Osbo ne, Che wynd Ca los; Cho-Ricke s, Leand a; Salaza , Jané
A icle
The ela ionship be ween esilien mang o es and ish
popula ions in he la ges ma ine ese e in Belize: A case
o conse a ion
Ma ine Economics and Managemen (MAEM)
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Ocean Uni e si y o China, Qingdao
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Osbo ne, Che wynd Ca los; Cho-Ricke s, Leand a; Salaza , Jané (2024) : The
ela ionship be ween esilien mang o es and ish popula ions in he la ges ma ine ese e in
Belize: A case o conse a ion, Ma ine Economics and Managemen (MAEM), ISSN 2516-158X,
Eme ald, Leeds, Vol. 7, Iss. 2, pp. 159-180,
h ps://doi.o g/10.1108/MAEM-04-2024-0007
This Ve sion is a ailable a :
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The ela ionship be ween esilien
mang o es and ish popula ions
in he la ges ma ine ese e in
Belize: a case o conse a ion
Che wynd Ca los Osbo ne
Depa men o En i onmen al S udies, Uni e si y o Guyana,
Geo ge own, Guyana, and
Leand a Cho-Ricke s and Jan
e Salaza
En i onmen al Resea ch Ins i u e, Uni e si y o Belize, Belmopan, Belize
Abs ac
Pu pose –Mang o e o es s a e one o he mos bio-di e se and p oduc i e we land en i onmen s on ea h.
Howe e , hese unique opical o es en i onmen s ha occupy coas al a eas a e among he mos h ea ened
habi a s globally. These h ea s include logging, con e sion o land o ag icul u e and ma icul u e and
deg ada ion due o pollu ion o e he pas 50 yea s. The la ge popula ion o esilien mang o es occupying he
Tu ne e A oll a ea in Belize aces g owing an h opogenic h ea s such as pe manen clea ing o land o
housing, in as uc u al de elopmen and pollu ion and na u al ac o s (clima e change). Gi en he ew o mal
s udies done o e alua e mang o e esilience a Tu ne e A oll, he pu pose o his s udy was o e alua e
mang o e esilience and nu se y unc ions in he Tu ne e A oll Ma ine Rese e (TAMR).
Design/me hodology/app oach –Mang o e ish abundance and o es s uc u e was assessed by means o
a isual census and he poin -cen ed qua e me hod (PCQM) o 11 si es ha span ac oss conse a ion and
gene al use zones.
Findings –This s udy ound ha he mo e esilien mang o es (lowe ulne abili y anks, highe s anding
biomass and highe ish biomass and abundance) exis in gene al use zones and wa an he need o imp o ed
mang o e conse a ion measu es o hese a eas by Tu ne e A oll Sus ainabili y Associa ion (TASA).
Resea ch limi a ions/implica ions –Limi a ions o he me hods o da a collec ion included accessibili y
wi hin mang o e o es s s ands when es ablishing PCQM, obse e bias among da a collec o s, si es wi hou
su ounding mang o es we e no cap u ed o se e as a ue con ol g oup and poo isibili y unde wa e
a ec ed he es ima ion o ish species and size. The imeline o his esea ch was only h ee mon hs based on
a ailable unding, and no ollow-up s udy was done o make a ue compa ison.
O iginali y/ alue –The indings o his esea ch ha e a guiding ole in he o mula ion o conse a ion
measu es such as be e was emanagemen , a obus amewo k o mang o e managemen , a communica ion
s a egy o guide public awa eness and long- e m moni o ing su eys.
Keywo ds Resilien mang o es, Tu ne e A oll, Fish popula ion, Ma ine ese e, Conse a ion
Pape ype Resea ch pape
Ma ine Economics
and Managemen
159
© Che wynd Ca los Osbo ne, Leand a Cho-Ricke s and Jan
e Salaza . Published in Ma ine Economics
and Managemen . Published by Eme ald Publishing Limi ed. This a icle is published unde he
C ea i e Commons A ibu ion (CC BY 4.0) licence. Anyone may ep oduce, dis ibu e, ansla e and
c ea e de i a i e wo ks o his a icle ( o bo h comme cial and non-comme cial pu poses), subjec o ull
a ibu ion o he o iginal publica ion and au ho s. The ull e ms o his licence may be seen a h p://
c ea i ecommons.o g/licences/by/4.0/legalcode
The au ho s ex end hei g a i ude o he ollowing o ganisa ions ha unded his esea ch:
CARPIMS and he Uni e si y o Belize En i onmen al Resea ch Ins i u e. The au ho s also hank he
s a and pe sonnel o he Uni e si y o Belize Calabash Caye Field S a ion o hei hospi ali y,
p o ision o esea ch ma e ials and logis ical suppo , and hank T acy Gazoba u, Elisabe a Maiwi iwi i
and Robe o Gongo a o hei assis ance wi h he ieldwo k. The commen s o wo anonymous
e iewe s signi ican ly bene i ed his pape . The unde s had no ole in s udy design, da a collec ion
and analysis, he decision o publish o he p epa a ion o he manusc ip .
The cu en issue and ull ex a chi e o his jou nal is a ailable on Eme ald Insigh a :
h ps://www.eme ald.com/insigh /2516-158X.h m
Recei ed 7 Ap il 2024
Re ised 31 May 2024
Accep ed 19 July 2024
Ma ine Economics and
Managemen
Vol. 7 No. 2, 2024
pp. 159-180
Eme ald Publishing Limi ed
2516-158X
DOI 10.1108/MAEM-04-2024-0007
1. In oduc ion
Mang o es a e classi ied as small e e g een ees ha h i e in in e idal zones o es ua ies,
lagoons and i e del as and domina e sub opical and opical coas al sys ems (Singh, 2020).
