S öcke , Alexande ; Zin l, Tina
Resea ch Repo
P omo ing emale employmen in pa ne coun ies:
P io i ies o de elopmen coope a ion
IDOS Policy B ie , No. 18/2025
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Ge man Ins i u e o De elopmen and Sus ainabili y (IDOS), Bonn
Sugges ed Ci a ion: S öcke , Alexande ; Zin l, Tina (2025) : P omo ing emale employmen in pa ne
coun ies: P io i ies o de elopmen coope a ion, IDOS Policy B ie , No. 18/2025, Ge man Ins i u e
o De elopmen and Sus ainabili y (IDOS), Bonn,
h ps://doi.o g/10.23661/ipb18.2025
This Ve sion is a ailable a :
h ps://hdl.handle.ne /10419/329918
S anda d-Nu zungsbedingungen:
Die Dokumen e au EconS o dü en zu eigenen wissenscha lichen
Zwecken und zum P i a geb auch gespeiche und kopie we den.
Sie dü en die Dokumen e nich ü ö en liche ode komme zielle
Zwecke e iel äl igen, ö en lich auss ellen, ö en lich zugänglich
machen, e eiben ode ande wei ig nu zen.
So e n die Ve asse die Dokumen e un e Open-Con en -Lizenzen
(insbesonde e CC-Lizenzen) zu Ve ügung ges ell haben soll en,
gel en abweichend on diesen Nu zungsbedingungen die in de do
genann en Lizenz gewäh en Nu zungs ech e.
Te ms o use:
Documen s in EconS o may be sa ed and copied o you pe sonal
and schola ly pu poses.
You a e no o copy documen s o public o comme cial pu poses, o
exhibi he documen s publicly, o make hem publicly a ailable on he
in e ne , o o dis ibu e o o he wise use he documen s in public.
I he documen s ha e been made a ailable unde an Open Con en
Licence (especially C ea i e Commons Licences), you may exe cise
u he usage igh s as speci ied in he indica ed licence.
h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/
P omo ing Female Employmen in
Pa ne Coun ies
P io i ies o De elopmen Coope a ion
Alexande S öcke & Tina Zin l
Summa y
P omo ing emale employmen emains a p essing
challenge in many low- and middle-income coun ies.
Despi e ongoing e o s, oo ew women pa icipa e in
he labou o ce – pa icula ly in egions such as he
Middle Eas and Sou h Asia – and oo many emain
locked ou o mo e decen wage employmen –
especially in Sub-Saha an A ica.
P omo ing women’s employmen is no jus abou
ai ness; i is essen ial o inclusi e and sus ainable
de elopmen . Women’s economic pa icipa ion ma e s
o ou easons: i os e s g ow h and educes po e y
by inc easing household income, i enhances women’s
au onomy in he household, i p omo es equi y and
cohesion in socie ies, and i s eng hens he esilience
o households o shocks by di e si ying income
sou ces. Recen esea ch has deepened unde -
s anding o bo h he ba ie s and enable s o gende
equali y in labou ma ke s, o e ing use ul guidance o
de elopmen coope a ion.
Building on empi ical esea ch by IDOS, his policy b ie
highligh s ha de elopmen coope a ion can ake h ee
key app oaches o p omo e emale employmen :
• Add ess ounda ional ba ie s: De elopmen
coope a ion can wo k wi h local pa ne s o emo e
he oo ba ie s holding women back. This includes
add essing es ic i e gende no ms in ways ha
espec cul u al con ex s, e.g. by in es ing in
communi y-based ca e solu ions (as success ully
p ac ised in se e al A ican cases) o be e access
o se ices and mobili y. P ojec s should no only
a ge women indi idually bu also add ess
cons ain s wi hin households and communi ies and
engage b oade socie y. They mus also challenge
gende ed labou ma ke s uc u es ha limi
women’s pa hs in o wage wo k.
