Work from home, time allocation, and well-being: the impact of lockdowns

Giménez-Nadal, José Ignacio; Molina, José Albe o; Velilla, Jo ge
A icle — Published Ve sion
Wo k om home, ime alloca ion, and well-being: he
impac o lockdowns
Re iew o Economics o he Household
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
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Sugges ed Ci a ion: Giménez-Nadal, José Ignacio; Molina, José Albe o; Velilla, Jo ge (2024) : Wo k
om home, ime alloca ion, and well-being: he impac o lockdowns, Re iew o Economics o he
Household, ISSN 1573-7152, Sp inge US, New Yo k, NY, Vol. 23, Iss. 2, pp. 505-549,
h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s11150-024-09744-3
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Re Econ Household (2025) 23:505–549
h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s11150-024-09744-3
Wo k om home, ime alloca ion, and well-being: he
impac o lockdowns
José Ignacio Giménez-Nadal1,2 ●José Albe o Molina1,2 ●Jo ge Velilla1,2
Recei ed: 9 Ap il 2024 / Accep ed: 28 Oc obe 2024 / Published online: 7 No embe 2024
© The Au ho (s) 2024
Abs ac
Du ing he COVID-19 pandemic, he incidence o wo king om home (WFH)
sky ocke ed as businesses closed and dis ancing s anda ds we e manda ed, exposing
many wo ke s o a emo e wo k a angemen . This pape s udies how WFH ela es o
wo ke ime alloca ion and enjoymen , conside ing gende di e ences and pandemic
phases, using eal- ime da a om he UK Click-and-D ag Dia y co e ing p e-
pandemic, lockdown, and pos -pandemic pe iods. Findings show no s a is ically
significan o e all ela ionship o ime alloca ion, bu e eal gende dispa i ies: p e-
pandemic, WFH in ol ed less paid wo k and mo e leisu e among women, bu du ing
lockdowns, pa e ns con e ged. The esul s also indica e ha he e we e no
s a is ically significan di e ences in ins an aneous enjoymen be ween WFH and
non-WFH male employees. Female WFH employees enjoyed leisu e ime less han
hei coun e pa s p e-pandemic, howe e his nega i e co ela ion anished du ing
and a e he pandemic. The economic implica ions span labo p oduc i i y, gende
dynamics in employmen , business model adap a ion, and wo k-li e balance. These
findings could impac co po a e policies, human esou ce s a egies, and he design
o go e nmen al policies ela ed o he labo ma ke and gende equali y.
Keywo ds Time use ●Wo k om home ●COVID-19 ●Lockdown ●CaDDI da a
JEL classifica ion J16 ●J22
1 In oduc ion
The onse o he Co id-19 pandemic in Ma ch 2020 igge ed un o eseen changes,
compelling go e nmen s o impose mobili y es ic ions ha adically ans o med
*Jo ge Velilla
[email p o ec ed]
1
IEDIS, Uni e si y o Za agoza, Za agoza, Spain
2
GLO, Essen, Ge many
1234567890();,:
wo ke beha io . Among he mos globally adop ed measu es, wo king om home
(WFH), o elecommu ing, con as ed wi h wo king away om home (WAFH), s ood
ou especially, gene a ing no able ans o ma ions in labo beha io pa e ns. This
has led o an unp eceden ed su ge in emo e wo k p ac ices wo ldwide, p o oundly
al e ing ou wo k habi s and daily ou ines.
1
WFH has been a common p ac ice o a me s and sel -employed wo ke s o e he
pas decades. Howe e , WFH p ac ices a e ela i ely new o whi e-colla o fice
wo ke s. In his sense, WFH has e olu ionized o ganiza ional dynamics, enabling
employees o conduc a po ion o hei wo k emo ely, le e aging echnology o
engage wi h colleagues. This p ac ice, aimed a ensu ing seamless ask execu ion, no
only os e s flexibili y ailo ed o amily obliga ions bu also equi es a delica e
balance be ween p o essional and pe sonal sphe es o many indi iduals. Howe e , i
b ings abou heigh ened wo k demands o o he s, blu ing he dis inc ion be ween
wo k and leisu e.
2
No ably, WFH eshapes a el ou ines by elimina ing commu es,
wi h a - eaching implica ions o indi idual well-being and heal h.
Despi e he ac ha WFH was al eady g owing in popula i y be o e Co id-19,
pa ially because o en i onmen al conce ns (A hanasiadou & The iou, 2021), he
pandemic has had an undeniable impac in accele a ing he ends owa ds WFH.
Cecca o e al. (2022) p edic a g owing ma ke end a o ing WFH, al hough Wang
e al. (2023) no e a ia ions ac oss di e en WFH segmen s. The sudden su ge in
WFH du ing pandemic-induced lockdowns eshaped beha io s, impac ing com-
mu ing habi s, amilial p esence du ing wo k hou s, and po en ially enhancing
wo kday flexibili y (Kim, 2020). Howe e , his shi also p esen s challenges like
blu ed wo k-li e bounda ies and educed social in e ac ion (B indal e al., 2022;
F azis, 2023; Fujiwa a e al., 2020; Hame mesh, 2020; Möh ing e al., 2021; Ruiz
e al., 2021).
A ange o s udies ha e in es iga ed he e ec s o WFH du ing he pandemic. Del
Boca e al. (2020) obse ed an inc eased domes ic wo kload o I alian women, while
And ade and Pe iz Lousã (2021) analyzed he impac o WFH on wo k-li e balance.
Sulli an e al. (2021) examined e ol ing pandemic impac s on ime managemen and
i us exposu e isks in he UK. Blahopoulou e al. (2022) ocused on Spanish
wo ke s, highligh ing a posi i e ela ionship be ween WFH, sa is ac ion, and pe -
o mance, wi h subjec i e well-being media ing such ela ionships. Res epo and
Zeballos (2022) u ilized ime-use da a om he US o analyze changes in WFH and
WAFH ime alloca ion du ing he pandemic, no ing small changes in ime alloca ion
due o he pandemic among hose who WAFH, bu significan changes among hose
1
Fo b e i y, he e m WFH in his pape e e s o “wo k om home”o “wo ke om home,”and WAFH
e e s o “wo k away om home”o “wo ke away om home.”This nomencla u e aligns wi h he
con en ions es ablished by Bloom e al. (2015) and Res epo and Zeballos (2022).