The p oduc i e na u e and loca ion o mang o es in nea sho e, wa m coas al wa e s, make
hem inc easingly aluable a ge s o a ming, ma icul u e and ec ea ion. These ac i i ies
undamen ally al e he physicochemical na u e o he habi a , a ec ing animals such as
sh imps, c abs and ishes ha depend on hese ecosys ems o ood and shel e (Jaxion-Ha m,
2010;McShe y e al., 2023). Habi a des uc ion o coas al mang o es h ough sea le el ise
by means o clima e change and de o es a ion by means o an h opogenic ac i i ies can al e
niche dynamics in hese communi ies (Seddon e al., 2011;Roy e al., 2023). Mang o e o es s
a e declining globally due o an h opogenic and na u al de o es a ion, which has esul ed in
he loss o one- hi d o mang o e o es s and associa ed ecosys em se ices wo ldwide o e
he pas 50 yea s (Gou ^
ea e al., 2022). Mang o e o es s a e impo an o he sus enance o
ishes and in e eb a es; p o iding coas al popula ions wi h p o ein sou ces and suppo ing
li elihoods; sho eline p o ec ion agains loods, sunamis and yphoons; pu i ica ion o wa e ;
abso p ion o pollu an s; o se ing g eenhouse gas emissions and seques e ing ca bon and
p o ision o nu se y habi a s o ishes (McShe y e al., 2023;Rull, 2023). Addi ionally, hese
i al ecological goods and se ices ha e he po en ial o imp o e mang o e esilience
o clima e change, s o ms, sea le el ise and an h opogenic ac i i ies (Tu schwell e al., 2020;
Gou ^
ea e al., 2022).
The mos common a iable used o illus a e mang o e species zona ion pa e ns is idal
inunda ion equency (Ma e al., 2020;S eelekshmi e al., 2020). Mang o e species zona ion in
Belize adhe es o he pa e n o Rhizopho a ypically encoun e ed nea he sho eline and
inunda ed a eas, while A icennia a e equen in d ie a eas ha a e u he inland and ha e
highe soil salini ies due o e apo a ion (Mu ay e al., 2003;Piou e al., 2006;Che ing on e al.,
2020). Classi ying mang o es in o di e en ypes p o ides c i ical in o ma ion abou he
o es s uc u e and acili a es he p io i isa ion o conse a ion e o s. Mang o e seedlings
a e indi idual ees <1.37 m all, and he p esence o mang o e seedlings gi es an indica ion
o he le el o ec ui men in a pa icula a ea (Kau man and Dona o, 2012;Ellison, 2015).
Saplings a e ees wi h a diame e a b eas heigh (DBH) <2.5 cm, while o e s o y ees a e
de ined by DBH >5 cm (Almada-Villela e al., 2003;T e in e al., 2015). Rela i ely high g ow h
a es a e cha ac e is ic ea u es o mang o e saplings and seedlings, and hese mang o e
ypes a e capable o colonising newly c ea ed in e idal subs a es and o es gaps (Numbe e,
2021;Quad os e al., 2021). Dwa mang o es a e ees ypically <3 m all, which a e
cons i u ed by sc ub ca ego ies and ypically occupy a eas whe e he en i onmen al
condi ions a e ex eme and he ege a ion is es ic ed o sho mang o es (Rome o-Mujalli
and Melendez, 2023). Medium mang o es a e ees app oxima ely 3–10 m all which h i e in
loca ions inland ha a e densely popula ed by inging R. mangle, which g ow in exposed
si es along he coas and on cays (Kau man e al., 2020). Tall mang o es a e ees wi h a mean
heigh >10 m all, which a e ypically es ic ed o loca ions on he ma gin o i e s and
es ua ies ha a e ele a ed on he la ges cays whe e he equi ed combina ion o es ic ed
salini y, high le els o sus ained nu ien s and s able subs a e exis o sus ain his s and o
la ge ees (Kau man e al., 2020). S anding biomass gi es an indica ion o he quan i y o
s anding o ganic ma e pe uni a ea a a pa icula ime (Thi aka an e al., 2020). The
quan i y o s anding biomass s o ed in a o es is a unc ion o his ecosys em age,
p oduc i i y, expo a ion s a egies and o ganic ma e alloca ion (Thi aka an e al., 2020).
Mang o e ecosys ems play a i al ole in he Belize Ba ie Ree Complex owing o he
suppo p o ided o animals, om ishes o c us aceans, as well as sus aining high le els o
p ima y p oduc ion cen ed a ound he p oduc ion o lea li e , which p o ides a ophic
subsidy o adjacen coas al wa e s, bo h nea and a (Dha ani ajan e al., 2010;Che ing on
e al., 2020). Mang o e esilience e e s o a measu e o he pe sis ence o mang o e
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ecosys ems and o hei abili y o abso b change and dis u bance and s ill main ain he same
ela ionships be ween popula ions (Seddon e al., 2011;Ellison e al., 2020). Fu he ,
mang o es possess conside able esilience o sea le el luc ua ions owing o hei abili y o
ac i ely modi y hei en i onmen by changing p ocesses o su ace ele a ion and hei
mig a ion abili y o inland zones o e consecu i e gene a ions (Wa d e al., 2016). This so o
mig a ion o landwa d zones allows he mang o e ecosys em o abso b and ecognise he
e ec s o he s ess and acili a es he main enance o i s p ocesses, s uc u es and unc ions
(Numbe e, 2021;Rull, 2023). S udies conduc ed ac oss he Ca ibbean epo ed ha mang o e
species zones mig a ed inland whe e a p e e ed equency o inunda ion, dep h and pe iod
exis ed, since hese mang o es we e incapable o keeping pace wi h ela i e sea le el ise
(Rull, 2023). This gi es an indica ion o he mang o es’abili y o adap o changes in sea le el
and emain esilien .