• S eng hen gende equali y on he ope a ional le el:
The g een and digi al ansi ions o e new employ-
men oppo uni ies – bu women isk being le
behind. De elopmen coope a ion can help o
ensu e ha women bene i om hese shi s. In
coope a ion wi h na ional go e nmen s, i can
embed gende a ge s in o economic e o ms,
incen i ise companies o adop inclusi e hi ing
p ac ices and o implemen lexible wo k ime
a angemen s (such as in Jo dan), and und aining
o women o eskill and mo i a e hem o hese
ields.
• C ea e an enabling policy mix: Employmen - ocused
e o ms succeed when hey connec wi h b oade
policy amewo ks. Aligning employmen ini ia i es
wi h social policies – such as childca e suppo o
public wo ks – can boos women’s abili y o wo k. A
he same ime, gende -sensi i e app oaches in
a eas like anspo , inance and in as uc u e can
help o e come s uc u al disad an ages ha a ec
women a di e en s ages o li e.
In ecen yea s, de elopmen coope a ion has shi ed
om measu es o suppo gende mains eaming
owa ds gende - ans o ma i e app oaches ha aim o
educe s uc u al ba ie s. Recen unding cu s and
public opinion ha is becoming mo e c i ical o di e si y
and equi y measu es, mean ha de elopmen
coope a ion mus build on i s expe ience o enable
women o g asp economic oppo uni ies and li e a
digni ied li e.
IDOS POLICY BRIEF
18/2025
IDOS Policy B ie 18/2025
2
In oduc ion
Imp o ing labou ma ke s and c ea ing mo e
decen jobs emains a challenging ask in mos
low- and middle-income coun ies – especially o
women. They ace e en g ea e obs acles han
men in inding paid employmen , as seen in
egions such as he Middle Eas and Sou h Asia,
o in achie ing be e -quali y wage jobs, as in Sub-
Saha an A ica (SSA). Despi e ongoing policy
e o s o p omo e women’s economic empowe -
men , emale employmen a es ha e s agna ed in
mos coun ies and su e ed u he se backs
du ing he Co id-19 pandemic.
F om a de elopmen pe spec i e, inc easing
women’s pa icipa ion in he labou ma ke is
essen ial. I helps educe po e y, as wo k is o en
he only asse he poo can ely on. I gi es women
g ea e au onomy by expanding hei choices in
li e. I also s eng hens social cohesion by chal-
lenging powe imbalances and educing inequali-
y. In b oade economic e ms, using women’s
po en ial mo e e ec i ely suppo s inclusi e,
labou -in ensi e economic g ow h. S uc u al
shi s in he global economy – like digi alisa ion
and he g een ansi ion – cause dis up ion and
c ea e jobs in new ields (Bandie a e al., 2022).
To ensu e ha women bene i om economic op-
po uni ies, policymake s need o ocus on h ee
p io i ies: (1) emo ing pe sis en ba ie s ha
keep women ou o o mal employmen ; (2) un-
locking he gende -inclusi e po en ial o new and
eme ging sec o s; and (3) ensu ing ha policies
ac oss di e en sec o s – such as educa ion,
anspo and inance – wo k oge he a he han
in isola ion. This b ie o e s analysis and policy
ecommenda ions in each o hese a eas.
Ou ecommenda ions a ec h ee in e connec ed
le e s: ounda ional, ope a ional and enabling.
• Founda ional le e s emo e ba ie s connec -
ed o social no ms ha limi emale employ-
men . These in e en ions equi e collabo a-
ion be ween policymake s and ci il socie y.
• Ope a ional le e s ocus on shaping gende -
equi able labou demand and supply and job-
ma ching, especially in, bu no limi ed o,
eme ging sec o s. De elopmen p ojec s o en
ope a e a his le el, in ol ing di e se s ake-
holde s – po en ial allies o blocke s in ans-
o ming labou ma ke s.
• Enabling le e s, d i en mainly by pa ne
go e nmen s, c ea e suppo i e legal and
policy amewo ks.
This policy b ie , which builds on esea ch done by
IDOS in 2022 o 2025, emphasises he in e play
o hese le e s. These a e isualised in Figu e 1,
which has been inspi ed by GIZ’s (2022) Employ-
men and Labou Ma ke Analysis (ELMA) model.