2
Amuedo-Do an es e al. (2024) analyze he impac o he Co id-19 pandemic on wo k o ganiza ion,
u ilizing 24-hou dia y da a om he Ame ican Time Use Su ey (ATUS). The s udy e eals a subs an ial
su ge in WFH pos -pandemic, elimina ing p e ious selec i i y in o emo e wo k. Bo h men and women
engaged in WFH exhibi educed wo k hou s and inc eased in e up ions compa ed wi h o fice-based
employees p e-pandemic. In iguingly, ce ain occupa ions wi nessed a decline in in e up ions and non-
s anda d wo k hou s among men p e-pandemic, sugges ing WFH’s po en ial o p oduc i i y enhancemen .
Howe e , emo e wo ke s in hese fields con inued o ace in e up ions and non-s anda d schedules
compa ed wi h in-o fice pee s. None heless, he p e alence o emo e wo k in hese occupa ions dimin-
ished du ing he pandemic as WFH became a s anda d a angemen .
506 J. I. Giménez-Nadal e al.
who WFH, including la ge inc eases in paid wo k, along wi h dec eased a el ime,
socializing, shopping ime, and cho es. In a ela ed s udy, Pabilonia and Ve non
(2023) ocused on analyzing pa en s’join ime alloca ion du ing he Co id-19
pandemic, epo ing an inc ease in bo h mo he and a he cho es, while also no ing
ha mo he s combined paid wo k and childca e ac i i ies o a g ea e ex en han
a he s.
Fu he mo e, s udies ha e explo ed WFH and sa is ac ion le els: Song and Gao
(2020) ound lowe o e all sa is ac ion among US WFH indi iduals, a ying by day,
WFH ype, and gende , while Res epo and Zeballos (2023) concluded ha WFH is
associa ed wi h inc eased emo ional well-being in he US. Giménez-Nadal e al.
(2020) in es iga ed ime-use decisions, no ing inc eased enjoymen and flexibili y o
WFH indi iduals. Gende dispa i ies eme ge as a ecu ing heme, ye defini i e
conclusions emain challenging. Foliano e al. (2022) examined subjec i e well-
being du ing he pandemic in he UK, emphasizing indi idual well-being, leisu e,
and gende di e ences. Hame mesh (2020) and Giménez-Nadal e al. (2023) s udied
sa is ac ion in he UK and US, explo ing gende disc epancies in simula ed con-
finemen scena ios.
3
In his s udy, we examine he in ica e in e play among WFH dynamics, wo ke
ime alloca ion, he empo al dis ibu ion o paid wo k e sus non-wo k ac i i ies,
and ins an aneous happiness. We aim o disce n po en ial mode a ing ela ionships
linked o dis inc phases o he Co id-19 pandemic. Le e aging da a om he UK
Click-and-D ag Dia y Ins umen , ou analysis encompasses p e-pandemic pe iods
(2016), he lockdown phases (spanning May o June 2020, No embe 2020, and
Janua y 2021), and he pos -pandemic phase ollowing he elaxa ion o confinemen
measu es (summe 2021).
Ou findings indica e ha while WFH does no no ably co ela e wi h ce ain
ace s o wo ke ime alloca ion, gende dispa i ies do su ace. P e-pandemic, emale
WFH indi iduals alloca ed compa a i ely less ime o paid wo k compa ed o hei
coun e pa s engaged in WAFH. In iguingly, du ing lockdowns and subsequen
elaxa ion phases, his end di e ged om he ea lie obse ed pa e n. Mo eo e ,
pa allels eme ge ega ding he empo al dis ibu ion o paid wo k, leisu e, and unpaid
wo k. P e-pandemic, WFH pa icipan s displayed a endency owa d educed paid
wo k and inc eased leisu e and unpaid wo k du ing s anda d wo k hou s, con as ing
wi h WAFH indi iduals. Howe e , his pa e n e e sed du ing e ening hou s. Ye ,
hese dis inc ions diminished and, a imes, became indis inguishable du ing lock-
down pe iods.
Ul ima ely, ou analysis does no e eal s a is ically significan dispa i ies be ween
WFH and WAFH employees conce ning ins an aneous happiness. Howe e , a p e-
pandemic nega i e co ela ion su aced o WFH women’s leisu e ime, a end ha
did no pe sis du ing o pos he pandemic phases.
Ou esea ch yields wo p ima y con ibu ions o he unde s anding o WFH
dynamics amid he Co id-19 pandemic. Fi s , we in es iga e he nuanced ela ion-
ship be ween WFH p omo ion du ing he pandemic, and wo ke ime alloca ion,
ocusing on paid wo k, leisu e, and unpaid wo k. By analyzing eal- ime da a om
3
Ano he esea ch s and in es iga ed he heal h and well-being implica ions o WFH; see Beckel and
Fishe (2022) o a li e a u e e iew.
Wo k om home, ime alloca ion, and well-being: he impac o lockdowns 507
ime use dia ies in p e-, du ing-, and pos -lockdown pe iods, we eschew eliance on
simula ed scena ios (Hame mesh, 2020; Giménez-Nadal e al., 2023). This app oach
allows us o explo e whe he and how he endo semen o WFH p ac ices has ela ed
o he dis ibu ion o hese ac i i ies wi hou specula i e simula ions.
4
Second, we look a he aspec o immedia e enjoymen pe aining o paid wo k,
leisu e, and unpaid wo k. Using da a insigh s ha cap u e ins an aneous enjoymen ,
we o ego he need o simula ed es ima ions. Ou explo a ion aims o unco e
po en ial disc epancies in how WFH and WAFH indi iduals expe ience and de i e
sa is ac ion om hei daily ac i i ies. By in es iga ing whe he he p omo ion o
WFH has mode a ed hese expe ien ial di e ences, we o e unique insigh s in o he
subjec i e aspec s o WFH expe ience wi hou elying on hypo he ical es ima ions o
enjoymen .