Mang o es exhibi high esilience subsequen o dis u bances due o hei pionee ing
species abili y, high p oduc i i y and na u al egene a ion capabili ies (Capo e-Fuen es,
2007;Ellison e al., 2020). Fo ins ance, mang o es quickly e-g ow subsequen o hu icanes
(a disas e ha Belize is p one o) and loods, bu changes in empe a u e, hyd ologic luxes,
opog aphy and sedimen a ion a ec mang o e o es s (Rull, 2023). In he Ca ibbean egion,
hu icanes a e one o he mos des uc i e na u al haza ds a ec ing mang o es, and hei
occu ence has inc eased o e he yea s (Rull, 2023). Ce ain a eas o he Ca ibbean egion
wi h high mang o e densi y such as Cuba a e pa icula ly ulne able o hu icanes
compa ed wi h he Sou h Ame ican egion, which is a ely a ec ed. Despi e hese
dis u bances, mang o es show ela i ely high esilience o hu icane ac i i y and na u al
egene a ion is common (Rull, 2023).
Mang o es’complex s uc u e o ms aqua ic ege a ion ha p o ides eeding g ounds
and shel e o small p eda o s and p ey (Nagelke ken, 2009;Nagelke ken e al., 2010;
DeYoe e al., 2020). Fo ins ance, in he Ca ibbean, he e is a high abundance and di e si y o
es ua ine, co al ee , in e eb a es and ju enile ishes ha shel e in mang o es, which a e
s uc u e- ich habi a s (Nagelke ken e al., 2010;DeYoe e al., 2020). High abundances o
ju enile ishes in mang o es a e based on hese p oposed hypo heses: (a) isola ed loca ion
o hese bio ypes om o -sho e wa e s o co al ee s and hus ewe encoun e s wi h
p eda o s; (b) copious amoun s o ood a e p o ided by hese bio ypes o ishes, (c) p eda o s’
e iciency o o age is educed by he ela i ely u bid wa e o he es ua ies and bays and
(d) ex ensi e a eas a e co e ed by hese bio opes and plank onic ish la ae may be
in e cep ed mo e e ec i ely (Nagelke ken e al., 2000;DeYoe e al., 2020). These hypo heses
suppo he ea u es o esilien mang o es, which p o ide nu se y habi a s o ju enile
ishes ha se e as a p o ein sou ce o he Belizean popula ion; hence, he e is a need o
u he p o ec ion o hese mang o es a Tu ne e A oll o sa egua d his aluable ecosys em
se ice.
Belize s ill e ains la ge a eas o mang o es (especially Tu ne e A oll, whe e wo- hi ds o
he a oll’s land a ea is occupied by mang o es) compa ed o many neighbou ing coun ies
due o he small popula ion, which educes de elopmen al p essu es and he concen a ion o
he popula ion in a single cen e (i.e. Belize Ci y) (Che ing on e al., 2020). This ela i ely la ge
a ea o mang o es should no be ea ed wi h complacency; ins ead, ac ion plans should be
enac ed o u he p o ec hese mang o es and p olong he p o ision o i al ecological
goods and se ices. Mang o e ecosys ems a e known o hei esilience (Heumann, 2011),
and s udies ha e shown ha abou 94.6% o mang o e co e emains in Belize ollowing an
assessmen o mang o e co e change o he pe iod 1980 o 2017 (Che ing on e al., 2020).
This le el o emaining mang o e co e ende s he need o be e unde s and he esilien
cha ac e is ics o mang o es and p opose conse a ion measu es o p o ec his ecosys em
and p olong he aluable goods and se ices p o ided in e ms o main aining ishe ies and
suppo ing biodi e si y. The la ge popula ion o esilien mang o es occupying he Tu ne e
Ma ine Economics
and Managemen
161
A oll a ea in Belize aces g owing an h opogenic h ea s such as pe manen clea ing o land
o housing and in as uc u al de elopmen as well as pollu ion and na u al ac o s (clima e
change) (Che ing on e al., 2010,2020). These h ea s can po en ially lead o i e e sible
losses o mang o es and he e o e h ea en mang o es’ esiliency. To da e, he e ha e been
ew o mal s udies (S odda , 1963;Piou e al., 2006;Che ing on e al., 2010,2020) done o
e alua e mang o e- esilien ea u es in Tu ne e A oll. The e o e, he aim o his esea ch
was o e alua e mang o e esilience o suppo biodi e si y composi ion and nu se y
unc ions a Tu ne e A oll. The aim o his esea ch was achie ed h ough he ollowing
objec i es: (1) o e alua e he esilience o mang o e ecosys ems wi hin he Tu ne e
A oll, (2) o compa e mang o e esilience in conse a ion and gene al use zones wi hin he
Tu ne e A oll, (3) o de e mine he nu se y unc ion o mang o es on ish popula ions
and (4) o p opose necessa y conse a ion measu es o u he p o ec mang o es in he
Tu ne e A oll.