I hus calls o an in eg a ed app oach o p omo e
gende equali y in employmen . Fo example,
wi hou s ong ounda ional and enabling condi-
ions, ope a ional in e en ions canno deli e
sus ainable esul s.
Ou empi ical analysis builds on bo h desk
esea ch and ieldwo k. We e iewed he la es
li e a u e and ca ied ou ieldwo k in Rwanda and
Jo dan o unde s and ba ie s and oppo uni ies
o women’s wo k. By ocusing on he SSA and
Middle Eas and No h A ica (MENA) egions, we
highligh bo h sha ed and egion-speci ic
challenges o emale employmen . Impo an ly,
we ecognise ha women a e no a homogenous
g oup and ha e ec i e in e en ions mus be
ailo ed o he di e se needs, wishes and
ci cums ances o di e en g oups o women.
As a gene al ecommenda ion, Ge many’s
suppo o gende -equi able employmen should
build on insigh s om i s eminis de elopmen
s a egy (BMZ, 2023a) and om he accom-
panying gende ac ion plan (BMZ, 2023b). By
ocusing on in e sec ionali y, he s a egy
highligh s how ba ie s o wo k become mo e
es ic i e when indi iduals a e disad an aged by
a combina ion o ac o s such as age, e hnici y and
gende , o LGBTQIA* gende iden i y. Women’s
economic empowe men should hus emain a
co e opic o Ge man de elopmen coope a ion, o
mo e owa ds digni y o all and s a egic alliances
among go e nmen s, ci il socie y, he p i a e
sec o and de elopmen pa ne s.
IDOS Policy B ie 18/2025
3
Figu e 1: P omo ing emale employmen in an in eg a ed labou ma ke model
Sou ce: Au ho s’ isualisa ion, inspi ed by he Employmen and Labou Ma ke Analysis (ELMA) o GIZ (2022)
Reduce ounda ional ba ie s o
emale (wage) employmen
Imp o ing women’s access o he labou ma ke
s a s wi h iden i ying and add essing he
unde lying ba ie s ha women ace in di e en
con ex s. They o en encoun e s uc u al chal-
lenges ha limi hei economic oppo uni ies –
anging om social no ms ha ep esen in o mal
ules guiding women’s and men’s beha iou in
di e en social con ex s (Muñoz Boude e al.,
2023), o disc imina o y laws and bu densome
adminis a i e p ocedu es. While policymake s
can mo e easily e o m legal and adminis a i e
ba ie s, his sec ion looks a deepe - oo ed issues
such as es ic i e gende no ms, hei in e play
wi h unequal decision-making wi hin households,
and hei compound nega i e e ec on women in
changing labou ma ke s.
These cons ain s help explain why b oade
de elopmen gains – such as ising incomes,
be e educa ion and lowe bi h a es – ha e no
au oma ically ansla ed in o s onge emale
employmen ou comes. In ac , ising household
income can e en educe women’s pa icipa ion in
he labou o ce, pa icula ly whe e women wo k
mainly ou o necessi y, and “good jobs” emain
sca ce. In o mal, low-quali y employmen o en
domina es in such con ex s, so many women op
ou o he labou ma ke al oge he . Educa ion
plays a key bu complex ole. While women’s
highe educa ional a ainmen gene ally imp o es
hei access o o mal and s able employmen , i
can also lead hem o ejec wo k pe cei ed as
low-s a us o poo ly paid. Simila ly, lowe e ili y
a es may ease women’s en y in o he wo k o ce
bu do no gua an ee be e employmen unless
IDOS Policy B ie 18/2025
4
accompanied by b oade changes in he labou
ma ke and socie y.
In sho , women can only bene i om wide
employmen choices i socie ies also shi hei
a i udes and expec a ions. Policies mus he e-
o e a ge no only o mal ba ie s bu also social
and household-le el no ms ha limi women’s
agency and oppo uni y.
