using on companies such as ba s, es au an s, e c. o audulen in oices, o using
shell companies o o sho e accoun s, as e ealed by he Panama Pape s (Wes , 2021).
Cash-based money launde ing is he p ima y means by which c iminal o ganisa ions and
e o is inancie s launde money, no only in SSA bu globally. The p oceeds o c ime a e
o en gene a ed in cash, e en when o he me hods such as mobile banking a e used (Cusack,
2020). A long-s anding no o ious majo playe in money launde ing and embezzlemen o
public unds in ancophone SSA is he in o mal ne wo k o F ança ique because o non-
compliance wi h cons i u ional no ms (M'Paka, 2017; Kohne , 2022a).
6
A co e p oblem is he linkage o e o ism wi h ansna ional c ime, money launde ing and
a icking o all so s, no ably d ugs, human beings (mig an s, child and sex labou e s) and
i ea ms. Money launde ing, illegal money ans e s and a icking g ew ala mingly in he
pas yea s bo h o he Sahel and coas al Wes A ican s a es. Wes A ica is a s a egic hub
o smuggle s shipping d ugs om La in Ame ica o Eu ope and he Middle Eas . The e o e,
he join comba o money launde ing and inancing o iolen ex emism is a
coun e insu gency measu e o u mos impo ance. Al hough he igu es on illici inancial
lows (IFFs) a e di icul o e alua e and he e o e hea ily dispu ed, expe s ag ee ha IFFs,
including comme cial p ac ices ha con ibu e o hem, such as ade misin oicing, ans e
p icing, ax e asion and a oidance, exceed he amoun o ODA p o ided o A ica (Kohne ,
2022).
Ca oon 4: ‘S a e e o ism is as dange ous and con agious as Jihadism’
Sou ce: L'Al e na i e, iS ock, 11 Augus 2022
2
The legal and illici sec o s a e inc easingly in e wo en in Wes A ica, which is la gely due
o he size o he in o mal economy, es ima ed o cons i u e as much as 60 % -70 % o o al
economic ac i i y in he egion. I is also a p oduc o he eli e p o ec ion ne wo ks ha p o i
om illici inancial lows (IFF) using local powe b oke s as well as c iminal and e o is
g oups. Financial ansac ions a e o en conduc ed in cash o h ough in o mal sys ems o
money ans e because he o mal banking sys em is ou o each o he majo i y o people.
Togo became an ou s anding example as a majo hub o d ug a icking and money
launde ing in Wes A ica. This was ela ed, among o he hings, o p o i s om e-expo s o
used ca s om Wes e n Eu ope o neighbou ing ma ke s, mos ly smuggling o Nige ia. The
high le el o IFF s ongly, co ela ed wi h money launde ing, a ac ed he conce n o he
in e na ional dono communi y. These IFF came mainly om h ee sou ces, i.e. comme cial
ax e asion, a icking o bills in in e na ional ade and abusi e ans e p ices, c iminal
ac i i ies such as d ug dealing, illegal ansac ions on weapons, smuggling, ac i e co up ion
and he conclusion o co up ci il se an s. In compa ison, IFF ep esen ed almos 500 % o
he Togo go e nmen 's ax e enues, which anked Togo second in he wo ld (Kohne , 2022).
2
Illus a ion : iS ock : « Con isca ion du Pou oi pa la Fo ce, Un Te o isme d’E a aussi Dange eux e
Con agieux Que le Djihadisme ». L'Al e na i e - www.27a il.com , 11 Augus 2022. © (all igh s ese ed).