2. Ma e ials and me hods
2.1 S udy a ea
The s udy was ca ied ou in Tu ne e A oll (Figu e 1), loca ed sou heas o Ambe g is Caye
and Caye Caulke , o he coas o Belize in Cen al Ame ica (17.43828N, 87.83048W) (Chi a o
e al., 2006). The Tu ne e A oll is made up o many cayes, mos o which a e co e ed wi h
mang o e o es s (co e ing 74.2 km
2
), while he pe ime e o Tu ne e A oll consis s o a
ba ie ee (Chi a o e al., 2006). The sampling design ool o A cGIS 10.4.1 (ESRI, 2016)
de eloped by he Na ional Oceanic and A mosphe ic Adminis a ion’s (NOAA)
Biogeog aphy B anch was used o selec sample si es ha a e ep esen a i e o mang o e
dis ibu ion (s a a) a Tu ne e A oll (Buja and Menza, 2013). S a i ied andom sampling
was done ac oss 11 s udy si es, which span ac oss conse a ion zones (Long Bogue
Conse a ion Zone [V], Caye Bokel Conse a ion A ea [VI], P ese a ion Zone [VII] and
Gene al Use Zone [VIII]) a Tu ne e A oll (Wild acks, 2011).
2.2 Resilience o mang o e ecosys ems
The poin -cen ed qua e me hod (PCQM) sugges ed by Cin
on and No elli (1984) and also
u ilised by Almada-Villela e al. (2003) was used o assess mang o e o es s uc u e a each
mang o e si e. The PCQM was done in iplica es ac oss 11 si es in Augus 2017 a a ious
dis ances om he sho e (0–95 m, in inc emen s o 5 m), which co e ed 20 sample poin s along
each ansec . Sample poin s o PCQM we e selec ed wi hin zones ha we e p ede e mined
wi h he A cGIS 10.4.1 ool, s a ing om he inging mang o es close o he sho eline.
The PCQM acili a ed he measu emen o he closes ee o he cen e poin in each quad an
acco ding o he es ablished ansec line and pe pendicula . A line was es ablished a
he ze o poin (a sho e), and a dis ance o 5 m be ween each poin was used o a oid
measu ing he same ee wice. Fou quad an s we e de ined a each sampling poin whe e
he ansec line and a pe pendicula line c oss and measu emen s such as dis ance om he
sampling poin o he midpoin o he nea es ee (d, in me es), species, diame e a b eas
heigh (DBH, in cen ime es) and heigh (h, in me es) we e aken om he ee closes o he
sampling poin . The PCQM was epea ed o each o he 20 sample poin s, and when ees
measu ed a he p e ious poin we e encoun e ed, he dis ance be ween hese poin s was
ex ended by 2 m (Cin
on and No elli, 1984;Almada-Villela e al., 2003). The PCQM p o ided
some communi y s uc u e da a abou mang o es in conse a ion and gene al use zones.
This so o measu emen p o ided an indica ion o mang o e composi ion o aid wi h he
e alua ion o how mang o es we e pe o ming wi hin conse a ion zones e sus he gene al
use zone.
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The le el o mang o e ec ui men , condi ion and basal a ea (m
2
/ha) a each si e we e
de e mined by he ank c i e ia p esen ed in Table 1, whe e 5 was high ulne abili y and
1 was low, and he esul s we e a e aged o gi e an o e all mang o e ulne abili y ank
(Ajonina e al., 2009;Ellison, 2012):
Vulne abili y ank ¼To al o componen ank sco es
Numbe o componen s comple ed
Figu e 1.
Map o su eyed si es
Ma ine Economics
and Managemen
163
2.3 Mang o e nu se y unc ion on ish popula ions
Visual censuses we e used o e alua e ish abundance wi hin conse a ion zones compa ed o
he gene al use zone, and hese censuses we e done du ing he day ime pe iod (08.00–15.00 h)
in Sep embe 2017 o ensu e consis ency in ish p esence and ac i i y (Nagelke ken e al.,
2000;Adams and Tobias, 2003;L€
ok e al., 2008;Jaxion-Ha m, 2010). Visual censuses we e
conduc ed o e h ee days a a dep h o 0–20 cm in 10 min in e als ac oss wo ansec s. The
isual census echnique (Nagelke ken e al., 2000;MacDonald e al., 2008) was used o
es ima e he ish abundance and body leng h o ish species in mang o e p op oo s a each
si e. To a oid s a ling any ish wi hin he wo 3 330 m bel ansec s, he obse e s en e ed
he wa e a leas 20 m om each si e (MacDonald e al., 2008). The census was conduc ed by
swimming slowly along he bel ansec s, and he bes es ima ion by he eye o abundance
and he body leng h o ish species was eco ded. Size classes o 5 cm we e used o o al body
leng h es ima ion, which was guided by g adua ion ma ks on he unde wa e sla es ha we e
used o da a eco ding. Wa e cla i y was good o isual censuses ac oss all si es excep o
Si e 5, which had poo wa e cla i y. Si e 5 (conside ed an ou lie ) was emo ed o s a is ical
analysis wi h ish da a. Fish biomass and densi y eco ded ac oss su eyed si es aided in he
de e mina ion o mang o e nu se y unc ion on ish popula ions wi hin conse a ion zones
e sus he gene al use zone.