Respec social no ms in di e en
con ex s
Resea ch con i ms ha social no ms – such as he
male b eadwinne model o he expec a ion ha
women should p io i ise ca egi ing – con inue o
es ic women’s access o employmen (S öcke
& Zin l, 2024, Muñoz Boude e al., 2023). These
no ms o en shape no only indi idual beha iou
bu also laws and policies, and policy-le el
e o ms alone a e no enough o change hem.
P omo ing emale employmen he e o e equi es
long- e m s a egies ha suppo local e o me s
and ampli y eminis oices o shi en enched
a i udes (Gö ze, Klingebiel & Khalid, 2025),
especially in egions such as MENA, whe e
gende no ms emain pa icula ly igid.
De elopmen ac o s should also wo k closely wi h
eligious and adi ional leade s, as well as ci il
socie y o ganisa ions, which o en enjoy deep us
and in luence wi hin communi ies. These ac o s
can help b oaden he each and c edibili y o
gende equali y e o s.
Con ex ma e s, so in e en ions mus e lec he
deg ee and na u e o gende sensi i i y in each
se ing (S öcke & Zin l, 2024). Fo ins ance,
MENA coun ies gene ally show mo e es ic i e
gende no ms han hose in SSA, hough
di e ences exis be ween and wi hin coun ies. In
es ic i e se ings, de elopmen coope a ion
should apply gende - ans o ma i e app oaches
by in es ing in local ini ia i es ha aim o long-
e m social change. No m shi s ake ime (Muñoz
Boude e al., 2023), bu ools such as awa eness
campaigns (including o men and boys), posi i e
ole models and ea ly childhood educa ion can
g adually change pe cep ions o women’s oles.
These ini ia i es can also e eal a gap be ween
pe sonal belie s (e.g. suppo o women’s employ-
men ) and pe cei ed public opinion ha should be
add essed.
In less es ic i e con ex s, as in many pa s o
SSA, gende -sensi i e policies – app oaches ha
help women o cope wi h s uc u al inequali ies –
can al eady d i e measu able imp o emen s. Fo
example, childca e suppo di ec ly inc eases
women’s abili y o wo k. Addi ionally, policies ha
o malise ca e jobs and s eng hen he ca e
economy can ensu e quali y childca e se ices,
c ea e decen employmen o women and coun e
he eminisa ion o po e y (Bu chi & Male ba,
2023). In con ex s whe e in o mali y pe sis s,
communi y-based childca e acili ies and o he
in o mal o semi- o mal solu ions a e i al o
b oaden access. While he ans o ma i e, long-
e m goal should be a mo e equal di ision o
ca egi ing, a ge ed sho - e m measu es emain
impo an . Expanding pa - ime and lexible wo k
a angemen s, especially in o mal sec o s whe e
ull- ime wo k emains he no m, can help women
balance paid wo k and ca egi ing. Fo sel -em-
ployed women, access o a o dable childca e is
pa icula ly impo an . E idence shows ha when
child en a e p esen , women- un businesses
gene a e lowe p o i s – highligh ing he economic
bu also men al cos s o unme ca e needs.
Ou indings show ha child- ela ed ba ie s, male
b eadwinne no ms, and household weal h a ec
women’s employmen di e en ly ac oss coun ies
(S öcke & Zin l, 2024; S öcke , 2025). In some
se ings, such as pa s o SSA, women’s employ-
men picks up as child en g ow olde . In con as ,
in many MENA coun ies, mo he s ace long- e m
di icul y e-en e ing he wo k o ce. Childca e
du ies consis en ly limi access o wage employ-
men , hough pa e ns ac oss con ex s a y.
To design e ec i e in e en ions, de elopmen
ac o s mus assess local no ms ca e ully. Using
ools such as gende analysis mo e sys ema ically
can ensu e ha p ojec s a ge he igh
cons ain s and help ans o m he s uc u al
ba ie s women ace.
IDOS Policy B ie 18/2025
5
Recognise in e sec ions o
ba ie s and in a-household
dynamics
Unde s anding ba ie s o women’s employmen
equi es an in e sec ional lens. Gende and indi-
idual p e e ences alone do no de e mine
ou comes – ac o s like pa en hood, household
s uc u e, and cul u al no ms in e ac o shape
dis inc and o en unequal expe iences. These
ba ie s do no ac in isola ion; hey ein o ce one
ano he wi hin speci ic household and socie al
con ex s.
