Valen im, Olga e al.
A icle
Posi i e men al heal h and happiness a wo k in a sample
o po uguese wo ke s: A web-based c oss-sec ional s udy
Adminis a i e Sciences
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
MDPI – Mul idisciplina y Digi al Publishing Ins i u e, Basel
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Valen im, Olga e al. (2025) : Posi i e men al heal h and happiness a wo k in a
sample o po uguese wo ke s: A web-based c oss-sec ional s udy, Adminis a i e Sciences, ISSN
2076-3387, MDPI, Basel, Vol. 15, Iss. 2, pp. 1-14,
h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/admsci15020044
This Ve sion is a ailable a :
h ps://hdl.handle.ne /10419/321189
S anda d-Nu zungsbedingungen:
Die Dokumen e au EconS o dü en zu eigenen wissenscha lichen
Zwecken und zum P i a geb auch gespeiche und kopie we den.
Sie dü en die Dokumen e nich ü ö en liche ode komme zielle
Zwecke e iel äl igen, ö en lich auss ellen, ö en lich zugänglich
machen, e eiben ode ande wei ig nu zen.
So e n die Ve asse die Dokumen e un e Open-Con en -Lizenzen
(insbesonde e CC-Lizenzen) zu Ve ügung ges ell haben soll en,
gel en abweichend on diesen Nu zungsbedingungen die in de do
genann en Lizenz gewäh en Nu zungs ech e.
Te ms o use:
Documen s in EconS o may be sa ed and copied o you pe sonal
and schola ly pu poses.
You a e no o copy documen s o public o comme cial pu poses, o
exhibi he documen s publicly, o make hem publicly a ailable on he
in e ne , o o dis ibu e o o he wise use he documen s in public.
I he documen s ha e been made a ailable unde an Open Con en
Licence (especially C ea i e Commons Licences), you may exe cise
u he usage igh s as speci ied in he indica ed licence.
h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/
Recei ed: 16 Decembe 2024
Re ised: 2 Feb ua y 2025
Accep ed: 4 Feb ua y 2025
Published: 5 Feb ua y 2025
Ci a ion: Valen im, O., de Sousa, L.,
de Sousa, C., Co eia, T., Ca alho, J.
C., Que ido, A., José, H., & La anjei a,
C. (2025). Posi i e Men al Heal h and
Happiness a Wo k in a Sample o
Po uguese Wo ke s: A Web-Based
C oss-Sec ional S udy. Adminis a i e
Sciences,15(2), 44. h ps://doi.o g/
10.3390/admsci15020044
Copy igh : © 2025 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
This a icle is an open access a icle
dis ibu ed unde he e ms and
condi ions o he C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion (CC BY) license
(h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/
licenses/by/4.0/).
A icle
Posi i e Men al Heal h and Happiness a Wo k in a Sample
o Po uguese Wo ke s: A Web-Based C oss-Sec ional S udy
Olga Valen im 1,2,3,* , Luís de Sousa 4,5 , C is ina de Sousa 4,6,7 , Tânia Co eia 1,8 , José Ca los Ca alho 1,9 ,
Ana Que ido 1,10,11 , Helena José 4,12 and Ca los La anjei a 5,10,11,*
1RISE-Heal h, Nu sing School o Po o (ESEP), 4200-450 Po o, Po ugal; co eia@ess .ip .p (T.C.);
[email p o ec ed] (J.C.C.); [email p o ec ed] (A.Q.)
2Nu sing School o Lisbon (ESEL), A . P o . Egas Moniz, 1600-096 Lisboa, Po ugal
3Nu sing Resea ch, Inno a ion and De elopmen Cen e o Lisbon (CIDNUR), A . P o . Egas Moniz,
1600-096 Lisboa, Po ugal
4A lân ica High Heal h School, Fáb ica da Pól o a, 2730-036 Ba ca ena, Po ugal;
[email p o ec ed] (L.d.S.); [email p o ec ed] (C.d.S.); [email p o ec ed] (H.J.)