2.4 S a is ical analyses
All da a we e analysed using he s a is ical p og amme R e sion 3.1.0 (R Co e Team, 2021)
a an accep able
α
-le el o 0.05 (95% con idence le el). The PCQM esul s we e used o
calcula e ee s uc u al a iables such as (1) densi y pe cen e poin :
D¼1
d2
mean!;
whe e D5s em densi y in m
2
and d
mean
5mean dis ance o all ees on a ansec ;
(2) mean DBH, (3) mean heigh and (4) basal a ea pe ee:
Basal a ea cm2¼
π
3ðDBHÞ2
4!;
whe e
π
53.142 and (5) s anding biomass pe ee:
Biomass ðgÞ¼bhðDBHÞ2ðheigh Þim;
Rank
Sensi i i y
componen s 1 2 3 4 5
Mang o e
condi ion
No o sligh
impac
Mode a e
impac
Ra he high
impac
High impac Se e e
impac
Mang o e basal
a ea (m
2
/ha)
>25 15–25 10–15 5–10 <5
Rec ui men All species
p oducing
seedlings
Mos species
p oducing
seedlings
Some species
p oducing
seedlings
Jus a ew
seedlings
No seedlings
Sou ce(s): Ellison (2015)
Table 1.
Ranking c i e ia o
mang o e
ulne abili y
assessmen esul s
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whe e m and b we e cons an s o 0.8557 and 125.9571, espec i ely (Cin
on and No elli, 1984;
Almada-Villela e al., 2003;Piou e al., 2006;Ellison, 2012). These densi ies, means, basal a ea
and s anding biomass p o ided an indica ion o mang o e o es s uc u e and he heal h o
mang o e s ands. The non-pa ame ic K uskal–Wallis es (da a did no ollow a no mal
dis ibu ion) was used o es i he e we e any signi ican di e ences in mang o e heigh and
DBH be ween si es in conse a ion and gene al use zones (Be s, 2006;Aschenb oich e al.,
2016). Heigh and DBH eadings o si es in conse a ion and gene al use zones we e
compa ed using he Mann–Whi ney es o e alua e any di e ences in o es s uc u e
be ween hese loca ions, since hey we e all pa o Tu ne e A oll (Be s, 2006). Non-
pa ame ic Spea man ank co ela ion analyses we e used o e alua e he ela ionship
be ween ish abundance and mang o e ulne abili y ank (Jaxion-Ha m, 2010).
Fish species we e g ouped in o amilies, and he es ima ed ish abundance o he ou
mos dominan amilies (Table 4) among s udy si es was subjec ed o a - es o de e mine
s a is ical di e ences be ween s udy si es. To con ol o o he ac o s ha may in luence ish
abundance wi hin mang o es, si es we e g ouped acco ding o low (con ol) and high
mang o e s anding biomass o compa ison. This c i e ion o g ouping was used since all
su eyed a eas had su ounding mang o es and he quan i y o s anding biomass se ed as
a unc ion o ecosys em p oduc i i y (Thi aka an e al., 2020). The Shannon–Weine
di e si y index was used o e alua e ish species di e si y be ween s udy si es. Size es ima es
and published leng h-weigh ela ionships a ailable a FishBase (F oese and Pauly, 2017)
we e used o es ima e ish biomass (And adi-B own e al., 2016;AGRRA, 2017).
2.5 Limi a ions
Limi a ions o he me hods o da a collec ion included accessibili y wi hin mang o e o es s
s ands when es ablishing PCQM, obse e bias among da a collec o s, si es wi hou
su ounding mang o es we e no cap u ed o se e as a ue con ol g oup and poo isibili y
unde wa e a ec ed he es ima ion o ish species and size. The imeline o his esea ch was
only h ee mon hs based on a ailable unding and no ollow-up s udy was done o make a
ue compa ison.
3. Resul s
3.1 Mang o e ecosys em esilience wi hin he Tu ne e A oll
Based on he 11 si es su eyed ac oss Tu ne e A oll (Figu e 1), wo species o mang o es
(R. mangle and A. ge minans) we e ound ac oss all si es, and mang o e ecosys ems we e
domina ed by R. mangle (Figu e 2) o e all. Howe e , Si e 1 (gene al use zone, in he cen al
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
S2S7S10S1S3S4S5S6S8S9S11
% composi ion
Si es
Rhizopho a mangle
A icennia ge minans
Sou ce(s): Au ho s’ own wo k
Figu e 2.
Species composi ion in
conse a ion and
gene al use zones
Ma ine Economics
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165
lagoon), Si e 2 (conse a ion zone V) and Si e 3 (gene al use zone, close o Vincen ’s Lagoon
Special Managemen A ea) we e domina ed by A. ge minans (Figu e 2). L. acemosa, one o
he leas common ue mang o es ound in Belize (Mu ay e al., 2003), was absen om all
su eyed si es. Based on he anking c i e ia p esen ed in Table 1, all si es had some
componen s o ulne abili y (Table 2). Si es S1, S2, S5, S8, S9 and S10 had anks o 1–2,
indica ing cu en esilience o hese mang o e a eas, while si es S3, S4, S6, S7 and S11 had
anks o 2–4, which indica ed some co e ulne abili y o hese mang o e a eas (Ellison,
2015). No s a is ically signi ican ela ionship (p50.13, Spea man’s co ela ion) exis ed
be ween ish abundance and ulne abili y ank, indica ing ha ish abundance was no
s ongly dependen on he ulne abili y s a e o mang o es. Taking in o conside a ion all
si es in conse a ion and gene al use zones, highe o es s uc u e measu emen s in e ms o
heigh , DBH and s anding biomass we e eco ded o gene al use zone si es (Figu e 3),
sugges ing mo e heal hy and olde mang o e s ands among hese si es. A s a is ically
signi ican di e ence (p< 0.01, K uskal–Wallis es ) in heigh and DBH exis ed among
R. mangle and A. ge minans, indica ing ha mang o e ees o he same species di e ed in
heigh and DBH among he si es.
