Schüp , Dennis; Kuppusami, Ni hya; Schippe , E. Lisa F.
Resea ch Repo
Coas al adap a ion – o whom and o wha ? Zooming in
on e oding sands and he li elihoods o a isanal ishe s in
India
IDOS Policy B ie , No. 34/2024
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Ge man Ins i u e o De elopmen and Sus ainabili y (IDOS), Bonn
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Schüp , Dennis; Kuppusami, Ni hya; Schippe , E. Lisa F. (2024) : Coas al
adap a ion – o whom and o wha ? Zooming in on e oding sands and he li elihoods o a isanal
ishe s in India, IDOS Policy B ie , No. 34/2024, Ge man Ins i u e o De elopmen and Sus ainabili y
(IDOS), Bonn,
h ps://doi.o g/10.23661/ipb34.2024
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Coas al Adap a ion – o Whom and
o Wha ?
Zooming in on E oding Sands and he
Li elihoods o A isanal Fishe s in India
Dennis Schüp , Ni hya Kuppusami &
E. Lisa F. Schippe
Summa y
Clima e change adap a ion is a key pilla in clima e
policy. The Pa is Ag eemen ’s Global Goal on
Adap a ion (GGA) p o ides a uni ying amewo k o
accele a e ac ion owa ds s eng hening esilience and
educing ulne abili y o clima e change. Howe e , he
implemen a ion o adap a ion p ojec s is cons ained
by complex poli ical p ocesses, and while he GGA
a ge s all le els om local o global, adap a ion e o s
ha a e no linked o he ulne abili y con ex a e a
majo cause o maladap a ion. This complexi y is
pa icula ly ele an o he managemen o coas al
sand esou ces and hei ole in clima e change
adap a ion. Wi h he global inc ease in coas al
de elopmen and u banisa ion, sand esou ces ha
p o ec he coas a e c i ical o he well-being o
communi ies bu also o conc e e p oduc ion o he
cons uc ion sec o . This o en leads o ade-o s
be ween de elopmen and adap a ion, esul ing in
maladap i e ou comes such as coas al e osion and
loss o li elihood o ishe ies communi ies. Wi hin his
con ex , his policy b ie exempli ies how he use and
dis ibu ion o coas al sand esou ces de e mine
whe he adap a ion ou comes a e success ul o
maladap i e, aking a case s udy om India.
Policy ecommenda ions o s eng hening coas al
adap a ion go e nance in India and beyond
• In eg a e sand go e nance in exis ing coas al
managemen : Sand should be ins i u ionally
ecognised as a p o ec ed esou ce essen ial o
ishing communi ies wi h a legal amewo k o
sand igh s and coas al zone mapping.
• A oid maladap a ion h ough ansbounda y
go e nance: Adap a ion o shi ing sho eline
bounda ies necessi a es go e nance o sand as a
i al poli ical en i y ac oss s a e bounda ies,
c ea ing oppo uni ies o es o e sand mo emen
by educing o emo ing obs uc i e in as uc u e.
• Add ess ade-o s be ween de elopmen and
adap a ion: De elopmen in e en ions like
ha bou s can exace ba e coas al haza ds,
necessi a ing policymake s o balance economic
g ow h, ans o ma i e adap a ion s a egies and
he in e es s o he cons uc ion sec o , coas al
communi ies and ou ism.
• Un angle wha needs o be adap ed o: Con-
side ing sand is c ucial o iden i ying adap a ion
needs, which equi es a holis ic app oach o
add ess bo h clima e and non-clima e ela ed
isks.
• Co-p oduc ion o locally adap ed solu ions:
Adap a ion planning mus in ol e a - isk com-
muni ies wi h deep knowledge o coas al p o-
cesses, implemen ing beach nou ishmen no jus
o ou ism, bu also o secu e ishing li elihoods.