5Comp ehensi e Heal h Resea ch Cen e (CHRC), Uni e si y o É o a, 7000-801 É o a, Po ugal
6Cen e o Resea ch in Educa ion and Psychology (CIEP-UE), Uni e si y o É o a, 7005-345 É o a, Po ugal
7A lan ic Uni e si y Ins i u e, 2730-036 Ba ca ena, Po ugal
8Heal h School o Poly echnic Ins i u e o Viseu, 3500-843 Viseu, Po ugal
9Nu sing School o Po o, Rua D . An ónio Be na dino de Almeida, 830, 4200-072 Po o, Po ugal
10 School o Heal h Sciences, Poly echnic Uni e si y o Lei ia, Campus 2, Mo o do Lena, Al o do Viei o,
Apa ado 4137, 2411-901 Lei ia, Po ugal
11 Cen e o Inno a i e Ca e and Heal h Technology (ciTechCa e), Rua de San o And é—66–68, Campus 5,
Poly echnic Uni e si y o Lei ia, 2410-541 Lei ia, Po ugal
12 The Heal h Sciences Resea ch Uni : Nu sing, Coimb a Nu sing School, 3045-043 Coimb a, Po ugal
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed] (O.V.); [email p o ec ed] (C.L.)
Abs ac : Posi i e men al heal h in indi iduals’ li es and happiness a wo k ha e been
g owing conce ns o o ganiza ions. This web-based c oss-sec ional s udy aimed o unde -
s and hese wo ac o s and hei in e ela ionship in a popula ion o wo ke s. Da a we e
collec ed wi h an e-ques ionnai e om 1768 indi iduals cu en ly employed in a ious
public and p i a e o ganiza ions. The a iables s udied included: social and occupa ional
da a, happiness a wo k, and posi i e men al heal h. S udy pa icipan s showed good le els
o posi i e men al heal h and happiness a wo k. Posi i e men al heal h was posi i ely
associa ed wi h bo h o ganiza ional happiness domains and unc ion and wi h pe cei ed
p oduc i i y (p< 0.001). Using a mul iple linea eg ession model, we ound ou p edic o s
o o e all happiness a wo k: age, pe cep ion o p oduc i i y, senio i y, and posi i e men al
heal h ac o s (pe sonal sa is ac ion, au onomy and p oblem-sol ing and sel -ac ualiza ion)
(R
2
= 0.249). O ganiza ions wishing o make employees happie and mo e p oduc i e
should p omo e men al heal h in he wo kplace. In e en ions ha ocus on he adop ion
o posi i e coping echniques in he wo kplace, such as aining ocused on inc easing
in ap eneu ial sel -capi al, should also be explo ed.
Keywo ds: wo kplace happiness; p oduc i i y; posi i e men al heal h; job; heal h p omo ion
1. In oduc ion
Wo k pa e ns ha e been e ol ing speedily in he mode n wo ld because o changing
wo k se ings (such as he g owing globaliza ion o business, and new echnology and
o ganiza ional p ac ices). In his amewo k, a happie wo k a mosphe e encou ages em-
ployees o pe o m hei jobs well and imp o es he o ganiza ion’s success (Gu e al.,2022).
Happy people a e gene ally mo e p oduc i e, while hose who a e unhappy end o ha e
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 44 h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/admsci15020044
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 44 2 o 14
g ea e di icul y concen a ing on hei asks, which can nega i ely a ec hei pe o -
mance (Wesa a e al.,2015;Sousa & Ca alho,2023;Mis a & S i as a a,2023). Mo eo e ,
happy indi iduals end o be mo e engaged, e icien , and sa is ied wi h hei wo k, as
well as wi h hei ela ionships wi h colleagues. In con as , unhappy and disconnec ed
employees pe cei e he wo k en i onmen mo e nega i ely and con ibu e less, leading o
a de imen al impac on he o ganiza ion (Mckee,2019).
Happiness is closely linked o subjec i e well-being and encompasses li e sa is ac ion,
posi i e a ec , and low le els o nega i e a ec (Ca ,2004;Sheldon & Lyubomi sky,
2004;Med ede & Landhuis,2018;Seligman,2011). Resea ch sugges s ha emo ions
and cogni ion a e in e ela ed, in luencing wo k pe o mance and o e all job sa is ac ion
(Mckee,2019;Hökkä e al.,2020). Ini ially explo ed in psychology and la e in economics,
wo kplace happiness is associa ed wi h job sa is ac ion and is ecognized as a key ac o in
imp o ing o ganiza ional p oduc i i y (Wesa a e al.,2015;K ause-Pila us,2014).