3.2 Compa ison o mang o e esilience in conse a ion and gene al use zones
Based on he esul s o all ees ac oss si es, i was e iden ha Si e 2 (conse a ion zone V)
and Si e 8 (gene al use zone, close o he cen al lagoon) had highe mean heigh and DBH,
sugges ing ha hese we e he mos ma u e mang o e s ands among he su eyed si es
(Table 3). Si e 7 (p ese a ion zone VII) and Si e 11 (gene al use zone, in he cen al lagoon)
had lowe mean heigh and DBH (Table 3), sugges ing he leas ma u e mang o e s ands
among he su eyed si es, and hese si es we e densely popula ed wi h R. mangle seedlings.
The mean heigh o ees o si es 1 (gene al use zone, in he cen al lagoon), 5 (gene al use
zone, close o he Vincen ’s Lagoon Special Managemen A ea), 9 (gene al use zone, close o
conse a ion zone IV) and 10 (conse a ion zone VI) seemed o be simila (Table 3), possibly
indica ing simila ma u i y among hese si es. No s a is ically signi ican di e ence in ee
heigh s (p50.32, Mann–Whi ney es ) and DBH (p50.76, Mann–Whi ney es ) exis ed
be ween he si es in conse a ion and gene al use zones. Based on mean heigh and DBH, all
mang o e s ands we e absen among he su eyed si es. Dwa mang o es and mang o e
seedlings we e he leas ex ensi e, while medium mang o es we e he mos ex ensi e, ound
a he si es in conse a ion and gene al use zones (Table 3). Mang o e s anding biomass
anged om 0.11 o 95.91 kg/m
2
among si es su eyed (Figu e 4) and Si e 8 (gene al use zone,
close o he cen al lagoon) had he highes s anding biomass.
Conse a ion
zone Gene al use zone
Sensi i i y componen s S2 S7 S10 S1 S3 S4 S5 S6 S8 S9 S11
Mang o e condi ion* 1 1 1 122121 21
Mang o e basal a ea (m
2
/ha)* 2 5 2 235242 35
Rec ui men * 1 1 1 121121 11
To al 4 7 4 478484 67
Numbe o componen s 3 3 3 333333 33
Vulne abili y ank 1.3 2.3 1.3 1.3 2.3 2.7 1.3 2.7 1.3 2 2.3
No e(s): *Values based on anking c i e ia p esen ed in Table 1, The las ow gi es a e aged ank esul s o
he o e all ulne abili y ank o each si e (shown in i alic)
Sou ce(s): Au ho s’own wo k
Table 2.
Vulne abili y
assessmen anking
esul s o si es in
conse a ion and
gene al use zones
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166
Highe ish abundances we e eco ded o si es wi h medium mang o e s ands (S1, S9 and
S10) compa ed o o he si es wi h seedling and dwa mang o e s ands (S7, S11 and S4). This
was possibly due o he g ea e shade c ea ed by medium mang o e s ands (MacDonald e al.,
2008). These esul s a e consis en wi h s udies conduc ed by Jaxion-Ha m (2010), which
p o ided e idence o he p obable posi i e co ela ion o ish abundance o shade (heigh o
ees) and inc eased p op oo complexi y. Addi ionally, medium mang o e s ands may ha e
la ge inging R. mangle p op oo s o c ea e ex ensi e bo de s a ound subme ged habi a s
(DeYoe e al., 2020) ha se e as nu se y a eas o suppo la ge ish popula ions and hence
g ea e p oduc i i y. Londo~
no e al. (2020) also epo ed causal links be ween ish abundance
and mang o e habi a ia mang o e ophic con ibu ion. These esul s suppo he
conse a ion o mang o es o ishe y esou ces ha he Belizean communi y depends on o
sus enance. The high abundance o comme cially impo an ish amilies such as Haemulidae
and Lu janidae o Si e 10 may be a ibu ed o g ea e p o ec ion and educed impac since a
no- ake egime is main ained o his conse a ion zone si e compa ed o si es in he gene al
use zone whe e comme cial ishing is allowed (Wild acks, 2011). These indings
co obo a ed wi h hose o Basyuni e al. (2021), who ound highe ish abundance in well-
p ese ed o es s compa ed o si es ha we e con e ed o palm oil plan a ions in Indonesia.
This u he exempli ies he close ela ionship be ween ish abundance and mang o e
conse a ion s a us. Pomacen idae and Sca idae a e p edominan ly co al ee ishes ha
unde ake on ogene ic mig a ions be ween co al ee s, seag ass beds and mang o es, and he
unique na u e o Tu ne e A oll in e ms o high connec i i y among mang o e s ands,
seag ass and co al ee s c ea es an ideal oppo uni y o mig a ion (Wild acks, 2011;Du
e al., 2020). The e o e, he low ish abundance eco ded ac oss s udy si es o Pomacen idae
and Sca idae may be a ibu ed o he seldom u ilisa ion o mang o e habi a s o ood and
shel e . Fish species belonging o he amily Sca idae a e p o ec ed by legisla ed egula ions
unde he Fishe ies Depa men in Belize, bu hese species a e illegally ished o suppo
ishe men’s li elihoods (Wild acks, 2011;Ellison e al., 2020). This so o illegal ishing may
in pa accoun o he low abundance o Sca idae ac oss su eyed si es. Fie o-A cos e al.