7
G aph 4: Wes A ica’s illici hubs:
ho spo s, ansi ion poin s and c ime zones, 2022
Sou ce: Global Ini ia i e, 2022
Resea ch in o he mechanisms o e o is inancing in Cen al and Wes A ica, and in
pa icula he cen al ole o illici inancial lows, has shown ha one o he mos e ec i e
ways o weakening e o is g oups is o de elop and implemen app op ia e policies o
con ol inancial lows in A ica and a ound he wo ld. One sou ce o illici unds de i ed
om co up ion is he in ol emen o poli icians and senio au ho i ies in o ganised c ime,
such as he a icking o d ugs and o he illici goods. Also, he delibe a e o abusi e use o
NGOs, nonp o i o ganisa ions (NPOs) and cha i able dona ions as on companies o inance
e o ism in Cen al and Wes A ica is also used o money launde ing. In ac ual ac , he
ac i i ies o hese o ganisa ions gene ally escape adminis a i e con ol o go e nmen
inancial ins i u ions, making hem pa icula ly ulne able o being used by e o is g oups o
aise and ans e unds, including (en o ced) con ibu ions (collec ions) om membe s o a
e o is g oup and inancing by o eign suppo e s passing h ough an NPO and ambushes,
loo ing and hos age- aking (Ngalé, 2019).
In sho , by connec ing poli ical powe and a c iminalized economy, Sub-Saha an A ica is
cons uc ing a dis inc i e pa h. I pu s his o ical ading p ac ices, indigenous eligious
a ilia ions, and lineage dynamics oge he in a new way (Bo e, 2002).
8
2. Money launde ing and coun e measu es in SSA:
case s udies
Ca oon 5: No unding a ailable o police ope a ions ?
Sou ce: © Basa i, Pan A ican Visions, TI, 2015
2.1 Mozambique
Al eady wi h he ad en o F elimo ule in Mozambique in he mid-1970s, capi al ligh by
he o me Po uguese se le communi y began, acili a ed by he banks h ough di ec
ans e s and paymen s o ic i ious goods. I was es ima ed ha 90 % o Po uguese le
he coun y wi hin i e yea s o independence. The end does no appea o ha e aba ed.
Pa o he eason o his is ha he ac o s d i ing he end ha e emained i ually
in ac . Some sec o s seem o a ac o eign money mo e han o he s (Go edema, 2005),
Meanwhile, e en he Wo ld Bank is ques ioning i s 'success' in Mozambique, because he
coun y's ' ema kable g ow h' has been achie ed wi h high le els o income and weal h o a
ew oliga chs, accompanied by la ge-scale co up ion, g owing inequali y and po e y o he
masses. Unde he IMF s a egy, he go e nmen was o ced o c ea e incen i es ha led o
asse s ipping and p i a isa ion a he han weal h c ea ion (Hanlon, 2022). The shock
he apy was designed o ge he communis eli e, who had powe o e land, esou ces and
con ac s, o ake con ol o hese asse s and hen make deals wi h he Wes o exploi hem.
The powe eli e became, in e ec , en ie - and comp ado capi alis s. This quickly a ac ed
subs an ial o eign cu ency deposi s, including om Russian oliga chs, which did no seem
jus i ied by he ma ke , sugges ing money launde ing. Dono suppo seemed o g ow in
andem wi h c iminalisa ion. The IMF and Wo ld Bank ewa ded ‘good pe o mance’ and
showed he oliga chs ha he in e na ional communi y appa en ly accep ed se ious he and
mu de as pa o he new ee ma ke (Hanlon, 2022). The i s new p i a e bank, Banco
In e nacional de Moçambique (BIM), opened in 1994, and he o me s a e banks, BPD and
BCM, we e e en ually p i a ised. All h ee banks became emb oiled in scandals in ol ing
new oliga chs and o eign pa ne s. In each case, a pe son who ied o in es iga e he scandal
was mu de ed. The e has been no p osecu ion o he mismanagemen o he banks, o illegal
lending, no u he in es iga ion in o money launde ing, o who o de ed he killing o he
whis le-blowe s (Hanlon, 2022). On he o he hand, he minimum wage was cu om US$30
pe mon h o US$15 be ween 1990 and 1995. Acco ding o UNDP and UNICEF, wo- hi ds
o Mozambican ci il se an s we e below he absolu e po e y line and could no buy enough
ood (Hanlon, 2022).