In his con ex , o ganiza ional happiness can be de ined as he subjec i e pe cep ion
o well-being and sa is ac ion in he wo k en i onmen , esul ing om he in e ac ion
be ween indi idual and con ex ual ac o s o he o ganiza ion (Du schke & Dias,2023;
Du schke e al.,2024;Fishe ,2010). Howe e , his concep is no homogeneous and can be
analyzed om wo complemen a y pe spec i es: eudaimonic and hedonic. Eudaimonic
well-being is associa ed wi h pe sonal de elopmen , sel - ealiza ion, and a sense o pu pose
a wo k, while hedonic well-being is ela ed o pleasu e and immedia e sa is ac ion in he
p o essional en i onmen (Seligman,2011;Ry & Boylan,2016).
These wo dimensions in luence o ganiza ional esul s di e en ly, impac ing p oduc-
i i y, employee engagemen , and job sa is ac ion (Salas-Vallina e al.,2020;Oswald e al.,
2015). Thus, unde s anding he in e ac ion be ween he eudaimonic and hedonic compo-
nen s o happiness a wo k allows us o design mo e e ec i e s a egies o p omo e an
o ganiza ional cul u e ha balances employee well-being and o ganiza ional pe o mance.
The ole one pe o ms wi hin he o ganiza ion is an impo an elemen , because o gani-
za ional happiness is associa ed wi h happiness in he di e en job unc ions (
Fishe ,2010
;
Du schke,2013). Acco ding o Du schke (2013), he ollowing ac o s a ec bo h le els
o happiness: in e nal en i onmen , ecogni ion and us , pe sonal de elopmen , sala y,
liking one’s wo k, sus ainabili y and inno a ion, iden i ying wi h he wo k unc ion, lead-
e s and o ganiza ion, objec i es, and balance be ween he p o ession and amily, among
o he s. The au ho emphasizes he impo ance o assessing happie p o essionals, who
end o be mo e p oduc i e, while ensu ing ha mul iple o ganiza ional and unc ional
ac o s in luence hei happiness. A he o ganiza ional le el, wo kplace cul u e, leade ship,
ecogni ion, us , and inno a ion play a c ucial ole in os e ing a posi i e en i onmen .
A he unc ional le el, ac o s such as pe sonal de elopmen , ai compensa ion, job sa is-
ac ion, alignmen wi h wo k unc ions, clea objec i es, and wo k–li e balance con ibu e
o indi idual well-being and engagemen . Toge he , hese elemen s shape a sus ainable
and ul illing p o essional expe ience, bene i ing bo h employees and he o ganiza ion
(Oswald e al.,2015;Du schke,2013).
In addi ion, a heal hy o ganiza ion mus include essen ial aspec s such as heal h and
sa e y in he wo kplace; a ha monious psychological en i onmen , including a manage-
men sys em and o ganiza ional cul u e; and human esou ces and means o imp o e
he heal h o employees and hei amilies (WHO,2010;So ensen e al.,2018). Men al
heal h is an in eg al componen o he Wo ld Heal h O ganiza ion’s de ini ion o heal h as
a comple e s a e o physical, men al, and social well-being (WHO,2021). This concep is
ela ed o he concep s o happiness and p oduc i i y (Ry & Boylan,2016;Salas-Vallina
e al.,2020). In an expe imen al s udy, a causal link be ween happiness and employee
pe o mance was iden i ied, whe ein happie people had highe le els o p oduc i i y
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 44 3 o 14
(
Oswald e al.,2015
). Valuing people and p omo ing hei men al heal h is essen ial o he
success and p oduc i i y o o ganiza ions.
Posi i e men al heal h comp ises “emo ional and psychological componen s o well-
being and sugges s posi i e unc ioning”. While happiness equen ly e e s o “subjec i e
o hedonic well-being, he psychological componen o posi i e men al heal h e e s o
eudaimonic ideas such as sel -accep ance o li e pu pose” (Bieda e al.,2019, p. 129). The
absence o posi i e elemen s makes people mo e ulne able o psychological p oblems.
Thus, s a egies o p omo e men al heal h should y o inc ease people’s esou ces and
men al heal h and educe men al su e ing.