(2021) also epo ed Haemulidae, Lu janidae and Pomacen idae as some o he mos
dominan amilies in he mang o es o he Galapagos. Gene ally, he high ish abundance
eco ded in his s udy wi hin high mang o e s anding biomass may be linked o he
s uc u al complexi y o mang o es, hence he impo ance o mang o es as ish eeding and
nu se y si es (San ama
ıa-Dami
an e al., 2023). San ama
ıa-Dami
an e al. (2023) ound ha
mang o e si es in Mexico ha we e domina ed by s il oo mic ohabi a s co ela ed wi h
high ish species ichness, abundance and biomass. This s udy showed ha he in e ac ion o
dep h, dominance o pneuma opho es, dis ance om he mou h o he es ua y, li e
p oduc ion and salini y explained he pa e ns o ish abundance and biomass in mang o es.
Howe e , Ram e al. (2021) epo ed ha e en hough ac i e es o a ion se ed as a easible
op ion o es o e mang o e s anding biomass in he No h B azil Shel , he ish popula ion did
no eco e du ing hei s udy pe iod.
The smalle mode size ange equency (0–5 cm and 6–10 cm) o si es such as one, wo
and h ee may accoun o he low o al ish biomass eco ded o hese si es, e en hough
high ish abundance was eco ded he e. Addi ionally, he high o al ish biomass o si es
9 and 10 may be a ibu ed o he la ge mode size ange equency (11–20 cm and 21–30 cm).
The ep esen a i e ish abundance and biomass eco ded ac oss su eyed si es sha ed some
simila i ies wi h s udies conduc ed by Kendall e al. (2021) on ec ui men and ju enile ee
ish abundance in he Ca ibbean, which ound highe abundance among mang o e s ands
since hese habi a s a e u he away om he main ee and hence educed p eda ion. Also,
ac o s such as na u al a ia ions in ec ui men , en i onmen al in luences and hu icane
dis u bances may in luence ish assemblage. The high ish biomass eco ded o
comme cially impo an amilies such as Haemulidae and Lu janidae gi es an indica ion o
Ma ine Economics
and Managemen
173
mang o e esilience o suppo hese species (Fie o-A cos e al., 2021). Mo eo e , he high
connec i i y o mang o e s ands o ee and seag ass a Tu ne e A oll p o ides ideal
nu se y habi a s o comme cially impo an ju enile ishes. Despi e ecen e o med and
amended legisla ions (inc eased ines and s ingen egula ions) ela ed o mang o e clea ing
laws in Belize, de elope s de i e me hods o wo k a ound hese egula ions and clea
mang o es wi hou pe mi s due o poo en o cemen o mang o e egula ions (Ellison e al.,
2020). The e o e, he need exis s o he es ablishmen o mo e mang o e conse a ion a eas
in Tu ne e A oll o p olong hese i al ecological goods and se ices ha he Belizean
popula ion depends upon o hei li elihoods.
Based on ish size class measu emen s, mo e nu se y habi a s we e p o ided by R. mangle
p op oo s uc u es ac oss si es in conse a ion and gene al use zones o ish popula ions.
The mix u e o ish densi ies eco ded o all size classes was consis en wi h e idence ha
some ju enile ishes p ima ily u ilise mang o es o shel e while eeding oppo unis ically
(MacDonald e al., 2008;Kendall e al., 2021). Addi ionally, his esea ch was conduc ed du ing
he we season in Belize, and his season ends o co ela e wi h high ec ui men o ju enile
ishes o mang o e communi ies since a high abundance o zooplank on exis s o p o ide
g ea e ood abundance. Fu he mo e, mang o e p op oo s play a c i ical ole as habi a o
ju enile ishes, and his was o s udies in he Ca ibbean ha showed he esilience o hese
ecosys ems conside ing g owing p essu es om coas al de elopmen , ishe ies and clima e
change (Kendall e al., 2021).
Based on he esul s o his s udy, mo e esilien and heal hie mang o e s ands cons i u ed
si es (especially si es 8 and 9) in he gene al use zone, which a e no well p o ec ed in he
Tu ne e A oll Ma ine Rese e (TAMR). Based on he sample design o his s udy, he
su eyed si es we e selec ed based on mang o e dis ibu ion, and only h ee conse a ion zone
si es had a ep esen a i e dis ibu ion o mang o es compa ed o eigh si es in he gene al use
zone. The e o e, mang o es inconse a ion zones may beunde ep esen ed, and u u e s udies
should look a an equal p opo ion o si es as well as si es wi hou su ounding mang o es o
make be e compa isons. Inc eased p o ec ion in he gene al use zone is c i ical gi en he
connec i i y ha mang o es sha e wi h o he ma ine ecosys ems o os e highe immig a ion
a es om nu se y habi a s and possibly mo e p oduc ion o suppo li elihoods. Si e 9 is close
o he Blackbi d Caye conse a ion zone, which is p i a ely owned and sla ed o u he
de elopmen gi en he majo ole ha ou ism plays in he economic de elopmen o Belize
(TICAC, 2003;Ellison e al., 2020). This so o de elopmen will impac mang o e ecosys ems
and lead o i e e sible losses o mang o es, he eby h ea ening mang o e esilience (Ellison
e al., 2020). Mang o e losses can also a ec wa e quali y since pollu an s om was ewa e
would no be eadily emo ed and ans o med and ish abundance may decline since nu se y
habi a s, which p o ide shel e o ju enile ishes a e emo ed (Polido o e al.,2010;Wang e al.,
2010;Ellison e al., 2020). The e o e, a mo e ca e ul e alua ion o conse a ion measu es is
needed o mang o es speci ically. Some o hese conse a ion measu es a e ou lined in
Table 6. Fu u e esea ch should ocus on mo e long- e m moni o ing o mang o e o es s
wi hin Tu ne e A oll o be e assess he impac s o di e en ypes o dis u bances o e ime.