IDOS POLICY BRIEF
34/2024
IDOS Policy B ie 34/2024
2
In oduc ion
Globally, adap a ion o e e -inc easing coas al
haza ds is a majo challenge o policymake s
and coas al communi ies alike, no leas because
o he complex go e nance challenges posed by
highly dynamic land-sea in e aces cha ac e ised
by ocean cu en s and sand mo emen . On he
one hand, he complexi y o coas al adap a ion
a ises om clima e change, which is leading o
ocean wa ming and con inued sea-le el ise. This
makes coas al haza ds, such as mo e equen
cyclones, and, o example, he salinisa ion o
eshwa e esou ces, mo e unp edic able and
unce ain han be o e and di ec ly a ec s human
se lemen s and ac i i ies along he coas (IPCC,
2019). The li elihoods o small-scale ishe s a e
especially a ec ed by dwindling ish ca ches in
wa me seas and inc easingly unce ain clima ic
condi ions. On he o he hand, non-clima e
d i e s a ec ing he coas al en i onmen , anging
om he cons uc ion o ha bou s o ha d
p o ec i e in as uc u e (e.g., seawalls) and
ou is eso s, add o his complexi y (Ba ne &
O’Neill, 2010; Masalu, 2002). This is because
bo h clima e and non-clima e d i e s con ibu e o
coas al isk by dis up ing he coas al dynamics,
hus obscu ing he oo causes o wha makes
coas al communi ies ulne able o adap a ion
s a egies unsuccess ul (E iksen e al., 2021).
Ha d coas al p o ec ion measu es a e common
adap a ions ha shi ulne abili ies om one a ea
o ano he , o example, h ough g oins o
seawalls ha block he mo emen o sand and
cause e osion and he loss o p o ec i e beaches
in o he coas al a eas (So acool e al., 2015).
While such measu es, inc easingly amed as
clima e change adap a ion, may p o ec some
a eas in he sho e m, e oded beaches di ec ly
a ec he li elihoods o ishing communi ies
ha depend on access o sandy beaches o
launch hei boa s (Schüp e al., 2024).
Al hough o en o e looked in coas al adap a ion
s a egies, sand esou ces supplied by i e s and
idal cu en s sus ain and help build coas al a eas
whe e mo e han one billion people li e
wo ldwide (IPCC, 2019). Sand has mul iple uses
and unc ions in ma ine ecosys ems bu also in
u ban de elopmen o cons uc ion. In coas al
a eas, sand exis s whe e di e en s akeholde s
a e compe ing o access i (Jou ay e al., 2023;
To es e al., 2017). Sand ac s as a na u al bu e
a he land-sea in e ace be ween he e es ial
and ma ine ecosys ems and inc eases hei
esilience o he abo e-men ioned haza ds.
The cu en p edominance o in as uc u al and
echnical adap a ion in e en ions isks o e -
looking p e-exis ing powe ela ions be ween
hese ac o s ha de e mine, o example, how
sand is dis ibu ed and who is o be p o ec ed. I
is necessa y, he e o e, o c i ically examine he
embedded ade-o s be ween adap a ion and
de elopmen ha need o be unde s ood in o de
o educe he isk o maladap a ion o changing
coas al en i onmen s. This policy b ie add esses
his ques ion by aking he case s udy o a isanal
ishe s a ec ed by massi e sand e osion wi h he
aim o in o m policymake s and de elopmen
p ac i ione s wo king on coas al go e nance.
Sand esou ces and coas al
(mal)adap a ion
The link be ween sand and clima e change is
signi ican bu complex. On he mi iga ion side,
he ex ac ion o ma ine sand (di ec ly) eleases
he g eenhouse gases seques e ed in he sedi-
men s (Sun e al., 2023), while he p oduc ion o
conc e e (indi ec ly) eleases huge quan i ies o
CO2 (UNEP, 2022). On he adap a ion side, sand
no only sus ains li elihoods and he ma ine
ecosys em, bu also p o ec s coas lines and is
used o land eclama ion o beach nou ishmen
(Pilkey e al., 2022).