Fo example, he combined e ec s o mo he hood
and he male b eadwinne no m c ea es a com-
pounded disad an age o women. In socie ies
whe e men a e expec ed o be he main ea ne s,
women wi h child en ace e en g ea e challenges
in accessing paid wo k (S oecke , 2025). These
o e lapping expec a ions ein o ce each o he ,
limi ing women’s choices.
Household dynamics u he in luence he impac
o policy in e en ions. Childca e suppo may help
single mo he s inc ease hei pa icipa ion in paid
wo k. Howe e , in wo-pa en households, he
same suppo may p ima ily enable men o ake
on mo e paid wo k, lea ing women’s oles un-
changed (Bjo a n e al., 2025). Wi hou add ess-
ing he unde lying gende no ms, such policies
isk ein o cing exis ing inequali ies. Paid pa en al
lea e policies can show simila ly mixed esul s. I
no pai ed wi h e o s o balance ca egi ing
be ween pa en s o imp o e wo kplace condi ions,
hey may unin en ionally en ench gende oles.
Socioeconomic s a us and educa ion add u he
laye s. Poo e households ace g ea e
cons ain s om childca e du ies, especially o
women wi h in e media e educa ion. These
women o en s uggle o access s able employ-
men and s ill ha e high bi h a es, c ea ing a
cycle o limi ed oppo uni y.
To b eak hese pa e ns, de elopmen coope a-
ion mus ecognise how hese ba ie s in e ac .
Failing o do so can unde mine in e en ions o
inc ease isks – such as o e bu dening women
wi h bo h paid and unpaid wo k o pushing hem
in o exploi a i e jobs.
Policymake s should design comp ehensi e s a -
egies o add ess hese linked cons ain s join ly.
Ye , in a-household dynamics emain poo ly
unde s ood. In es ing in be e gende -dis-
agg ega ed da a – especially h ough ime-use
su eys – can e eal pa e ns in decision-making,
wo kloads and ba gaining powe . Such da a
would also s eng hen gende -sensi i e moni o -
ing and e alua ion sys ems and sys ema ically
build on p e-in e en ion gende analysis and
o he ools.
Tackle inequali ies be o e labou
ma ke ansi ions magni y hem
In e en ions o p omo e women’s employmen
o en ocus hea ily on labou supply – such as
skills aining o en ep eneu ship – while o e -
looking he demand side o labou ma ke s. Ye
e idence shows ha ba ie s o emale employ-
men become mo e p onounced du ing key labou
ma ke ansi ions. These ansi ions – mo ing
om unpaid o paid wo k, om sel -employmen o
wage employmen , and om gene al o spe-
cialised occupa ions – depend on a ailable labou
demand and ypically p og ess mo e slowly o
women han o men (Bandie a e al., 2022).
Exis ing ba ie s end o become mo e en enched
du ing hese ansi ions. As a esul , gende oles
o en ha den o e ime: men inc easingly special-
ise in ea ning income, while women ake on a
g ea e sha e o unpaid domes ic and ca e wo k.
The second ansi ion – om sel -employmen o
wage employmen – p esen s pa icula chal-
lenges. E en in egions whe e many women ha e
en e ed paid wo k, as in SSA, wage employmen
emains limi ed. Meanwhile, in he MENA egion,
women o en ake up employmen only when
s able, o mal wage jobs a e a ailable – hus hey
make bo h ansi ions a once o none o hem.
Whe e such jobs a e sca ce, women emain
excluded. Compa ed o men, women ace g ea e
disad an ages: hey ha e less lexibili y o
IDOS Policy B ie 18/2025
6
compe e o he ew wage jobs, o en lack he e-
qui ed educa ional quali ica ions as hey le
educa ion a a younge age, and mus na iga e
hi ing p ac ices ha a ou men – especially in
con ex s whe e gende no ms p io i ise men as
p ima y ea ne s.