The de imen al impac s o poo men al heal h ex end beyond he di ec expenses o
ea men and encompass much bigge indi ec cos s associa ed wi h los p oduc i i y, such
as absen eeism and p esen eeism (i.e., poo pe o mance while s ill wo king) (Wu e al.,
2021;de Oli ei a e al.,2023;Gilb ea h & Ka imi,2012). P omo ing men al heal h in he
wo kplace educes p oduc i i y losses (Ammendolia e al.,2016). The wo k en i onmen
should be salu ogenic and p omo e a heal hy exchange o alues, igh s, and du ies among
he o ganiza ion’s ac o s, whe e e e yone is alued, and hei in e es s aken in o accoun .
Recen esea ch has shown a link be ween employee men al heal h and a a ie y o
o ganiza ional ou comes, such as daily wo k beha io , job sa is ac ion, employee emo-
ional exp ession, job pe o mance, and company success (Yu e al.,2021;Cao e al.,2022;
Fo d e al.,2011;Mon ano e al.,2017). Employees wi h good men al heal h may “exhibi
a posi i e wo king s a e and de o e hemsel es o wo k asks wi h g ea e en husiasm,
whe eas poo men al heal h may esul in inac i i y a wo k and de e io a ion o in e -
pe sonal ela ionships, which, in u n, nega i ely a ec s employee wo k pe o mance”
(Lu e al.,2022, p. 1).
To da e, e idence has mos ly ocused on he nega i e aspec s o occupa ions, such
as job s ess and bu nou . This emphasis on he nega i e elemen s o employees’ men al
heal h o e s li le di ec ion in how o p omo e and imp o e o al well-being and happiness.
Fu he mo e, no s udy in Po ugal has examined he ela ionship be ween happiness a
wo k and posi i e men al heal h.
By adop ing a posi i e psychological app oach, he aims o his s udy we e: (a) o
cha ac e ize a sample o wo ke s ega ding sociodemog aphic and p o essional a iables;
(b) o de e mine he le els o happiness and posi i e men al heal h s a us; (c) o measu e
and compa e o ganiza ional happiness, unc ional happiness, posi i e men al heal h, and
p oduc i i y pe cep ion be ween g oups; (d) o de e mine he co ela ions be ween posi i e
men al heal h, o ganiza ional happiness, unc ional happiness, yea s in o ganiza ion and
unc ion, and p oduc i i y pe cep ion; and (e) o iden i y p edic i e ac o s associa ed wi h
o e all happiness.
2. Ma e ials and Me hods
2.1. S udy Design
A web-based c oss-sec ional design was conduc ed among he Po uguese adul
ac i e popula ion. This s udy was epo ed ollowing he S eng hening he Repo ing o
Obse a ional S udies in Epidemiology (STROBE) checklis ( on Elm e al.,2008).
2.2. Se ing and Sample
Acco ding o PORDATA (2020), he e we e abou 5.1 million wo king people in
Po ugal. An online sample size calcula o (Su eyMonkey
©
) was used o de e mine he
sample size equi ed o his s udy. Hence, he minimum equi ed sample size o n= 664
was calcula ed o p opo ions, conside ing he mos conse a i e scena io (a p opo ion o
50%), a con idence le el o 95%, and a ma gin o e o o 5%.
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 44 4 o 14
The s udy’s inclusion c i e ia we e he ollowing: (1) indi iduals aged
≥
18 yea s;
(2) wo king in public o p i a e o ganiza ions; (3) abili y o ead and w i e in Po uguese;
(4) access o he In e ne /email; and (5) p o ide in o med pe mission and ho oughly
answe all he ques ions used o iden i y he s udy a iables.
2.3. Da a Collec ion
The ques ionnai e was dis ibu ed online using a Google o m, om May o July
2020, when Po ugal was in lockdown due o COVID-19. Indi iduals we e ec ui ed by
ecei ing he ques ionnai e’s web link h ough he esea ch eam’s ne wo k o con ac s,
h ough communi y g oups in social ne wo ks (Facebook and Ins ag am), and h ough
o he pa icipan s wi h a non-p obabilis ic snowball sampling p ocedu e.
2.4. Ins umen s
The da a collec ion ool consis ed o a ques ionnai e cha ac e izing social and occupa-
ional aspec s, such as educa ional le el, ime in he o ganiza ion, ime in unc ion, in en ion
o lea e he company, and p oduc i i y pe cep ion.