The p ope use, conse a ion and dis ibu ion o
coas al sand esou ces a e a he hea o
success ul coas al adap a ion s a egies aimed a
p o ec ing coas al communi ies. Used as li eli-
hoods spaces, he o ma ion o beaches is c ucial
o ishe s. Coas al adap a ion measu es, such as
seawalls, o en ( e)dis ibu e sand by blocking o
edi ec ing i s mo emen . Despi e he cen al ole
IDOS Policy B ie 34/2024
3
o sand in hese measu es, mos adap a ion
s a egies dis ega d i . The go e nance o sand
esou ces, he e o e, needs o mo e much mo e
in o ocus in o de o educe he isk o
maladap a ion – a concep ha e e s o “ac ions
o inac ions ha may lead o inc eased isk o
ad e se clima e- ela ed ou comes, inc eased
ulne abili y o clima e change, o diminished
wel a e, now o in he u u e” (IPCC, 2014, p.
857). This analysis is based on ieldwo k done in
Pondiche y, sou he n India, whe e he con-
s uc ion o a ha bou has dis up ed sand
mo emen , esul ing in he loss o li ing spaces
and li elihoods o housands o a isanal ishe s
who depend on sandy beaches o boa pa king
and s o age.
Main aining sand esou ces as a coas al
ba ie may be a cos -e ec i e adap a ion
s a egy. Fo example, he cos s o ebuilding
in as uc u e a e coas al haza ds (e.g.,
cyclones, looding) due o he loss o p o ec i e
beaches o en do no ou weigh he p o i s
gene a ed om ex ac ed sand esou ces (Pilkey
e al., 2022). Howe e , con a y o he common
pe cep ion ha sand is abundan , sand esou ces
a e declining globally and a e he second mos
consumed esou ce a e wa e , wi h he main
uses being he cons uc ion sec o and coas al
de elopmen (UNEP, 2019). In con as wi h he
ounded sand g ains ound in dese s, sand ound
in coas al and ma ine en i onmen s is angula
wi h he igh cha ac e is ics o be sui able o
conc e e. The unp eceden ed demand o sand is
uelled by he expansion o po s and coas al
ci ies h ough land eclama ion o beach
nou ishmen , leading o a “looming agedy o he
sand commons” as sand ex ac ion by a
exceeds supply om i e s, coas al dunes and
beaches (To es e al., 2017).
Coas al adap a ion is si ua ed wi hin echnical,
economic as well as inancial ba ie s and social
con lic s ha may cons ain hei e ec i eness
(Nicholls, 2007). Cu en coas al adap a ion
s a egies o en ail because coas al
communi ies a e highly dependen on access o
a ange o esou ces, including sand, bu also
echnology, in o ma ion and inance (see
Table 1). Mo eo e , a coas line is ne e s a ic
and ixed on a map bu dynamic and in cons an
in e ac ion h ough e osion and acc e ion. To
o e come hese challenges, socie ies will need o
esol e dis ibu ional con lic s o e inance
ela ed o spending public unds on, o example,
coas al p o ec ion, which may lead o he loss o
ou ism due o less a ac i e beaches (Hinkel e
al., 2018). In addi ion, his can lead o con lic s
due o unde lying social ulne abili y ac o s, such
as gende , class and e hnici y. Challenges o
coas al adap a ion, he e o e, s em no only om
he clima e c isis, bu also om he oo edness o
ulne abili y in socie ies whe e communi ies a e
ma ginalised (Ga cia e al., 2022).