15
3.2 E hiopia
Ca oon 8: con aband s i es in E hiopia
Sou ce: © Yona han, Addis-Fo une, 19 Janua y 2024
E hiopia also has a h i ing pa allel ma ke based on smuggling. I s oo s go back o he
1960s, pa icula ly along he Tog Wajaale-Jigjiga co ido . The scale o he p oblem is
exace ba ed by he coun y's po ous 5,300km bo de wi h i e coun ies. Smuggling sus ains
hund eds o housands o li elihoods. Despi e decades o legisla i e e o s, including an
exis ing law passed by Pa liamen in 2009 when smuggling was ou lawed by law o
in e na ional ag eemen , he illici ade pe sis s (Yona han, 2024). The smuggling o goods
ac oss bo de s, such as elec onics, clo hing, cosme ics and e en weapons, con inues
unaba ed, eeding a clandes ine ma ke ha eaches deep in o he economy.
The economic impac o smuggling can be seen in se e al sec o s. I a ec s sec o s such as
li es ock, pha maceu icals, obacco and ex iles. Fo example, he smuggling o li es ock is
es ima ed o accoun o 90 % o all E hiopian li es ock expo s. The mos commonly
smuggled goods in o E hiopia a e elec onics, clo hing, pe umes, cosme ics and weapons,
while he mos commonly smuggled goods ou o E hiopia a e co ee, li es ock, ce eals,
animal skins and uel. In addi ion o goods, o eign cu ency is smuggled in and ou o he
coun y. The alue o hese smuggled goods in he ou yea s om 2012 o 2016 was
es ima ed a 1.85 billion Bi (€30 million).
The e has been a signi ican inc ease in he olume and a ie y o i ems smuggled in ecen
yea s. Fiscal losses due o smuggling accoun o app oxima ely 4.47% o he Fede al
Go e nmen 's annual cus oms e enue. Howe e , he impac goes beyond iscal losses,
a ec ing domes ic indus ies and ini ia i es. Local p oduce s, om obacco o s eel, complain
o an in lux o un egula ed, o en subs anda d goods ha dis o ma ke s and pose a h ea o
public heal h. Habi - o ming d ugs and subs anda d goods can cause widesp ead heal h
p oblems. This in u n a ec s p oduc i i y, de elopmen and g ow h.
O e he decades, he go e nmen has ied o implemen a ious s a egies o comba he
illici ade. They disbanded he Cus oms Police in 2008 and eplaced i wi h he Fede al
Police while amending cus oms and ax laws o s eamline he p ocess and s eng hen law
en o cemen . These include simpli ying ade p ocedu es, in oducing ax incen i es o
legi ima e ade, and p o iding in o ma ion and assis ance o small ade s a he bo de .
Howe e , co up ion emains a pe sis en p oblem ha unde mines hese e o s. Sus ainable
solu ions would equi e g ea e communi y in ol emen , especially in bo de a eas
(Yona han, 2024).
16
Human a icking is also a majo p oblem, o example be ween E hiopia and Sudan as well
as be ween E hiopia and E i ea. I is deeply oo ed in he local social en i onmen . Since he
1990s, he e has been signi ican i egula o e land labou mig a ion om E hiopian owns
and illages o he Sudanese capi al o Kha oum, ia he bo de owns o Me emma on he
E hiopian side and Gallaba on he Sudanese side. This smuggling is o ganised by
independen c iminal o ganisa ions. This mobili y is acili a ed by smuggle s who a e
in ol ed in ansna ional social ela ions, ma e ial p ac ices and knowledge p oduc ion abou
mig a ion, including in o mal money ans e p ac ices, anspo and communica ion
in as uc u es. Smuggle s no only b ibe bo de gua ds bu also capi alise on hei e hnic,
eligious and economic connec ions along he E hiopian-Sudanese bo de lands (Ayalew &
Adugna & Deshingka , 2018). E en ually, smuggling eme ges as a sys em o e ugee
p o ec ion om below because i is a socially embedded collec i e p ac ice ha seeks o
acili a e he sa e exi and ansi ion o E i ean e ugees despi e he c iminalisa ion o
mig a ion, he mili a iza ion o bo de s and he po en ial and exis ing c iminal ac i i ies along
he E i ean, Sudanese and E hiopian mig a o y co ido s. The i egula ansi ions o
mig an s ep oduce a collec i e sys em o mig a o y knowledge aimed a b inging e ugees o
sa e y (Ayalew, 2018).