The Posi i e Men al Heal h Ques ionnai e (PMHQ), ini ially de eloped by Lluch
(2003), was ansla ed and alida ed o he Po uguese popula ion by Sequei a and
Ca alho (2009). This 39-ques ion ques ionnai e con ains a se ies o s a emen s abou
each pe son’s way o hinking, eeling, and ac ing. Ques ions a e g ouped in o six ac-
o s/dimensions (pe sonal sa is ac ion, p osocial a i ude, sel -con ol, au onomy, p oblem-
sol ing skills and sel -ac ualiza ion, and in e pe sonal ela ionship skills). Pa icipan s
ha e ou possible answe s p esen ed on a Like scale anging om 1 o 4: “always o
almos always”; “mos o he ime”; “some imes”; and “ a ely o ne e ”. The global sco e
o PMHQ a ies om 39 poin s (low posi i e men al heal h) o 156 poin s (high posi i e
men al heal h). C onbach’s alpha o he PMHQ in his sample was 0.92.
The Happiness a Wo k Scale de eloped by Du schke e al. (2024,2015) includes
a i s pa wi h 38 ques ions using a i e-poin Like scale (1: “I o ally disag ee “ o
5: “I o ally ag ee”), which measu es he le el o happiness o he indi idual wi hin he
o ganiza ion (O ganiza ional Happiness). The second pa o he ques ionnai e includes
26 ques ions wi h he same Like scale and measu es he esponden s’ own pe spec i e
on wha makes hem happy in he job (Happiness in Func ion). These i ems e lec he
ollowing componen s: wo kplace ela ionships, acknowledgmen and espec , con inuous
lea ning, pe sonal de elopmen , sus ainabili y and job/ amily balance, and leade ship
(Du schke e al.,2024,2015).
All he scale i ems a e posi i e; he e a e no nega i e i ems. A high sco e indica es ha
he indi idual had highe le els o happiness. In his s udy, C onbach’s alpha alue o
his scale was 0.92, indica ing excellen in e nal consis ency (Poli & Beck,2016).
2.5. E hical Conside a ions
Elec onic consen was ob ained om all subjec s in ol ed in he s udy. Be o e answe -
ing he main ques ionnai e, all pa icipan s supplied in o med pe mission o pa icipa ion,
da a collec ion, and analysis by clicking he “Yes, I ag ee and gi e my in o med consen ”
box on he digi al o m. Responses o he elec onic ques ionnai e we e anonymous; no
pe sonal da a we e eques ed o iden i y he pa icipan . The design did no con ain any
e hical aspec s equi ing p io au ho iza ion om he Local E hics Commi ee. The cu en
esea ch ollowed he e hical guidelines o he Helsinki Decla a ion, ensu ing ha all pa -
icipan s ecei ed he same in o ma ion while comple ing he ques ionnai es. The esea ch
was in acco dance wi h Eu opean Da a P o ec ion Law.
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 44 5 o 14
2.6. Da a Analysis
The numbe o cases in each ca ego y and co esponding pe cen ages we e compiled
o he quali a i e a iables. The minimum, maximum, and mean alues, and he s an-
da d de ia ion (SD) we e compiled o he quan i a i e a iables. C onbach’s alpha was
calcula ed o assess he eliabili y o he scales in his sample. Pea son linea co ela ion
coe icien s ( ) we e used o measu e co ela ions be ween a iables. Fu he mo e, S u-
den ’s - es was employed o mean compa isons be ween wo g oups, and an analysis
o a iance (ANOVA) wi h Bon e oni co ec ion was u ilized o compa isons among
mo e han wo g oups. The Kolmogo o –Smi no and Le ene es s we e used o examine
he assump ions o no mali y and a iance uni o mi y equi ed o mean compa isons.
Fu he mo e, a logis ic eg ession analysis was pe o med o de e mine he associa ions
be ween he p edic o a iables (i.e., socio-occupa ional a iables and posi i e men al
heal h ques ionnai e) and he ou come a iable (happiness a wo k). S a is ical Package o
he Social Sciences (IBM SPSS S a is ics so wa e), e sion 28.0, was used o da a analysis.
All es s conside ed a le el o signi icance o 5% (p< 0.05).