IDOS Policy B ie 34/2024
4
Table 1: Ca ego ies o coas al adap a ion s a egies
Coas al
adap a ion
app oaches
Ac i i ies Challenges
Go e nance Managemen and planning
p ocesses (e.g., imp o ing In eg a ed
Coas al Zone Managemen (ICZM),
Ma ine P o ec ed A eas (MPAs),
Ma ine Spa ial Planning)
Complexi y oo ed in unequal powe
ela ions and compe ing/con lic ing
in e es s o s akeholde s
(e.g., ou ism, ishe ies), less clea
bounda ies han on land
Social and
knowledge
Social and communi y-based
adap a ion esponses (e.g., isk
awa eness, public and local
pa icipa ion, imp o ing scien i ic
communica ion)
Di e ging wo ld iews and o ms o
unde s anding and li ing in coas al
en i onmen s (e.g., indigenous
knowledge)
Physical and
ecological
Technical, enginee ing o
ecosys em-based adap a ions
(e.g., ha d enginee ing (seawall), so
enginee ing (beach nou ishmen ),
ecosys em es o a ion)
Equi y and social ulne abili y (who
is p o ec ed?), spa ial scale and
empo al unce ain y (e.g., educing
e osion in one place bu inc easing i
somewhe e else)
Economic Adap a ion esponses in ol ing
mone a y ea u es (e.g., land
acquisi ion, public unding, paymen
o ecosys em se ices, p i a e
in es men s)
Social con lic s o e access o
esou ces, displacemen o
communi ies o conse a ion o
capi al accumula ion
Sou ce: Au ho s, adap ed om Cabana e al. (2023)
IDOS Policy B ie 34/2024
5
Case s udy: Fishing communi ies
in Pondiche y, India
The maladap a ion cycle
The coas al egion o Pondiche y and he s a e
o Tamil Nadu a e among he mos ulne able
a eas in India o coas al haza ds, pa icula ly due
o mo e equen cyclones and s o m su ges
caused by clima e change. The na u al
mo emen o sand (li o al d i ) shapes he
en i e coas o India. Howe e , in Pondiche y, a
comme cial ha bou buil in 1989 wi hin he
li o al zone caused massi e e osion as i s
b eakwa e s blocked he na u al mo emen o
sand and deposi ion o sedimen (see Figu e 1).
As he e osion shi ed no hwa ds, ha d coas al
de ences, including seawalls and g oins, we e
cons uc ed, esul ing in he a mou ing o he
coas line and he loss o mo e han 80 hec a es
o beach (Bau és e al., 2023). As a esul ,
a ec ed ishe s demanded he cons uc ion o
g oins and we e abso bed in o his icious cycle
o maladap a ion (see Figu e 2). The la e is
condi ioned by di e en in e es s and le els o
in luence, such as a g owing ou ism indus y, he
associa ed cas e o coas al communi ies, and he
eligious impo ance o spi i ual leade s who own
coas al p ope y. Fo ins ance, ishe s om Tamil
Nadu a e no allowed o use he Pondiche y
ha bou , which o iginally caused he e osion and
sand loss, exempli ying es ed in e es s and
unequal powe ela ions o e he dis ibu ion o
coas al sand.
To da e, mo e han 7,000 ishe s ha e los hei
li elihoods and a leas a dozen ishing hamle s
ha e been wiped ou (Bau és e al., 2023).
Fishing communi ies a e s ill a ec ed by he
inc easing loss o wo king space due o he loss
o beaches. As beaches a e los and ex ended
seawalls impede access o he sea, many a e
o ced o launch hei boa s om dis an beaches
ou side hei illage o ind new employmen in
u ban a eas. In addi ion, he shoals o ish ha
come close o he sho e ha e diminished, making
a isanal ishe s mo e ulne able as hey a e
pushed u he ou o he sea whe e s o ms a e
epo edly becoming mo e unp edic able as he
Bay o Bengal hea s up.
Beach and sea a e insepa able. The ock beach in
Pondiche y own, on which he go e nmen is
ocusing on o de elopmen , is o en e ainmen
pu pose. Bu o us, i ’s abou li elihood.
(Fishe in e iew, 2023)
Figu e 1: Case s udy a ea
Sou ce: Au ho s, using OpenS ee Maps
IDOS Policy B ie 34/2024
6
Figu e 2: The maladap a ion cycle
Sou ce: Au ho s
P o ec i e measu es a e no implemen ed as
a long- e m an icipa ion o isks, bu as an ad
hoc eme gency measu e a e a se e e wea he
e en , such as a cyclone, has occu ed:
Suppose you ha e a s omach-ache, wha do you
need? You need a medicine o ea , because you
don’ know. You don’ ha e ime o hink abou you
pain, why i ’s happening. Wha is he cause? So,
exac ly he same. These g oins and e e y hing. I
hink i is a empo a y measu e wi hou unde -
s anding he dynamics o he sea.