3.3 DR Congo
I is widely belie ed ha eliance on na u al esou ces should lead ebels o abuse ci ilians,
bu c oss-g oup esea ch using exis ing da a inds no suppo o his ela ionship. Fo
example, he M23 ebel mo emen ope a ed in he esou ce- ich eas e n DR Congo, bu a ely
con olled mining a eas, elying ins ead on ex e nal suppo and c iminal ac i i ies o unding
(Walsh & Con ad & Whi ake & Hudak, 2018).
G aph 5: Economic subca ego ies o con aband ade in DRC
Sou ce: © Lopez & Salcedo-Alba án, 2016
T a icking in gold, diamonds and col an is widesp ead as no ed abo e. Acco ding o
schola ly s udies, he p i a e sec o plays a c ucial ole in he a icula ion o c iminal
ne wo ks, accoun ing o 65%, while public o icials accoun o 28.7% and ‘pu e’ c iminals
o 6.10%. Only 1% o he in e ac ions iden i ied by he s udy we e pu ely c iminal
in e ac ions, such as hose based on iolence and coe cion. This means ha he ope a ion o
17
c iminal ne wo ks is mos ly based on genuine and usually un egula ed economic in e ac ions,
such as in o mal ade, as well as o he sophis ica ed in e ac ions consis ing o money
launde ing schemes and ake companies. T a icking in col an, comme cial links wi h
ansna ional c iminal ne wo ks o coun e ei ing ope a ions, and audulen e acua ion o
imbe a e he h ee main ypes o economic aud (Lopez & Salcedo-Alba án, 2016).
Smuggling om he DRC has accele a ed because o he long yea s o wa in eas e n DRC
since he Rwandan genocide in 1994. This has led o la ge and widesp ead gold p oduc ion
h ough small-scale a isanal mining and smuggling in o neighbou ing coun ies, including
Uganda, Rwanda, Bu undi and Tanzania. This con aband ade is in la ge measu e because o
he iolence in he egion, as well as he absence o in as uc u e in he DRC o he
in e na ional ade in gold, along wi h he absence o e ining capaci y. Neighbou ing
coun ies ha e he e o e become he p incipal condui s and subs an ial bene icia ies o his
in e na ional ade (G ynbe g &Singogo, 2021).
G aph 6: Col an smuggling ou es in No he n Ka anga
3
- - - - - V ages’ ou es; ____ Col an smuggling ou es
Sou ce: © De Koning, 2010 : p. 10 ; Wakenge &Dijkzeul &Vlassen oo , 2018
In 2015, he smuggling o col an in o and ou o a isanal mining a eas in no he n Ka anga
was in es iga ed by he ITRI Tin Supply Chain Ini ia i e (iTSCi), a policy ini ia i e on
con lic mine als launched in 2010. I seeks o imp o e anspa ency in he ade o in,
an alum (col an) and ungs en on he assump ion ha i s ac i i ies could con ibu e o
Congolese s a e- and peace-building by cu ing o a med ac o s om mine al-based
inancing.
3
Adap ed om De Koning, R. (2010).
18
Howe e , he expec a ions we e no ealised. On he con a y, a isanal mine s and mine-
based middlemen (négocian s) assis ed smuggle s in a icking col an. This sugges s ha he
social ne wo ks in which mine s and mine-based négocian s a e embedded allow mine s,
négocian s and smuggle s o main ain close ela ionships and o ci cum en o icial
egula ions, bu ha mine s and mine-based négocian s also ely on hese same ne wo ks o
chea in hei dealings wi h smuggle s (Wakenge &Dijkzeul &Vlassen oo , 2018). Findings
sugges ha simila de elopmen s can be ound also in o he pos -con lic economies apa
om no he n Ka anga, whe e ne wo ks o med a ound hiboux, who a e 'big men' in e ms o
hei inancial esou ces and links o u ban black ma ke s, ha e been e y lexible in adap ing
hei smuggling ac i i ies. Howe e , o dina y mine s, who may be seen as 'less powe ul'
ac o s, we e also in ol ed in hese ac i i ies. The mining a eas whe e he iTSCi policy is
implemen ed a e linked o he wide egion. The e is, he e o e, a need o de elop bo h a
con ex ualised and global app oach o con lic mine als policies such as iTSCi and o pay
mo e a en ion o he logic behind exis ing in o mal ne wo ks o which mine s and négocian s
a e pa (Wakenge &Dijkzeul &Vlassen oo , 2018).