The es o he pape is s uc u ed as ollows. Sec ion 2 e iews exis ing esea ch
on WFH, ime alloca ion, and well-being, be o e and du ing he pandemic. Sec ion 3
desc ibes he da a and a iables. Sec ions 4 and 5 show he empi ical s a egy and he
esul s o ime alloca ion and well-being. Finally, Sec ion 6 concludes.
2 Li e a u e e iew
2.1 Wo k om home be o e he Co id-19 pandemic
P io o he eme gence o COVID-19 in 2020, WFH and elecommu ing we e
ex ensi ely sc u inized ac oss a ious disciplines. The li e a u e associa ed WFH
wi h nume ous ad an ages, encompassing socie al and en i onmen al benefi s like
educed u ban concen a ion, a fic conges ion, ai pollu ion, popula ion cen ali y,
and ene gy consump ion (Sampa h e al., 1996;Safi o a, 2002; Whi e e al., 2007;
Rhee, 2008). Businesses iewed WFH a o ably, aiming o augmen o ganiza ion
and p ofi abili y while cu ing u no e a es and o fice cos s (Golden, 2006; Sa -
deshmukh e al., 2012; Duxbu y & Halinski, 2014). None heless, hese impac s
seemed o be sec o -dependen , and limi ed empi ical e idence hinde ed conclusi e
esul s (Bloom e al., 2015).
Among he ex ensi ely s udied benefi s was he imp o emen o wo k-li e balance
p e-COVID-19. Resea che s like Gajend an and Ha ison (2007), Allen e al. (2013),
and Chung and an de Ho s (2018) ound a nega i e co ela ion be ween wo k-
amily conflic s and WFH. Docke y and Bawa (2018)a fi med WFH’s ole in ai ly
dis ibu ing household esponsibili ies in Aus alia, while Edwa ds and Field-
Hend ey (2002) emphasized i s significance o women in he US. In a ela ed
con ex , Res epo and Zeballos (2020) showed ha WFH was associa ed wi h a
educ ion in paid wo k hou s, consequen ly allowing o mo e ime a ailable o
leisu e and heal h beha io s. Thus, hey epo ed a posi i e co ela ion be ween WFH
and heal h benefi s. O he s udies ailed o dis inguish dispa i ies be ween WAFH
and WFH wo ke s in e ms o pe o mance o wo k-li e balance. They highligh ed
WFH’s associa ion wi h educed job p ospec s, wo kplace inclusi i y, cowo ke
4
We also examine he empo al dimension o hese ac i i ies by sc u inizing he iming o paid wo k,
unpaid wo k, and leisu e h oughou he day, d awing om insigh s es ablished by Hame mesh (1999).
508 J. I. Giménez-Nadal e al.

sa is ac ion, and subop imal ou comes o subo dina es wo king unde manage s
engaged in WFH. Addi ionally, i led o a loss o con ol o e wo k p ocesses (Bailey
& Ku land, 2002; Golden, 2007; Rhee, 2008; Mo ganson e al., 2010; Golden &
F omen, 2011; Gajend an e al., 2014).
2.2 Subjec i e well-being
The explo a ion o indi idual well-being aces back o ea ly au ho s like F ancis
Ysid o Edgewo h and Al ed Ma shall (Kahneman & K uege , 2006), cen e ed on
how one pe cei es li e p og ess (Diene e al., 2018). Subjec i e well-being, now a
de eloped concep , in ol es di e se measu es and me hods (F i je s, 2022). Some
s udies gauge esponden s’subjec i e well-being h ough o e all li e sa is ac ion o
gene al happiness, o en using ools like he Sa is ac ion Wi h Li e Scale (SWLS).
Al e na e me hods encompass measu ing a ec i e well-being, cap u ing emo ions
expe ienced in daily li e, assessed by ools like he Posi i e A ec Nega i e A ec
Scale (PANAS). Ins an aneous well-being, linked o ime alloca ion, ocuses on
emo ions el du ing ac i i ies, measu ed h ough specific posi i e and nega i e
expe iences (Kahneman & Dea on, 2010). Expe ienced u ili y, a concep om eco-
nomics, del es in o emo ions esul ing om choices, wi h eal- ime measu emen
e med ins an aneous u ili y (Kahneman e al., 1997).
Me hodologies o linking ac i i ies and ins an aneous eelings include Ac i i y
Enjoymen Ra ings and he Expe ience Sampling Me hod. Me hods such as he
‘yes e day dia y’and Day Recons uc ion Me hod ga he a ec i e da a on hedonic
expe ience, p o iding insigh s in o na ional and indi idual well-being.
Pas esea ch examines he connec ion be ween ime alloca ion and a ec i e well-
being, highligh ing leisu e’s supe io i y in p o iding enjoymen compa ed wi h o he
ac i i ies (Kahneman e al., 2004). I also emphasizes he posi i e e ec s o olun-
a y ac i i ies and spending ime wi h o he s on o e all well-being (Gimenez-Nadal
& Molina, 2015; Sulli an, 1996; Helliwell & Pu nam, 2005).
Rega ding WFH employees’well-being, s udies sugges WFH can po en ially
enhance wo ke s’well-being (Kossek e al., 2006; Ande son e al., 2015). Repo s
indica e highe well-being measu es o WFH wo ke s, including inc eased job
sa is ac ion and educed psychological s ain (Bloom e al., 2015; Ben ley e al.,
2016; Res epo & Zeballos, 2023). Howe e , compa isons be ween WFH and
WAFH ou comes emain inconclusi e (No aco & Gonzalez, 2009) due o a ange o
conflic ing findings.
2.3 Wo k om home in imes o Co id-19
The Co id-19 pandemic and subsequen lockdowns ha e ga ne ed significan
esea ch a en ion ega ding hei impac on subjec i e well-being. Di e se findings
ha e eme ged om a ious s udies ega ding he e ec s o lockdowns on well-being.
Recchi e al. (2020) and Foa e al. (2020) epo ed inc eased well-being in F ance and
he UK due o lockdown measu es, while Long (2021) obse ed heigh ened well-
being in he US du ing lockdowns, and B and e al. (2020) emphasized he posi i e
influence o physical exe cise. Addi ionally, Res epo and Zeballos (2023) no ed
inc eased emo ional well-being associa ed wi h WFH in he US, using ime-use da a.