In SSA in pa icula , educa ional gaps u he
disad an age women, and wage employmen
oppo uni ies emain sca ce. This si ua ion e-
in o ces high e ili y a es and en enches
women’s oles as ca egi e s, limi ing hei pa i-
cipa ion in he labou ma ke and weakening
aspi a ions o o mal employmen .
To add ess hese s uc u al challenges, de elop-
men coope a ion mus adop long- e m s a egies
ha combine changing social no ms wi h c ea ing
economic oppo uni ies. In e en ions should
p omo e lexible and pa - ime wo k models in
wage employmen , and accele a e women’s
ansi ions in o he o mal labou ma ke .
S eng hening connec ions be ween in o mal and
o mal sec o s – especially in he apidly ising
in o mal digi al pla o m economy – can also help.
T ade unions, coope a i es o business
associa ions could play an ac i e ole he e. While
he g ow h o eelance and solo en ep eneu ship
boos s income in he sho e m, i a ely
challenges b oade labou ma ke inequali ies.
The e o e, suppo ing en ep eneu ship alone is
no enough. Many sel -employmen ini ia i es o
women ail o wo k a scale, expose women o
high isks, and do no o e a long- e m al e na i e
o wage employmen – especially when
in e up ed by li e e en s like childbi h o amily
illness. To connec women o o mal job ma ke s
and help hem build wo k expe ience, de elop-
men ac o s could expand gende -sensi i e public
wo ks p og ammes. A he same ime, p o iding
social p o ec ion and ca e suppo o in o mally
sel -employed women is essen ial.
Ul ima ely, de elopmen coope a ion should
p io i ise acili a ing women’s labou ma ke
ansi ions – especially in o wage employmen .
This equi es less ocus on mic oen e p ises and
e en mo e emphasis on suppo ing p i a e sec o
de elopmen , so ha small and medium-size
en e p ises (SMEs) can g ow and gene a e
decen jobs. By doing so, de elopmen ac o s can
s eng hen pa hways owa d inclusi e, gende -
equi able and sus ainable economic ou comes.
Box 1: Recommenda ions o educe women’s
labou ma ke ba ie s…
… by adap ing o social no ms en i onmen s
• Plan long- e m: S uc u al no m change akes
ime.
• Adap o con ex : Use gende - ans o ma i e
design, especially whe e no ms a e es ic i e.
• Back local ac o s: Fund g oups and ole models
p omo ing in e sec ional equali y.
• Include boys/men: Ta ge hem in campaigns
and ea ly childhood p og ammes.
• Use gende ools:
Apply indices and oolki s
sys ema ically o ind e ec i e en y poin s.
• Imp o e M&E: T ack paid/unpaid wo k ia be e
ime-use da a.
… by conside ing he in e play be ween ba ie s
• In eg a e objec i es
: Add ess linked ba ie s
oge he .
• Tailo suppo
: Adap childca e/ma e ni y
measu es o con ex .
• Assess impac s: Check sho /long- e m e ec s
ac oss g oups (in e sec ional app oach).
• Minimise ha ms: An icipa e ade-o s be ween
no ms o a oid side e ec s.
… by ackling unequal labou ma ke ansi ions
• P omo e dialogue: Fos e exchanges be ween
in o mal and o mal sec o s on gende issues.
• Expand p o ec ion:
Ex end social insu ance
and ca e o in o mal ( emale) wo ke s.
• Focus on s able jobs: P io i ise women’s shi
o secu e wage wo k o e s andalone en e-
p eneu ship.
Ope a ionalise gende equal
labou demand, supply and
ma ching in eme ging sec o s
Economic ans o ma ion inc eases sec o al spe-
cialisa ion and p oduc i i y. The challenge lies in
di ec ing his g ow h owa d labou -in ensi e, no
jus capi al-in ensi e, pa hs ha c ea e decen
IDOS Policy B ie 18/2025
7
jobs o women. Eme ging sec o s like he digi al
and he g een economy o e an oppo uni y o
shape a mo e gende -equal business and s a ing
en i onmen om ea ly on. To ensu e ha women
bene i , policies mus ac i ely emo e ba ie s o
en y, p omo e inclusi e aining, and suppo
gende -equi able hi ing. While ocused on digi al
and g een sec o s, hese ecommenda ions also
apply o o he as -g owing ields ha also equi e
mo e gende -sensi i e employmen s a egies.