4. Conclusion
Ca oon 9: money launde ing by he mul ina ional lending g oup HSHC
Sou ce: © F ank, 2012
Money launde ing and ax e asion a e pe asi e challenges in sub-Saha an A ica,
unde mining economic de elopmen , go e nance, and inancial in eg i y. To add ess hese
issues, in e na ional measu es such as he Financial Ac ion Task Fo ce (FATF) s anda ds,
an i-money launde ing (AML) amewo ks, and ax anspa ency ini ia i es ha e been
implemen ed. This a icle examines he e icacy o hese in e na ional measu es in cu bing
money launde ing and ax e asion in sub-Saha an A ica.
In e na ional e o s o comba money launde ing and ax e asion a e mul i ace ed. The FATF
has es ablished a comp ehensi e se o ecommenda ions ha coun ies a e encou aged o
adop o comba money launde ing and e o is inancing. These include he c iminaliza ion
o money launde ing, he es ablishmen o inancial in elligence uni s (FIUs), and he
implemen a ion o cus ome due diligence equi emen s o inancial ins i u ions.
Addi ionally, he OECD’s Global Fo um on T anspa ency and Exchange o In o ma ion o
Tax Pu poses p omo es in e na ional coope a ion on ax ma e s h ough he exchange o
in o ma ion and he implemen a ion o s anda ds o anspa ency. Mo eo e , ini ia i es like
he A ican Union’s High-Le el Panel on Illici Financial Flows, a body es ablished by he
19
Uni ed Na ions Economic Commission o A ica (ECA), and chai ed by o me P esiden o
Sou h A ica, Thabo Mbeki, aim o s em he ou low o illici capi al om A ica.
The impac o hese in e na ional measu es in sub-Saha an A ica has been mixed. On one
hand, he e ha e been no able imp o emen s in legisla i e and egula o y amewo ks ac oss
he egion. Many coun ies ha e enac ed laws aligning wi h FATF ecommenda ions,
es ablished FIUs, and enhanced hei inancial egula o y en i onmen s. Fo example, Kenya
and Nige ia ha e made signi ican s ides in AML compliance, wi h Nige ia being emo ed
om he FATF’s lis o high- isk ju isdic ions in 2013.
Howe e , he p ac ical en o cemen o hese measu es emains inconsis en . Co up ion, lack
o echnical expe ise, and limi ed esou ces impede e ec i e implemen a ion. In many cases,
egula o y bodies lack he capaci y o conduc ho ough in es iga ions o o en o ce penal ies
adequa ely. The in o mal economy, which cons i u es a signi ican po ion o economic
ac i i y in many sub-Saha an coun ies, u he complica es en o cemen e o s, no ably in
he impo an h ee SSA coun ies, Sou h A ica, Nige ia and Kenya.
Kenya, o example, has been a egional leade in adop ing AML measu es, including he
es ablishmen o he Financial Repo ing Cen e (FRC) and enac ing he P oceeds o C ime
and An i-Money Launde ing Ac . Despi e hese ad ancemen s, challenges such as weak
en o cemen and poli ical in e e ence pe sis , limi ing he o e all e ec i eness o hese
measu es.
Also, Sou h A ica has implemen ed obus AML and ax e asion amewo ks, aligning
closely wi h in e na ional s anda ds. The Sou h A ican Rese e Bank and he Financial
In elligence Cen e play pi o al oles in moni o ing and en o cemen . Howe e , high-p o ile
co up ion scandals ha e highligh ed gaps in he sys em, pa icula ly ega ding poli ical will
and ins i u ional independence.
Nige ia's e o s o comba money launde ing and ax e asion ha e seen p og ess wi h he
es ablishmen o he Economic and Financial C imes Commission (EFCC) and e o ms in
inancial egula ion. Ye , pe asi e co up ion and sys emic weaknesses con inue o
unde mine hese e o s, as e idenced by ongoing high-p o ile cases o inancial misconduc .