Wo k om home, ime alloca ion, and well-being: he impac o lockdowns 509
In con as , Möh ing e al. (2021) documen ed dec eased amily and job sa is-
ac ion in Ge many, while Zache and Rudolph (2021) ound no significan changes
in well-being in he same coun y. O he esea ch by Ruiz e al. (2021) and B indal
e al. (2022) iden ified nega i e impac s on well-being in he UK, La in Ame ican
coun ies, and Aus alia due o isola ion du ing lockdowns.
The pandemic’s e ec on ime alloca ion and i s co ela ion wi h well-being has
led o se e al hypo heses. One heo y sugges s a e u n o adi ional gende oles
(Del Boca e al., 2020; Se illa & Smi h, 2020), while ano he finds a mo e equi able
dis ibu ion o household labo (Boll e al., 2021; Se illa & Smi h, 2020).
S udies on changes in ime alloca ion du ing lockdowns p esen conflic ing con-
clusions. Some indica e a ela i ely inc eased in ol emen o mo he s in unpaid
wo k and childca e compa ed wi h a he s (Del Boca e al., 2020; Fa é e al., 2020;
Pabilonia & Ve non, 2023), while o he s sugges educed gende gaps wi h inc eased
engagemen by a he s (C aig & Chu chill, 2020; Ca lson e al., 2021; Yaish e al.,
2021). These dispa i ies a ise om ac o s such as popula ion specifics, cul u al
con ex , pandemic esponses, and da a ype. Fu he mo e, Res epo and Zeballos
(2022) epo , using ime-use da a om he US, ha ime alloca ions o WFH we e
pa icula ly a ec ed by he pandemic, wi h inc eased paid wo k, whe eas he ime
alloca ions o WAFH we e minimally a ec ed du ing he Co id-19 e a compa ed
wi h he p e-pandemic pe iod.
Ou esea ch builds on p io s udies, including Gimenez-Nadal e al. (2023), by
u ilizing ac ual ime-use dia ies du ing Co id-19 lockdowns, a oiding simula ions
o mo e accu a e esul s. Simila ly, s udies by Sulli an e al. (2021) and Foliano
e al. (2022) explo e pandemic impac s on ime use and subjec i e well-being.
Howe e , ou ocus ex ends beyond leisu e ac i i ies o encompass paid and unpaid
wo k, in es iga ing how wo k om home ela es o ime alloca ion and well-being
unde Co id-19 ci cums ances.
3 Da a and a iables
We use he UK Click-and-D ag Dia y Ins umen (CaDDI) da a (Sulli an e al.,
2021b) o examine changes in ime use pa e ns be o e, du ing, and a e he Co id-
19 pandemic.
5
This da ase comp ises ime use dia ies collec ed in he UK du ing
h ee dis inc pe iods: p io o he pandemic in 2016, du ing he pandemic (May-June
2020, No embe 2020, Janua y 2021), and pos -pandemic when confinemen mea-
su es eased (summe 2021). The dia ies, s uc u ed in 10-minu e episodes om 4 am
o 4 am he ollowing day, cap u e p ima y ac i i ies, hei loca ions, and he p e-
sence o o he s. Ou analysis explo es shi s in ime alloca ion ac oss hese pe iods.
Time use dia ies, such as hose in he CaDDI sample, ha e become pi o al in
unde s anding daily wo ke beha io s (Gimenez-Nadal & Molina, 2022). They o e
mo e accu a e da a compa ed o su eys elian on gene al ques ions (Ha ms e al.,
2019), p o iding mo e p ecise es ima ions (Bonke, 2005; Yee-Kan, 2008).
The UK ini ia ed lockdown measu es in Ma ch 2020 in esponse o he escala ing
Co id-19 pandemic. Subsequen lockdowns we e implemen ed o add ess e ol ing
5
See h ps://www. imeuse.o g/ ime-use-dia ies-and- he-co id-19-c isis.
510 J. I. Giménez-Nadal e al.
pandemic si ua ions, wi h adjus men s made o he imeline and se e i y acco ding o
changing ci cums ances. The ini ial lockdown announcemen occu ed on Ma ch
23 d, legally en o ced om Ma ch 26 h. This lockdown was ex ended on Ap il 16 h,
and by May 10 h, guidance sugges ed a e u n o wo kplaces o indi iduals unable
o wo k om home, while ad oca ing a oiding public anspo . Schools and non-
essen ial shops g adually eopened owa ds he end o June, albei wi h ongoing
adhe ence o lockdown measu es and social dis ancing p o ocols. This pe iod,
spanning om he onse o he lockdown o June 2020, aligns wi h he fi s da a
collec ion pe iod o he CaDDI dia ies du ing he lockdown.
Se e al measu es elaxing lockdown es ic ions we e implemen ed in July and
Augus 2020, ma king a pe iod o eased es ic ions. Howe e , as he pandemic
e ol ed, a second na ional lockdown commenced om No embe 5 h o Decembe
2nd. This second lockdown coincides wi h he CaDDI’s second da a collec ion phase
du ing Co id-19 lockdowns. Subsequen ly, due o e ol ing ci cums ances, a hi d
na ional lockdown began on Janua y 6 h, 2021. Th oughou he sp ing and summe
o 2021, mos es ic ions we e g adually eased o li ed, wi h he majo i y o legal
limi s on social con ac emo ed by July. This phase o elaxed, eased, o li ed
measu es co esponds o he elaxa ion pe iod, du ing which he CaDDI collec ed
ime use dia ies.
3.1 Sample equi emen s
We began wi h he o iginal CaDDI sample, comp ising 3423 indi iduals. Ini ially,
we excluded 312 indi iduals due o incomple e da a on key a iables, esul ing in a
educed sample o 3111 indi iduals. Following his, we u he efined he sample by
excluding indi iduals who epo ed dia y en ies on a ypical days, yielding a sample
size o 2734 indi iduals.