3. Resul s
3.1. Sample Desc ip ion
O he 1982 su ey pa icipan s, only 1768 (89.2%) p o ided a comple e esponse o
he a iables used in he analysis: 1060 employees we e emale (59.95%) and 708 we e male
(40.05%). P o essionals belonged o se e al sec o s acco ding o he ollowing equencies
and pe cen ages: comme ce (n= 255, 14.4%); ou ism, ca e ing, and leisu e (n= 230,
13%); consul ing and eaching (n= 221, 12.5%); nu sing (n= 171, 9.7%); communica ion
and in o ma ion (n= 166, 9.4%); heal h and social suppo (n= 154, 8.7%); inancial
and insu ance (n= 136, 7.7%); indus y (n= 129, 7.3%); s a e employees (n= 127, 7.2%);
cons uc ion and eal es a e (n= 101, 5.7%); c ea i e indus y and anspo (n= 78, 4.4%).
The sample was cha ac e ized acco ding o he ele an socio and occupa ional a i-
ables, as p esen ed in Table 1.
Table 1. Socio-occupa ional cha ac e is ics o he sample (n= 1768).
Educa ion n%
P ima y school 15 0.8
High school 321 18.2
P o essional Educa ion 156 8.8
Highe educa ion 1237 70.0
Missing da a 39 2.2
Time in he o ganiza ion (yea s)
Less han 1 yea 333 18.83
1–2 yea s 358 20.25
3–5 yea s 316 17.87
6–10 yea s 181 10.24
Mo e han 10 yea s 579 32.75
Missing da a 1 0.06
Time in unc ion (yea s)
Less han 1 yea 297 16.8
1–2 yea s 331 18.72
3–5 yea s 333 18.83
6–10 yea s 226 12.78
Mo e han 10 yea s 580 32.81
Missing da a 1 0.06
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 44 6 o 14
Table 1. Con .
Educa ion n%
In en ion o lea e he company
I don’ like any hing 824 46.60
I would no like 282 15.95
Indi e en 298 16.86
Would 163 9.22
I would e y much like 199 11.26
Missing da a 2 0.11
P oduc i i y pe cep ion
Ve y bad 19 1.07
Bad 36 2.04
A e age 219 12.39
Good 839 47.45
Ve y Good 645 36.48
Missing da a 10 0.57
Rega ding quali ica ions, mos o he sample (70%) had highe educa ion. The ma-
jo i y o he pa icipan s had mo e han 10 yea s o expe ience in hei o ganiza ion and
46.6% o he p o essionals s a ed ha hey had no in en ion o lea ing hei company.
Mos pa icipan s had posi i e p oduc i i y pe cep ions, ei he good (47.45%) o e y
good (36.48%).
3.2. Desc ip ion o Resul s on Posi i e Men al Heal h and Happiness a Wo k
Below we desc ibe he esul s o he wo ins umen s: Posi i e Men al Heal h Ques-
ionnai e and Happiness a Wo k Scale. Table 2summa izes he esul s o he o me ’s
six dimensions.
Table 2. Resul s o Posi i e Men al Heal h Ques ionnai e (n= 1768).
PMHQ I em No. Min./Max M SD A e age Sco e
(M/To al I ems)
F1: Pe sonal sa is ac ion 8 11–32 27.82 3.67 3.45
F2: P osocial a i ude 5 8–20 17.51 2.36 3.50
F3: Sel -con ol 5 6–20 15.70 2.85 3.14
F4: Au onomy 5 5–20 16.39 2.58 3.28
F5: P oblem-sol ing and Sel -ac ualiza ion
9 9–36 29.89 4.82 3.32
F6: In e pe sonal ela ionship skills 7 11–28 21.58 2.77 3.08
PMHQ o al 39 82–156 128.90 14.61 3.31
Abb e ia ions: M—mean; SD—s anda d de ia ion; PMHQ—Posi i e Men al Heal h Ques ionnai e.
O e all, he p o essionals in ou sample indica ed high le els o posi i e men al heal h,
wi h a global mean o 128.90. The esul s show highe means o pe sonal sa is ac ion
and p o-social a i ude and lowe means conce ning sel -con ol and in e pe sonal skills
(see Table 2). Pa icipan s showed good le els o o ganiza ional happiness (M = 3.76;
SD = 0.86
), happiness in unc ion (M = 3.89; SD = 0.79), and o al happiness a wo k
(M = 3.83; SD = 0.81).
3.3. Compa isons Be ween PMHQ, O ganiza ional Happiness, Happiness in Func ion and
Pa icipan s’ Socio and Occupa ional Va iables
An ANOVA was used o compa e PMHQ, O ganiza ional Happiness, and Happiness
in Func ion, aking in o accoun educa ional quali ica ions, ime in he o ganiza ion, ime
in he unc ion, in en ion o lea e he company, and p oduc i i y pe cep ion. The esul s
a e p esen ed in Table 3.