In sho , he ollowing h ee majo challenges hinde he e ec i eness o in e na ional
measu es in sub-Saha an A ica:
Co up ion: High le els o co up ion wi hin go e nmen s and inancial ins i u ions
unde mine AML and ax e asion e o s.
Resou ce Cons ain s: Many coun ies lack he inancial and human esou ces
necessa y o implemen and en o ce complex egula o y amewo ks e ec i ely.
Technical Expe ise: Limi ed echnical expe ise in inancial o ensics and egula o y
en o cemen impedes e ec i e ac ion agains sophis ica ed money launde ing
schemes.
To enhance he impac o in e na ional measu es, he ollowing majo coun e -measu es
would be equi ed:
Capaci y Building: In es men in aining and capaci y building o egula o y
au ho i ies and inancial ins i u ions o enhance echnical expe ise and en o cemen
capabili ies.
20
S eng hening Ins i u ions: Fos e ing he independence and s eng h o ins i u ions
asked wi h comba ing money launde ing and ax e asion o educe poli ical
in e e ence and co up ion.
In e na ional Coope a ion: Enhancing coope a ion and in o ma ion sha ing be ween
sub-Saha an A ican coun ies and in e na ional bodies o ack and cu b c oss-bo de
illici inancial lows.
While in e na ional measu es ha e led o some p og ess in comba ing money launde ing and
ax e asion in sub-Saha an A ica, signi ican challenges emain. The success o hese
measu es la gely depends on he capaci y, in eg i y, and poli ical will o local ins i u ions and
hei in e na ional pa ne s. S eng hening hese a eas is c ucial o ealizing he ull po en ial
o in e na ional amewo ks in mi iga ing inancial c imes and os e ing economic
de elopmen in he egion.
21
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Résumé : [Les mesu es in e na ionales con e le blanchimen d’a gen e l’é asion iscale, on -
elles un impac signi ica i en A ique subsaha ienne ?] - L’A ique subsaha ienne (ASS)
ep ésen e un ie s des pays igu an su la lis e g ise du G oupe d’ac ion inanciè e (GAFI). Dans
l’ou il de classemen e d’é alua ion des isques du blanchimen d’a gen e du inancemen du
e o isme (BC/FT), la égion a ob enu de mau ais ésul a s en e mes de ésilience au BC/FT, a ec
plus de 60 % des pays en an dans la ca égo ie à hau isque. Bien que les pays igu an su la lis e
g ise ne soien pas soumis à des sanc ions, leu insc ip ion su la lis e a un impac subs an iel su
leu économie. Cela comp end une éduc ion signi ica i e des en ées de capi aux e des
in es issemen s di ec s é ange s. Les qua e p incipales sou ces de lux inancie s illici es en
p o enance d’A ique subsaha ienne, d’A ique du Sud, de République démoc a ique du Congo,
d’É hiopie e du Nige ia, ep ésen aien plus de 50 % du o al des lux inancie s illici es. Alo s que
l’ASS a eçu p ès de 2 000 millia ds de dolla s d’in es issemen s di ec s é ange s (IDE) e d’aide
publique au dé eloppemen (APD) en e 1980 e 2018, elle a émis plus de 1 000 millia ds de
dolla s de lux inancie s illici es. Ces onds acquis illégalemen e dé ou nés de la égion
con inuen de pose un dé i au dé eloppemen . Les lux inancie s illici es on globalemen
augmen é, mais pas en ce qui conce ne le pou cen age de comme ce. Au cou s des 38 années allan
de 1980 à 2018, ils on considé ablemen augmen é dans les années 2000, pa allèlemen à la
c oissance du comme ce a icain. Les pays éme gen s e en dé eloppemen d’Asie e du Moyen-
O ien son de enus des cibles p i ilégiées. Les ini ia i es p écéden es isan à lu e con e le
blanchimen d'a gen e à amélio e l'échange d'in o ma ions iscales en e les pays on la gemen
échoué, y comp is les ois plus impo an es : le G oupe d'ac ion inanciè e ( ondé en 1998), le
Fo um mondial su la anspa ence e l'échange d'in o ma ions à des ins iscales ( ondé en 2009) e
le Cad e inclusi su l'é osion de la base d'imposi ion e le ans e de béné ices ( ondé en 2016).