6
Gi en ou ocus on WFH p ac ices, we na owed he scope
o employed indi iduals, including bo h employees and sel -employed wo ke s,
leading o he exclusion o 848 indi iduals who we e no employed. Mo eo e , o
cap u e wo k- ela ed dia y en ies specifically, we e ained only wo ke s who com-
ple ed dia ies on wo kdays, p oducing a sample o 1425 indi iduals. Addi ionally,
conside ing he empo al s uc u e o he CaDDI da a, we elimina ed 215 indi iduals
who eco ded dia y en ies du ing a b ie pe iod be ween lockdowns in he summe
o 2020. This finalizes ou sample selec ion p ocess. These es ic ions lea e a final
sample o 1210 indi iduals, and 1,808 obse a ions, as some in e iewed indi iduals
filled in wo dia ies du ing wo di e en wo kdays:
7
234 indi iduals (294 obse a-
ions) co espond o he pe iod p e Co id-19; 774 indi iduals (1177 obse a ions)
co espond o he lockdowns pe iod; and 202 indi iduals (337 obse a ions) co e-
spond o he pe iod o elaxa ion ha ollowed he lockdowns. Fu he mo e, 57.36%
o he indi iduals in he sample (i.e., 694 indi iduals) a e men, while he emaining
42.64% (516 indi iduals) a e women.
6
The p ima y dispa i y be ween ypical and a ypical days appea s o be d i en by a ia ions in unpaid
wo k ac i i ies. Howe e , ou key findings emain consis en , e en when indi iduals epo ing dia y en ies
on a ypical days a e no excluded. Fu he explo a ion o ypical e sus a ypical days is de e ed o u u e
esea ch.
7
The composi ion o he sample is shown in Appendix Table 8.
Wo k om home, ime alloca ion, and well-being: he impac o lockdowns 511
3.2 Va iables
We begin by u ilizing he dia y s uc u e o he CaDDI da a o de e mine he ime
alloca ed by in e iewed wo ke s o paid wo k, leisu e, and unpaid wo k ac i i ies,
based on hei p ima y ac i i y h oughou he day. Paid wo k is delinea ed in
acco dance wi h he CaDDI da a guide, encompassing ac i i ies ca ego ized as 117
“paid wo k including a home,”118 “ o mal educa ion,”and 125 “wo k b eak”.
Leisu e ac i i ies a e iden ified based on p io esea ch me hodologies (e.g., Aguia
& Hu s , 2007; Gimenez-Nadal & Se illa, 2012), encompassing ac i i ies such as
dog walking, hobbies, eading, engaging in spo s, e c. Unpaid wo k comp ises
ac i i ies ela ed o household cho es, excluding childca e du ies.
8
We also u ilize he dia y s uc u e o he CaDDI da a o de e mine which wo ke s
ha e he capabili y o wo k om home (WFH) du ing he dia y day. Specifically, we
use in o ma ion ega ding he loca ion o each dia y episode, dis inguishing be ween
episodes a home, he wo kplace, and o he o unspecified loca ions. Ou p ima y
iden ifica ion o WFH wo ke s is as ollows: we ca ego ize a wo ke as WFH i all
hei paid wo k episodes occu ed a home, indica ing ha he indi idual did no
commu e o o om he wo ksi e on he dia y day and only wo ked om home. As
an al e na i e, we also iden i y WFH indi iduals as hose who spen a leas one hou
engaged in paid wo k ac i i ies a home ( e e ed o as “WFH (al e na i e)”
h oughou he analysis).
The hi d pi o al a iable in ou analysis measu es he ins an aneous enjoymen
expe ienced du ing daily ac i i ies. Wi hin he CaDDI da a, in o ma ion is p o ided
on he ins an aneous enjoymen associa ed wi h each episode o paid wo k, leisu e,
and unpaid wo k, elici ed h ough he ques ion: “How much did you enjoy his
ime?”, u ilizing a scale om 1 “didn’ enjoy a all” o 7 “enjoyed e y much”. This
a iable se es o define he ins an aneous enjoymen linked o each episode, cap-
u ing he a ec i e eelings, also known as “expe ienced ins an aneous u ili y”o
“ins an aneous well-being,” ha indi iduals expe ience du ing specific ac i i ies
(Kahneman e al., 2004). Consequen ly, his well-being measu e encapsula es he
momen - o-momen flow o enjoymen (Kahneman & K uege , 2006; Kahneman &
Dea on, 2010). The CaDDI p o ides da a on o e all li e sa is ac ion, anging om 1
o “comple ely dissa isfied” o 7 o “comple ely sa isfied”. Consis en wi h
Gimenez-Nadal e al. (2023), we include o e all li e sa is ac ion, a measu e o
cogni i e subjec i e well-being (F i je s, 2022), as a con ol a iable in ou analysis.
This allows us o accoun o a ia ions in epo ed well-being ac oss indi iduals.
The CaDDI da a allows us o define se e al a iables po en ially associa ed wi h
ime alloca ion and well-being, which we designa e as con ol a iables, encom-
passing age (measu ed in yea s), highes le el o o mal educa ion a ained, ma i al
s a us (cohabi ing o single), UK ci izenship s a us, amily size, numbe o child en,
sel -employmen s a us, and usual weekly wo k hou s. Addi ionally, we ca ego ize
he day o he week when dia ies we e comple ed; esiden ial egion (London,
Yo kshi e & Humbe side, Eas Midlands, Eas Anglia, Sou h Eas , Sou h Wes , Wes
Midlands, No h Wes , Sco land, Wales, No he n I eland, and No h Eas ); and
social s a us (uppe and middle class, lowe middle class, skilled wo king class, and
8
See Appendix Table 9 o de ails on paid wo k, leisu e, and unpaid wo k.
512 J. I. Giménez-Nadal e al.
4.3 Resul s by gende
Resul s in Table 4a e compu ed o he pooled sample o emale and male wo ke s.
Howe e exis ing esea ch has documen ed gende di e ences in ime alloca ion o
WFH and WAFH be o e and du ing he Co id-19 lockdowns (Gimenez-Nadal e al.,
2020; Pabilonia & Ve non, 2023). As a consequence, and wi h he objec i e o
analyzing po en ial di e ences in he a ious co ela ions be ween WFH and wo ke
ime alloca ion be o e, du ing, and a e lockdowns, we now es ima e Eq. (1)by
gende .