These long- e m moni o ing s udies should conside si es wi hou su ounding mang o es o
cap u e a ue con ol g oup o compa a i e ela ions. Be e quan i ica ion o he s uc u e
and ex en o p op oo s and hei co ela ion o ish abundance as well as combining isual
censuses wi h una ended, con inuous- eco ding me hod such as unde wa e ideo sys em
would answe addi ional ques ions.
4.2 Conclusion
The physical and ecological cha ac e is ics o Belize a e like hose o o he pa s o he
Ca ibbean and Cen al Ame ica. Howe e , in he Ca ibbean egion, Belize is unusual since a
MAEM
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174
Ac ion Resou ce needs Responsibili y Timeline Commen s
Be e was e
managemen h ough
beach cleanup and
con olling pollu ion
sou ces h ough
enac men and s ingen
en o cemen o was e
managemen legisla ion
Dono and
p i a e/public
inancing (ca.
US$15,000)
Technology
ans e
Belize Coas al Zone
Managemen
Au ho i y and
Ins i u e, Belize
Associa ion o P i a e
P o ec ed A eas,
Belizean Mang o e
Conse a ion
Ne wo k, Go e nmen
o Belize
5 yea s Such ac ionable
measu es will acili a e
g ea e elimina ion o
non-clima e s esso s
on mang o es such as
pollu ion
De elop addi ional
policies and en o cemen
o p o ide a obus
amewo k o mang o e
managemen and ensu e
he hal ing o mang o e
o es s losses in he
gene al use zone (in
keeping wi h
Sus ainable
De elopmen Goal
Ta ge 15.2.)
Public
inancing (ca.
US$10,000)
Go e nmen o Belize 5 yea s These policy measu es
will aid in p e en ing
des uc ion o
mang o e nu se y
a eas and educing he
impac s on o he
nea sho e ma ine
ecosys ems. P o isions
could also be made o
comme cial ishing in a
sus ainable manne
since he gene al use
zone p o ides e ile
and aluable ishing
g ound
Incen i ised ou each
and educa ional
p og ammes o
landowne s ac oss Belize
o p omo e e ec i e
mang o e conse a ion
and es o a ion and
os e mang o e
conse a ion ne wo ks
Dono and
p i a e/public
inancing (ca.
US$50,000)
Belize Associa ion o
P i a e P o ec ed
A eas, Belizean
Mang o e
Conse a ion
Ne wo k, Go e nmen
o Belize
2 yea s Ac i e pa icipa ion in
mang o e managemen
and conse a ion by
indi iduals and expe s
who use coas al
esou ces daily will
inc ease unde s anding
and awa eness o he
ecosys em se ices
p o ided by Belize’s
mang o es
Robus Communica ion
S a egy o be e
communica e enac ed
zoning policies ha
guide de elopmen and
en o ce egula ions,
especially o o eign
p ope y-owne s
Dono and
p i a e/public
inancing (ca.
US$10,000)
Go e nmen o Belize,
Belize Coas al Zone
Managemen
Au ho i y and
Ins i u e, Belizean
Mang o e
Conse a ion Ne wo k
3 yea s App ise o eign
p ope y-owne s in a
mo e e ec i e manne
o domes ic mang o e
egula ions in Belize
Long- e m moni o ing
su eys o cap u e
en i onmen al d i e s
such as clima e change,
sea-le el luc ua ions
and an h opogenic
p essu e on he
biodi e si y and
e olu ion o mang o e
ecosys ems
Dono and
p i a e/public
inancing (ca.
US$20,000)
Technology
ans e
Belize Associa ion o
P i a e P o ec ed
A eas, Belizean
Mang o e
Conse a ion Ne wo k
10 yea s The lessons lea n om
hese su eys may be
use ul o in o m
conse a ion and
es o a ion ac ions
Sou ce(s): Au ho s’own wo k and Adge e al. (2007),Gilman e al. (2008) and Ellison e al. (2020)
Table 6.
Conse a ion
ac ion plan
Ma ine Economics
and Managemen
175
la ge po ion o i s coas line is co e ed by mang o e, and an ex ensi e composi ion o
mang o e is ound a Tu ne e A oll. Mang o es in conse a ion zones a Tu ne e A oll a e
possibly unde ep esen ed since a la ge composi ion o esilien mang o es cons i u es he
gene al use zone. Majo gaps exis in he p o ec ion o coas al and ma ine mang o es wi hin
Tu ne e A oll. Al hough he indings o his esea ch only o m a baseline, he need exis s o
he es ablishmen o mo e mang o e conse a ion a eas in Tu ne e A oll due o he p esence
o mo e esilien and heal hie mang o es in he gene al use zone. The es ablishmen o
mo e mang o e conse a ion a eas would be e acili a e long- e m, ongoing moni o ing
p og ammes.
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