(Coas al scien is in e iew, 2023)
As a esul , ha d in as uc u e ha shi s he e o-
sion is passed wi hou en i onmen al impac
assessmen s as demanded by NGOs o wi hou
ob aining Coas al Regula ion Zone (CRZ)
clea ance. Mo eo e , g oin ields (see Figu e 1)
block he sand ha would no mally each he
coas u he no h, ul ima ely c ea ing new
ba ie s and accele a ing e osion in neighbou ing
ishing communi ies. Al hough conside ed an
eme gency measu e o eclaiming e oded
beaches, he cons uc ion o g oins is o en
delayed and can ake mo e han a yea . In
addi ion, ishing communi ies, adap o he loss o
sandy beaches caused by coas al haza ds,
de elopmen and ailed p o ec ion measu es by
mo ing hei boa s and gea o o he s e ches o
coas whe e sand accumula es (see Figu e 3).
While his can lead o con lic s wi h neighbou ing
ishing communi ies ha ha e su icien beach, i
also ( e)nego ia es new ules on how coas al
space is used, alloca ed and sha ed. Fo
example, ees a e cha ged o addi ional boa s
ha equi e space o ca ches mus be sha ed.
When i comes o he design and cons uc ion o
g oins, ishing communi ies a e no pa ici-
pa ing in planning p ocesses and consequen ly
p o es so ha he go e nmen will a leas app o e
g oins o be buil o eclaim hei los beaches.
When asked abou pa icipa ion, a ishe s a ed:
We ishe men know how he sea wo ks. I bo h
ishe men and a me s a e le wi h a boa in he
middle o he sea, do he a me s know how o ge
back o he sho e? Bu he decisions o he ishing
communi y a e made by he people om he plain
egion who don’ know abou he sea and sho e.
(G oup in e iew wi h ishe s, 2023)
IDOS Policy B ie 34/2024
7
Figu e 3: Fishe s eloca e hei gea o coas al space wi h wide beaches
Sou ce: © Dennis Schüp
Lessons o s eng hening go e nance
mechanisms
Sand mo es and accumula es ac oss poli ic-
ally de e mined bounda ies and ju isdic ions.
Pa icula ly in he case o shi ing sands and
e oding coas lines, ansbounda y coas al go -
e nance is a challenge as e osion c osses ju is-
dic ional bounda ies and hus solu ions need o
be wo ked ou be ween ans-s a e coas al
au ho i ies o assess p ojec s like he one p o-
posed by he Public Wo ks Depa men . While as
pe he CRZ No i ica ion 2019, he a ea whe e
g oins a e being cons uc ed alls unde CRZ IV
(wa e body) and CRZ IB (in e idal zone) whe e
any cons uc ion is p ohibi ed (“no de elopmen
zone”), an ag eemen o u u e adap a ion o
coas al isks is equi ed be ween he espec i e
coas al zone managemen au ho i ies.
The coas al zone is almos like a no man’s land. I
is no unde he Minis y o Ag icul u e, and i is no
unde he Ocean. I is a pa o land, which is
ac ually no managed by anyone.
(Ci il socie y o ganisa ion in e iew, 2023)
Beach space and he pe cep ion and alue o
sand esou ces need o be add essed in
policies ha deal wi h and adap o coas al
isks. While he loss o a beach o an adjacen
ishing communi y has a majo impac on i s
economic cycle, including i s cul u al belonging
and iden i y, o he coas al ac o s pe cei e he
impo ance o sandy beaches di e en ly:
O building g oins, you jus see he land a ea, how
much o beach we ha e los . You can see ha he
beach has no alue. Because i no eally public
p ope y no is i p i a e, so i has no alue.
(NGO in e iew, 2024)
IDOS Policy B ie 34/2024
8
E en hough he shee alue o sand g ains may
elude economic easoning and u ilisa ion, incen i-
ising he e en ion o sand on he coas may be
he mos cos -e ec i e adap a ion s a egy, as
a gued abo e. This means c ea ing public awa e-
ness o sand mo emen in i s ole as a na u ally
occu ing p o ec o o he coas line.