Es ima es in Columns (1) and (2) o Table 5display he ou comes conce ning paid
wo k ime o emales and males, espec i ely. Be o e Co id-19, emale WFH
indi iduals spen oughly 110.6 ewe minu es daily on paid wo k ac i i ies com-
pa ed wi h hei WAFH coun e pa s. Wi h he onse o Co id-19 lockdowns, he e
was a gene al inc ease o abou 42.9 min pe day in paid wo k o he a e age emale
wo ke , i espec i e o WFH s a us. Howe e , he di e ence be ween WFH and
WAFH emales in paid wo k emained s a is ically significan , as emale WFH spen
abou 52.15 ewe minu es in paid wo k ac i i ies han hei WAFH coun e pa s.
Fu he mo e, du ing he elaxa ion pe iod, he in e ac ion e m be ween being a
emale WFH and he elaxa ion pe iod was posi i e. As a consequence, he e is no
s a is ically significan di e ence be ween emales WFH and hose WAFH in he
ela ion pe iod, a e adjus ing o obse able ac o s.
Fo males, he es ima ed WFH coe ficien was no s a is ically significan a
s anda d le els. Consequen ly, a e accoun ing o obse able ac o s, he e was no
disce nible di e ence in he ime spen on paid wo k be ween WFH and WAFH male
wo ke s du ing he p e-pandemic pe iod. Howe e , once accoun ing o he in e -
ac ion e ms and compu ing he co ela ions be ween WFH and paid wo k du ing
lockdowns and du ing he elaxa ion pe iod, we find ha WFH ela es o a significan
dec ease o abou 31.49 min in paid wo k du ing lockdowns, bu does no ela e o
changes in paid wo k du ing he elaxa ion pe iod.
Es ima es in Columns (3) and (4) ocus on leisu e ime o emales and males,
espec i ely. None o he coe ficien s o in e es we e s a is ically significan a
s anda d le els, nei he we e he pa ial co ela ions be ween WFH and leisu e ime
du ing lockdowns, o du ing he elaxa ion pe iod. Fo ins ance, we es ima e ha
WFH ela es o an inc ease o abou 26.87 min in male leisu e du ing lockdowns
(p=0.054, indica ing a s a is ically significan inc ease a he 10% le el only), which
is he only significan co ela ion o in e es we obse e ega ding leisu e ime
es ima es.
Columns (5) and (6) pe ain o unpaid wo k ime. Fo emales, none o he
coe ficien s we e s a is ically significan a s anda d le els, excep he one associa ed
wi h he elaxa ion pe iod ha is ma ginally significan a he 10% le el, sugges ing a
sligh dec ease in emale unpaid wo k ime du ing he elaxa ion pe iod. These
esul s imply simila i y in unpaid wo k ime be ween emale WFH and WAFH
wo ke s be o e, du ing, and a e lockdowns. Compu ing pa ial co ela ions, how-
e e , we obse e ha WFH ela es o a small bu s a is ically significan inc ease in
unpaid wo k among emales o abou 6.63 min pe day, while he pa ial co ela ion
be ween WFH and emale unpaid wo k ime du ing he elaxa ion pe iod is no
s a is ically significan a s anda d le els. Con e sely, es ima es o males in Column
Wo k om home, ime alloca ion, and well-being: he impac o lockdowns 519

Table 5 By gende es ima es on wo ke ime alloca ion
PAID WORK LEISURE UNPAID WORK
VARIABLES Women (1) Men (2) Women (3) Men (4) Women (5) Men (6)
WFH −110.628*** (36.334) −17.630 (47.581) 41.213 (35.166) 54.312 (54.489) 13.881 (14.818) −2.935 (13.073)
Lockdown 42.942* (23.111) −30.403 (30.697) 23.425 (28.306) 21.999 (38.508) −15.062 (14.483) 39.202** (16.777)
Relaxa ion 40.210 (25.294) −8.626 (33.099) −33.710 (33.581) 32.096 (42.048) −27.979* (15.432) 49.469*** (17.853)
WFH x Lockdown 58.481 (38.987) −13.861 (49.551) −27.532 (38.464) −27.445 (55.763) −0.205 (16.717) 15.969 (15.000)
WFH x Relaxa ion 126.780*** (43.963) 7.240 (50.875) −14.304 (45.109) −83.216 (58.954) 6.026 (19.060) 0.542 (15.389)
Cons an 140.500* (80.146) 343.010*** (42.312) 512.896*** (69.767) 426.094*** (73.039) 54.602 (36.288) 4.274 (40.290)
Demog aphics Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Day .e. Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Region .e. Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Social s a us .e. Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Occupa ion .e. Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Heal h .e. Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Obse a ions 739 1,069 739 1,069 739 1,069
R-squa ed 0.267 0.269 0.153 0.115 0.213 0.125
The sample (CaDDI) is es ic ed o employed indi iduals who wo ked du ing he dia y day. Robus s anda d e o s in pa en heses. WFH a e defined as wo ke s whose paid wo k
ac i i ies we e all epo ed a home. Dependen a iables a e he ime spen in paid wo k, leisu e, o unpaid wo k, measu ed in minu es pe day. *** significan a he 1%; **
significan a he 5%; * significan a he 10%
520 J. I. Giménez-Nadal e al.
(6) indica e inc eased ime spen on unpaid wo k du ing lockdowns o bo h WFH
and WAFH males. This end pe sis ed and became mo e p onounced a e lock-
downs du ing he elaxa ion pe iod. Howe e , he esul s do no suppo he con-
clusion ha unpaid wo k ac i i ies di e be ween WFH and WAFH male wo ke s.
The esul s sugges ha WFH is associa ed wi h a small inc ease in unpaid wo k
du ing lockdowns o abou 13.03 min pe day only.