P emiè emen , les pays a icains manquen de essou ces e de capaci és pou lu e con e les lux
inancie s illici es. Deuxièmemen , de nomb euses économies a ancées ne son pas su isammen
engagées dans ces ini ia i es. Cependan , le apa iemen des onds illégaux cons i ue un ou il
impo an pou en o ce la base de essou ces des pays a icains. En 2020, pa exemple, les É a s-
Unis e la dépendance au onome de la Cou onne b i annique de Je sey, l'un des pa adis iscaux e
de blanchimen d'a gen les plus no oi es au monde, on conclu un acco d a ec le Nige ia pou
apa ie plus de 300 millions de dolla s olés pa l'ancien dic a eu mili ai e du Nige ia, Sani
Abacha.
Zusammen assung: [Haben in e na ionale Maßnahmen gegen Geldwäsche und
S eue hin e ziehung e hebliche Auswi kungen in A ika südlich de Saha a?] - Subsaha a-A ika
(SSA) mach ein D i el de Lände au de g auen Lis e de Financial Ac ion Task Fo ce (FATF)
aus. Im Ranking und Risikobewe ungs ool ü Geldwäsche und Te o ismus inanzie ung (ML/TF)
schni die Region in Bezug au die Wide s ands ähigkei gegenübe ML/TF schlech ab, wobei
meh als 60 % de Lände in die Hoch isikoka ego ie ielen. Obwohl Lände au de g auen Lis e
keinen Sank ionen un e liegen, ha die Au nahme in die Lis e e hebliche Auswi kungen au ih e
Wi scha . Dazu gehö eine deu liche Reduzie ung de Kapi alzu lüsse und ausländischen
Di ek in es i ionen. Au die ie Haup quellen illegale Finanzs öme aus SSA, Süda ika, die
Demok a ische Republik Kongo, Ä hiopien und Nige ia, en ielen meh als 50 % de gesam en
illegalen Finanzs öme. Wäh end SSA zwischen 1980 und 2018 as 2 Billionen US-Dolla an
ausländischen Di ek in es i ionen (FDI) und o izielle En wicklungshil e (ODA) e hiel , emi ie e
es übe 1 Billion US-Dolla an illegalen Finanzs ömen. Diese un ech mäßig e wo benen und aus
de Region abgelei e en Gelde s ellen wei e hin eine En wicklungshe aus o de ung da . Die
illegalen Finanzs öme nahmen insgesam zwa zu, nich jedoch im Ve häl nis zum Handel. In den
38 Jah en on 1980 bis 2018 s iegen sie in den 2000e Jah en deu lich an, pa allel zum Wachs um
des a ikanischen Handels. Schwellen- und En wicklungslände in Asien und im Nahen Os en sind
zu Haup zielen gewo den. Die bishe igen Ini ia i en zu Eindämmung de Geldwäsche und zu
Ve besse ung des Aus auschs on S eue in o ma ionen zwischen Lände n sind wei gehend
geschei e , da un e die d ei wich igs en: die Financial Ac ion Task Fo ce (geg ünde 1998), das
Global Fo um on T anspa ency and Exchange o In o ma ion o Tax Pu poses (geg ünde 2009)
und das Inclusi e F amewo k on Base E osion and P o i Shi ing (geg ünde 2016). E s ens
mangel es den a ikanischen Lände n an Ressou cen und Kapazi ä en, um gegen illegale
Finanzs öme o zugehen. Zwei ens engagie en sich iele o gesch i ene Volkswi scha en nich
aus eichend in diesen Ini ia i en. Alle dings is die Rück üh ung illegale Gelde ein wich iges
Ins umen zu S ä kung de Ressou cenbasis a ikanische Lände . Im Jah 2020 einig en sich
beispielsweise die Ve einig en S aa en und das selbs e wal e e b i ische K ongebie Je sey, eines
de be üch ig s en S eue - und Geldwäschepa adiese de Wel , mi Nige ia au die Rück üh ung
on meh als 300 Millionen US-Dolla , die om ehemaligen nige ianischen Mili ä dik a o Gene al
Sani Abacha ges ohlen wo den wa en.