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 44 7 o 14
Table 3. Compa ison o scale esul s acco ding o pa icipan s’ socio and occupa ional a iables (n=
1768).
Va iables PMHQ
M (SD)
O ganiza ional Happiness
M (SD)
Happiness in Func ion
M (SD)
Educa ion
P ima y school 2.83 (0.44) 3.51 (0.61) 3.50 (0.62)
High school 3.31 (0.40) 3.79 (0.86) 3.88 (0.83)
P o essional educa ion 3.23 (0.43) 3.85 (0.87) 3.95 (0.85)
Highe educa ion 3.32 (0.35) 3.75 (0.86) 3.88 (0.78)
ANOVA * F= 10.081; p< 0.001 F= 1.446; p= 0.227 F= 1.409; p= 0.238
Time in he o ganiza ion (yea s)
Less han 1 yea 3.30 (0.37) 3.93 (0.87) 4.00 (0.82)
1–2 yea s 3.27 (0.38) 3.83 (0.80) 3.90 (0.76)
3–5 yea s 3.32 (0.40) 3.80 (0.84) 3.97 (0.78)
6–10 yea s 3.32 (0.35) 3.80 (0.84) 3.97 (0.77)
Mo e han 10 yea s 3.32 (0.36) 3.59 (0.88) 3.77 (0.81)
ANOVA * F= 1.088; p= 0.361 F= 9.797; p< 0.001 F= 5.207; p< 0.001
Time in unc ion (yea s)
Less han 1 yea 3.34 (0.37) 4.00 (0.86) 4.06 (0.83)
1–2 yea s 3.30 (0.37) 3.87 (0.80) 3.92 (0.76)
3–5 yea s 3.29 (0.41) 3.78 (0.83) 3.89 (0.77)
6–10 yea s 3.32 (0.34) 3.72 (0.79) 3.90 (0.73)
Mo e han 10 yea s 3.30 (0.37) 3.59 (0.90) 3.76 (0.82)
ANOVA * F= 0.797; p= 0.527 F= 13.309; p< 0.001 F= 6.953; p< 0.001
In en ion o lea e he company
I don’ like any hing 3.39 (0.35) 4.21 (0.72) 4.30 (0.68)
I would no like 3.23 (0.39) 3.72 (0.64) 3.81 (0.59)
Indi e en 3.25 (0.36) 3.44 (0.63) 3.58 (0.60)
would 3.21 (0.36) 3.25 (0.74) 3.39 (0.67)
I would e y much like 3.24 (0.41) 2.89 (0.91) 3.16 (0.87)
ANOVA * F= 20.19; p< 0.001 F= 190.99; p< 0.001 F= 166.44; p< 0.001
P oduc i i y
Ve y bad 3.23 (0.35) 2.83 (1.10) 2.87 (1.10)
Bad 3.07 (0.50) 3.37 (0.93) 3.48 (0.91)
A e age 3.15 (0.41) 3.50 (0.89) 3.61 (0.83)
Good 3.32 (0.33) 3.71 (0.82) 3.83 (0.75)
Ve y Good 3.36 (0.39) 3.97 (0.84) 4.10 (0.77)
ANOVA * F= 16.82; p< 0.001 F= 23.79; p< 0.001 F= 28.90; p< 0.001
* ANOVA es wi h Bon e oni co ec ion o mul iple compa isons (alpha = 0.05).
The e we e signi ican s a is ical di e ences in PMHQ acco ding o educa ional quali i-
ca ions, as he pa icipan s wi h p ima y educa ion had lowe a e age alues compa ed o
o he g oups. O ganiza ional happiness and unc ion also a ied signi ican ly acco ding o
ime in o ganiza ion and unc ion. Those wo king o less han a yea epo ed he highes
mean, while hose wo king longe han en yea s epo ed he lowes alues.
Signi ican s a is ical di e ences we e also ound (in all scales) acco ding o in en ion
o lea e he company. Employees who exp essed ha hey did no wan o lea e he o ga-
niza ion had he highes mean alue o posi i e men al heal h, o ganiza ional happiness,
and happiness in unc ion.
P oduc i i y pe cep ion a ied s a is ically in all scales. Employees who pe cei ed
hemsel es as mo e p oduc i e p esen ed highe mean alues o posi i e men al heal h,
o ganiza ional happiness, and happiness in unc ion.