4.4 Discussion o ime alloca ion es ima es
In summa y, con a y o esea ch p eda ing Co id-19 in he US and he UK, ou
s udy does no conclusi ely link WFH p ac ices o dec eased paid wo k ime,
inc eased unpaid wo k, o leisu e imes o e all. We obse ed a educ ion only in
emales’paid wo k ime, and only be o e he Co id-19 pe iod. No ably, he p o-
mo ion and no maliza ion o WFH appea ed o ins iga e con e gence among WFH
emales, gi en ha , pos -Co id-19 and du ing he elaxa ion pe iod, emale wo ke s
spen a compa able amoun o ime on paid wo k, ega dless o WFH s a us.
A c ucial obse a ion pe ains o he ime sa ed by a oiding he commu e o and
om wo k. P e ious esea ch indica es ha he a e age commu ing ime in he UK is
app oxima ely 50 min pe day (Gimenez-Nadal e al., 2022). Indi iduals wo king
om home do no ha e o unde go he daily commu e, g an ing hem addi ional ime
o a ious daily ac i i ies (Ba e o e al., 2020). Ou findings e eal ha his su plus
ime does no mani es as an inc ease in paid wo k hou s, leisu e ac i i ies, o unpaid
wo k. Howe e , we did no explo e o he ac i i ies, such as pe sonal ca e, childca e,
ca egi ing, o ee ime. Examining al e na i e ime use ou comes, such as wake-up
imes and bed imes, could also p o ide insigh s in o his specific issue. We lea e his
issue o u u e analyses.
Ano he no ewo hy poin conce ns he influence o he numbe o child en in he
household. Es ima es indica e ha as he numbe o child en inc eases, mo he s
spend less ime on leisu e ac i i ies, whe eas a he s’ ime alloca ion appea s una -
ec ed. O he ime alloca ion seems un ela ed o he numbe o child en. Essen ially,
ou es ima es sugges ha mo he s’leisu e ime is highly sensi i e o he p esence o
child en, as he ime needed o childca e is aken om a ailable leisu e ime.
Howe e , a he s’leisu e ime does no seem o be influenced by he p esence o
child en. This aligns wi h exis ing esea ch sugges ing ha despi e some con-
e gence, mo he s con inue o bea he p ima y esponsibili y o childca e in he
household (Gu yan e al., 2008; Ramey & Ramey, 2010; Goldin, 2014). As we did
no specifically examine childca e, which would equi e es ic ing samples o
mo he s and subs an ially educing sample sizes, we also lea e his issue o u u e
analyses.
14
14
We conduc ed ce ain obus ness checks o assess he dependency o esul s on WFH defini ions and
me hods used. Fi s , we employed an al e na i e iden ifica ion o WFH (‘WFH (al e na i e)’), whe e WFH
s a us was defined as a wo ke spending a leas 1 hou in paid wo k ac i i ies a home, a mo e flexible
WFH defini ion. Es ima ing Eq. (1) using his al e na i e defini ion (see Panel A o Appendix Table 13)
lea es he conclusions unchanged. Second, o es he impac o weekdays on ou analysis, we e-es ima ed
Eq. (1) by excluding obse a ions co esponding o weekend days, despi e hei s a us as wo kdays. The
conclusions emain consis en . We also an a sensi i i y analysis by es ima ing Eq. (1) on ull- ime wo ke s
only. The esul s emain quali a i ely obus , and he conclusions hold; see Table 14 in Appendix A.
Wo k om home, ime alloca ion, and well-being: he impac o lockdowns 521
Ou findings align wi h exis ing esea ch on WFH and wo ke ime alloca ion
decisions using he ATUS da a o he US (Gimenez-Nadal e al., 2020; Res epo &
Zeballos, 2020,2022; Pabilonia & Ve non, 2022,2023). Gimenez-Nadal e al.
(2020) epo a nega i e co ela ion be ween WFH and paid wo k and a posi i e
co ela ion be ween WFH and leisu e be o e he pandemic. Simila ly, Res epo and
Zeballos (2020) conclude ha wo ke s who WFH alloca e less ime o paid wo k and
mo e o leisu e. Pabilonia and Ve non (2022) each simila conclusions. Mo eo e ,
ou es ima es also align wi h Res epo and Zeballos (2022), as hey find ha , p e-
pandemic, WFH was associa ed wi h inc eased leisu e and dec eased paid wo k ime,
whe eas du ing he pandemic, WFH wo ke s’paid wo k ime changed significan ly,
and con e ged wi h ha o WAFH wo ke s. Ou esul s a e consis en wi h Res epo
and Zeballos (2022) and u he sugges ha his con e gence is s a is ically sig-
nifican , p ima ily among women. Addi ionally, Pabilonia and Ve non (2023)find
ha mo he s who WFH spend less ime on paid wo k compa ed o WAFH mo he s,
which aligns wi h ou findings.
In summa y, ou analysis u ilizing he CaDDI da a o he UK co esponds wi h
exis ing esea ch ocusing on WFH and ime alloca ion in he US, using ATUS da a
om be o e he Co id-19 pandemic and du ing lockdowns. Ou s udy con ibu es o
his body o wo k by analyzing gende he e ogenei y, highligh ing ha ime allo-
ca ion di e ences be ween WFH and WAFH a e mo e p onounced among women,
and by examining he con ex o he UK in con as o he US.
5 Wo k om home and well-being
5.1 Empi ical s a egy
The well-being o wo ke s in hei wo k- ela ed, leisu e, and unpaid wo k ac i i ies is
analyzed, dis inguishing be ween WFH and WAFH, a he dia y le el, and ne o
obse able demog aphics, and obse able episode cha ac e is ics. Fo each indi i-
dual iand each episode jdone by ha indi idual, he ollowing equa ion is es ima ed
using OLS:
Wij ¼γ0þγ1Tiþγ2Liþγ3Riþγ4TiLiþγ5TiRiþγ0
PPij þγ0
XXiþεij ð2Þ
whe e Wij ep esen s he enjoymen expe ienced by indi idual idu ing episode j;Ti,
Li,Ri, and Xia e defined as in Eq. (1); Pij is a ec o o episode cha ac e is ics
(episode done alone, wi h he spouse, wi h child en); and εiis he e o e m. The
in e ac ion e ms included in Eq. (2) a e analogous o hose included in Eq. (1) and,
as a consequence, hey should be in e p e ed analogously.