This sec ion looks a hese p ocesses and
possible en y poin s o gende -equal job ma ke s
in g een and digi al economies. Fi s , i will look a
employe s’ demand o emale labou and,
second, a gende -equal sec o policies.
Iden i y gende implica ions o
policies in he eme ging g een
and digi al sec o s
Eme ging economic sec o s o e bo h isks and
oppo uni ies o emale employmen . Thei apid
de elopmen pushes i ms o compe e globally
and es ablish hemsel es quickly. This p essu e
o en ewa ds ea ly mo e s ha p io i ise g ow h
and e iciency o e inclusi e hi ing. As a esul ,
gende di e si y may be o e looked in he ini ial
s ages. Howe e , he no el y o hese sec o s also
opens space o inno a ion, including he adop ion
o mo e gende - esponsi e p ac ices. Wi h ewe
en enched in e es s and c ony ne wo ks, new
sec o s may be mo e open o designing inclusi e
business models om he s a .
These sec o s ope a e in e ol ing egula o y
en i onmen s. While hey mus ollow na ional
laws, exis ing egula ions o en ail o add ess hei
speci ic needs. Go e nmen s mus adap legal
amewo ks and c ea e new policies, ideally
embedding gende conside a ions om he
ou se . Fo example, mos na ional in o ma ion
and communica ion echnology policies ocus on
a ac ing high-end in es o s in business p ocess
and IT ou sou cing. This s a egy os e s
excellence and compe i i eness bu o en ails o
gene a e accessible, lowe -skilled jobs wi h ai
oppo uni ies o women in he long un,
i espec i e o in e na ional in es o s. De el-
opmen pa ne s can suppo go e nmen s in
iden i ying egula o y gaps (such as e-comme ce
laws o digi al paymen sys ems) and os e
collabo a ion be ween global se ice expo e s
and local digi al SMEs. These e o s can help
ensu e ha he bene i s o digi al ans o ma ion
each mo e women.
Digi al echnology also se es as a gene al-
pu pose enable o women’s employmen (Zin l,
2025). Remo e and hyb id wo k inc eases lexibili y,
making i easie o women o balance paid wo k
and ca e esponsibili ies. These oles also align
wi h social expec a ions in se ings wi h es ic i e
no ms, as hey a oid physically demanding o
public- acing asks. Howe e , lexible wo k
emains unde used and subjec o indi idual
employe s’ app o al, mos ly in al eady p i ileged
posi ions in he o mal economy. Labou laws
should expand o co e pa - ime, emo e and
hyb id a angemen s o ensu e decen and secu e
condi ions ac oss sec o s and employmen ypes.
The g een economy p esen s a simila mix o
po en ial and ba ie s (ILO, 2018). Key sec o s –
such as ene gy, cons uc ion and anspo –
emain male-domina ed and echnical. S ill, ou
da a shows g owing in e es among women in
sus ainabili y-d i en oles, e lec ing a desi e o
pu pose and social impac (S oecke e al., 2025).
Fi ms adop ing g een echnologies o en b ing
p og essi e alues and openness o change (e.g.
Roxas & Coe ze , 2012), which could c ea e
space o challenge adi ional no ms. To u n his
po en ial in o meaning ul employmen , a ge ed
ac ion is needed. This includes expanding
women’s access o STEM (science, echnology,
enginee ing and ma hema ics) and g een skills
aining, p omo ing inclusi e hi ing p ac ices, and
building wo kplace cul u es ha alue di e si y.
Wi hou delibe a e policy in e en ions, bo h he
digi al and g een ansi ions isk en enching
exis ing gende gaps. Bu wi h in en ional
s a egies hey can become engines o g ea e
gende equali y – especially in con ex s whe e
ewe gende ed s e eo ypes exis , such as among
IDOS Policy B ie 18/2025
8
eme ging emale STEM g adua es in low- and
middle-income coun ies.