Access o beach space is c i ical o he li eli-
hoods o ishe s o en e he sea and o p e en
spa ial con lic s be ween neighbou ing communi-
ies o e esou ces. T adi ional a isanal ishing
echniques ha e e ol ed o e cen u ies a ound a
sandy beach ecosys em ha p o ides a a ie y o
unc ions, om main aining nea sho e ish habi-
a s o p o iding space o boa pa king, ca ch
d ying o ne mending. Houses a e buil close o
he sho e o ensu e isibili y o he sea o loca e
shoals o ish (e.g., changes in sea colou o wind
di ec ion). Usually, he ishing communi ies ely
on s ong sel -go e nance h ough adi ional
ins i u ions o main ain social con ol and access
o he use o ish esou ces and communi y man-
agemen (Ba inck, 2001). When he cons uc ion
o a 6-km-long seawall u he shi ed he e osion
om Pondiche y o Tamil Nadu s a e, con lic s
o e sh inking beach space a ose be ween sel -
go e ning ishing communi ies.
Wi h he help o a ac o , we mo ed ou boa s nea
he bu ial si e and mo ed u he o he oads. Bu
i we don’ ha e a place o pa k ou boa s, i will be
e y di icul . The land nea he emple used o
belong o he ishing communi y. Bu people sold i
and now we don’ ha e enough space. The land
nex o he bu ial g ound is being bough by a
spi i ual leade who claims ha he land belongs o
he emple.
(Fishe in e iew, 2024)
Fishing communi ies need o be ecognised
and in ol ed as knowledgeable ac o s, a he
han being o e hea d by expe s and planne s
who o en make decisions a away om he
a ec ed coas al a ea. The li elihoods o a isanal
ishe s ha e e ol ed wi h, no agains , he
dynamics o sand and he sea. Impo an ly,
women in he ishing sec o su e disp opo -
iona ely om he loss o beach space and a e
o ced in o he s ee s o d y and sell ish, as
beach space is p edominan ly used by men. This
no only adds o hei economic bu den as p ices
a e nego ia ed and auc ioned a he beach, bu
also a ec s women’s capaci y o ga he collec-
i ely in public spaces. The eloca ion o hei
li elihoods due o lack o access o he beach is
i sel an adap a ion o clima e and en i onmen al
change and c i ically linked o he social ul-
ne abili y o ishing communi ies. As a whole, he
Pa ina a ishing cas e also aces disc imina ion
in he social hie a chy o Indian socie y. This
makes i di icul o ind employmen ou side o
ishing, leading o seasonal ou -mig a ion o
in e na ional ading po s ha a ac cheap
labou .
Policy ecommenda ions
This policy b ie unde sco es ha o en-o e looked
coas al sand esou ces a e in eg al o he li eli-
hoods o ishing communi ies. Sand, in i s a ious
unc ions and uses, is a he e y hea o coas al
adap a ion p ocesses as well as de elopmen
in e en ions. The abili y o access, use and e-
dis ibu e sand esou ces is c i ical o adap a ion
s a egies, o e lapping clima e and human-
induced en i onmen al isks. P o ec i e measu es,
such as g oins and seawalls, edis ibu e coas al
sand and can wo sen local con lic s o e
sh inking beach space. This aises issues o en-
i onmen al jus ice in u u e adap a ion e o s: o
whom will coas al sand be dis ibu ed and om
whom will i be aken?
This case s udy has impo an policy implica ions
o s eng hening coas al go e nance in India and
beyond as well as o de elopmen p ac i ione s:
• In eg a e sand go e nance in exis ing
coas al managemen : Sand needs g ea e
ins i u ional ecogni ion as a secu ed good on
which he p o ec ion o ishing communi ies
depends. A legal amewo k owa ds sand
igh s o adi ional sand-based li elihoods is
needed o ecognise sand beyond a me e
commodi y o cons uc ion pu poses. Sand