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 44 8 o 14
3.4. Co ela ions Be ween Happiness Scale and O he Va iables
We used Pea son co ela ions o be e unde s and he ela ionships be ween PMHQ
ac o s and o al, o ganiza ional and unc ion happiness scales, yea s in o ganiza ion and
unc ion, as well as p oduc i i y pe cep ion. Table 4depic s he co ela ion ma ix.
Table 4. Pea son co ela ions be ween PMHQ ac o s and o al, o ganiza ional and unc ional
happiness scales, yea s in o ganiza ion and unc ion, and p oduc i i y pe cep ion.
Va iables OH HF TH YO YF P
F1: Pe sonal sa is ac ion 0.37 * 0.41 * 0.40 * 0.01 −0.03 0.18 *
F2: P osocial a i ude 0.21 * 0.26 * 0.25 * 0.01 −0.03 0.07 *
F3: Sel -con ol 0.26* 0.28 * 0.28 * 0.02 −0.01 0.16 *
F4: Au onomy 0.14 * 0.19 * 0.17 * 0.09 * 0.08 * 0.11 *
F5: P oblem-sol ing and sel -ac ualiza ion 0.27 * 0.31 * 0.30 * 0.02 −0.02 0.14 *
F6: In e pe sonal ela ionship skills 0.17 * 0.19 * 0.19 * −0.01 −0.04 0.08 *
PMHQ To al 0.32 * 0.37 * 0.36 * 0.03 −0.01 0.17 *
O ganiza ional Happiness (OH) - 0.92 * 0.98 * −0.15 * −0.17 * 0.26 *
Happiness Func ion (HF) - - 0.98 * −0.10 * −0.12 * 0.25 *
To al Happiness (TH) - - - −0.12 * −0.15 * 0.24 *
Yea s in O ganiza ion (YO) - - - - 0.68 * 0.12 *
Yea s in Func ion (YF) - - - - - 0.11 *
No es: * p< 0.01. Abb e ia ions: PMHQ—Posi i e Men al Heal h Ques ionnai e; OH—O ganiza ional Hap-
piness; HF—happiness in unc ion; TH— o al happiness; YO—yea s in o ganiza ion; YF—yea s in unc ion;
P—p oduc i i y pe cep ion.
The e we e se e al s a is ically signi ican posi i e co ela ions among he se e al
a iables. These esul s show ha be e posi i e men al heal h (in all dimensions) was as-
socia ed wi h g ea e happiness, a bo h he o ganiza ional and unc ional le els. Senio i y,
bo h in unc ion and o ganiza ion, was also posi i ely co ela ed wi h he pe cep ion o
highe p oduc i i y and mo e au onomy. Ne e heless, despi e he weak co ela ion, se-
nio i y was nega i ely associa ed wi h he happiness indica o s (o ganiza ional, unc ional
and o al).
3.5. P edic o s o Happiness in Wo k
We pe o med s epwise mul iple linea eg ession analysis o iden i y he p edic o s
o o e all happiness. The esul s a e p esen ed in Table 5.
Table 5. Resul s o hie a chical eg ession analysis conce ning o e all happiness sco e.
Block Va iables B SE β Sig. R2
Change
Sig. F
Change
I
(Cons an ) 5.524 0.293 - 18.831 0.000
0.115 <0.001
Age 0.031 0.005 0.209 6.805 0.000
P oduc i i y pe cep ion 0.552 0.047 0.275 11.776 0.000
Educa ion −0.034 0.046 −0.017 −0.738 0.461
Time in he o ganiza ion −0.155 0.036 −0.147 −4.300 0.000
Time in unc ion −0.224 0.035 −0.207 −6.326 0.000
II
(Cons an ) 2.003 0.401 - 4.998 0.000
0.134 <0.001
Age 0.022 0.004 0.152 5.304 0.000
P oduc i i y pe cep ion 0.393 0.044 0.195 8.874 0.000
Educa ion −0.099 0.043 −0.050 −2.318 0.021
Time in he o ganiza ion −0.151 0.033 −0.143 −4.541 0.000
Time in unc ion −0.168 0.033 −0.155 −5.110 0.000
Pe sonal sa is ac ion 0.149 0.013 0.335 11.451 0.000
P osocial a i ude 0.021 0.022 0.031 0.971 0.332