Nudge g een and digi al
employe s owa d gende
di e si y measu emen s
Eme ging sec o s c ea e new oppo uni ies o
women, bu hese o en all ou side o mal wage
employmen . To coun e implici gende bias,
p i a e sec o de elopmen e o s mus ac i ely
in eg a e gende di e si y measu es. Examples
include co po a e ax wai e s and he UNDP
Gende Equali y Seal ha encou age companies
o adop and sus ain gende -equi able p ac ices.
In he digi al sec o , esea ch om Jo dan shows
ha gende s e eo ypes in echnical ields a e
ela i ely weak, ye ew employe s o e emo e o
hyb id wo k op ions (Zin l, 2025). Flexible wo k
a angemen s emain a e, and women o en mus
ad oca e o elewo k o in es in hei own equip-
men . G ea e go e nmen and dono suppo o
SME digi alisa ion could aise awa eness o
emo e wo k’s p oduc i i y bene i s a all s ages o
women’s ca ee s (e.g. also easing co-leade ship
o pa - ime managemen ) and c ea e a ge ed
incen i es o mo e inclusi e p ac ices.
Digi al in as uc u e should be u he de eloped
and le e aged o emale employmen . Women
and/o u al popula ions need access o ad anced
digi al ools and de ices o p oduc i e emo e
wo k (e.g. compu e s, ele an so wa e and
a o dable high-speed in e ne ). Exis ing labou -
ma ching and eskilling p og ammes should ocus
on digi al and gende -inclusi e issues a he same
ime. Mobile job sea ch pla o ms and digi al sel -
s udy cou ses can help young ( emale) labou
ma ke en an s o e u ning mo he s o ind
meaning ul employmen .
In he g een economy, i ms ad ance bo h
sus ainabili y and gende equali y mo e e ec i ely
when go e nmen policies ein o ce bo h goals, as
ou esea ch in Rwanda sugges s (S oecke e al.,
2025). Embedding gende equi y in o g een policy
ins umen s can suppo his syne gy. Fo
example, expanding g een ce i ica ion schemes
o include gende c i e ia would encou age i ms
o adop inclusi e hi ing and wo kplace policies.
Public p ocu emen can also d i e p og ess.
Go e nmen s should p io i ise companies ha
commi o bo h en i onmen al and gende goals.
La ge-scale public ini ia i es – such as enewable
ene gy o in as uc u e p ojec s – should equi e
emale wo k o ce pa icipa ion o ensu e women
bene i di ec ly om he sec o ’s g ow h.
Box 2: Recommenda ions o c ea e gende -
equal employmen oppo uni ies in eme ging
sec o s…
… by le e aging policies in he eme ging
sec o s o gende -equali y
• Ensu e inclusion in new sec o s: A oid epli-
ca ing inequali ies; link eme ging sec o policies
wi h gende -sensi i e measu es and as - ack
suppo o emale en ep eneu s (e.g.
e-comme ce egula ions o mic oen e p ises).
• Close skills gaps: Expand women’s access o
STEM, g een and digi al aining.
• Boos digi al access: P o ide ools o emo e
wo k and digi ise employmen se ices inclusi ely.
…by incen i ising di e si y measu es in g een
and digi al i ms
• P omo e di e si y bene i s: Raise awa eness
and incen i ise gende -inclusi e p ac ices (e.g.
ax wai e s, Gende Equali y Seal).
• Mode nise wo k models:
Shi employe s’
mind-se s o encou age emo e/hyb id wo k
h oughou women’s ca ee s.
• Link g een and gende goals: Embed di e si y
c i e ia in g een ce i ica ions and public
p ocu emen .
C ea e an enabling and cohe en
policy mix
Because gende no ms shape many aspec s o
women’s li es, employmen in e en ions mus
link ac oss mul iple policy a eas. To p omo e eal
gende equi y, policies mus ac oge he and na-
ional go e nmen s need o be mo i a ed and
suppo ed o in es in cohe en gende -equal
policy amewo ks. As his sec ion shows, i is