The es ima ions o Eq. (2) also inco po a e he day o he week, egion, social
class, occupa ion, heal h, o e all li e sa is ac ion, seconda y ac i i y, and hou o he
day fixed e ec s. Addi ionally, es ima es include sample weigh s p o ided by
he CaDDI da a a he episode le el, and we include obus -clus e s anda d e o s
(a he indi idual le el) o accoun o po en ial co ela ion and he e oskedas ici y.
The equa ion is es ima ed fi s o he pooled sample o emales and males, and hen
sepa a ely o emales and o males.
522 J. I. Giménez-Nadal e al.
5.2 Pooled esul s
Table 6illus a es he ou comes o es ima ing Eq. (2) o e he pooled sample o
emales and males. Column (1) p esen s he es ima ions o enjoymen du ing paid
wo k episodes, Column (2) shows he esul s o enjoymen du ing leisu e episodes,
and Column (3) shows es ima es o enjoymen du ing unpaid wo k.
None o he poin es ima es o he coe ficien s o in e es a e s a is ically sig-
nifican a s anda d le els. As a consequence, he esul s no ably demons a e ha
he e is no s a is ically significan di e ence in enjoymen le els be ween paid wo k
and unpaid wo k episodes o ei he WFH o WAFH wo ke s, i espec i e o he ime
pe iod—be o e Co id-19, du ing lockdowns, o in he elaxa ion pe iod. Fu he -
mo e, none o he pa ial co ela ions be ween WFH and enjoymen a e significan a
s anda d le els, suppo ing he conclusions de i ed om he poin es ima es shown in
Table 6.
Table 6 Pooled es ima es on enjoymen
VARIABLES PAID WORK
EPISODES (1)
LEISURE EPISODES
(2)
UNPAID WORK
EPISODES (3)
WFH 0.264 (0.437) −0.011 (0.288) −0.290 (0.506)
Lockdown −0.175 (0.432) −0.061 (0.327) −0.884 (0.566)
Relaxa ion 0.007 (0.445) 0.239 (0.352) −0.863 (0.576)
WFH x Lockdown −0.369 (0.481) 0.239 (0.321) 0.413 (0.555)
WFH x Relaxa ion −0.456 (0.564) −0.177 (0.369) −0.264 (0.607)
Episode de ails
Alone 0.091 (0.160) −0.001 (0.148) −0.038 (0.258)
Wi h spouse 0.222 (0.203) 0.369*** (0.116) −0.301 (0.219)
Wi h child 0.411* (0.229) 0.166 (0.137) 0.261 (0.296)
Being male 0.252 (0.158) −0.017 (0.117) 0.267 (0.234)
Cons an 4.711*** (1.189) 5.962*** (0.771) 2.576** (1.286)
Demog aphics Yes Yes Yes
Day .e. Yes Yes Yes
Region .e. Yes Yes Yes
Social s a us .e. Yes Yes Yes
Occupa ion .e. Yes Yes Yes
Heal h .e. Yes Yes Yes
Li e sa is ac ion .e. Yes Yes Yes
Seconda y ac i i y .e. Yes Yes Yes
Hou o he day .e. Yes Yes Yes
Obse a ions 14,581 13,186 1,608
R-squa ed 0.350 0.250 0.418
The sample (CaDDI-episode) is es ic ed o episodes o employed indi iduals who wo ked du ing he
dia y day. Robus -clus e (a he indi idual le el) s anda d e o s in pa en heses. WFH a e defined as
wo ke s whose paid wo k ac i i ies we e all epo ed a home. The dependen a iable is he enjoymen o
paid wo k, leisu e, o unpaid wo k episodes. *** significan a he 1%; ** significan a he 5%; *
significan a he 10%
Wo k om home, ime alloca ion, and well-being: he impac o lockdowns 523
Table 7 By gende es ima es on enjoymen
PAID WORK EPISODES LEISURE EPISODES UNPAID WORK EPIDOSDES
VARIABLES Women (1) Men (2) Women (3) Men (4) Women (5) Men (6)
WFH 0.009 (0.602) 0.676 (0.464) −0.842** (0.367) 0.287 (0.448) −0.480 (0.631) 0.246 (0.456)
Lockdown 0.368 (0.579) −0.364 (0.482) −0.500 (0.405) −0.048 (0.517) −0.016 (0.566) −0.913 (0.601)
Relaxa ion 0.521 (0.541) −0.009 (0.505) −0.181 (0.410) 0.301 (0.527) −0.171 (0.794) −0.452 (0.636)
WFH x Lockdown −0.360 (0.673) −0.804 (0.546) 0.972** (0.408) −0.027 (0.514) 0.382 (0.709) 0.231 (0.502)
WFH x Relaxa ion −0.398 (0.601) −0.857 (0.629) 1.023** (0.511) −0.596 (0.529) 1.453 (0.889) −0.437 (0.681)
Cons an 6.596*** (1.248) 4.887*** (1.531) 3.112* (1.678) 5.886*** (1.114) 3.325 (2.265) 5.111*** (1.224)
Demog aphics Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Episode de ails Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Day .e. Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Region .e. Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Social s a us .e. Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Occupa ion .e. Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Heal h .e. Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Li e sa is ac ion .e. Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Seconda y ac i i y .e. Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Hou o he day .e. Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Obse a ions 5602 8979 4366 8820 726 882
R-squa ed 0.510 0.464 0.423 0.335 0.621 0.632
The sample (CaDDI-episode) is es ic ed o episodes o employed indi iduals who wo ked du ing he dia y day. Robus -clus e (a he indi idual le el) s anda d e o s in
pa en heses. WFH a e defined as wo ke s whose paid wo k ac i i ies we e all epo ed a home. The dependen a iable is he enjoymen o paid wo k, leisu e, o unpaid wo k
episodes. *** significan a he 1%; ** significan a he 5%; * significan a he 10%
524 J. I. Giménez-Nadal e al.

5.3 Resul s by gende
Because gende he e ogenei y may be masking he esul s shown in Table 6,Table7
shows es ima es o Eq. (2) by gende . Columns (1) and (2) p esen he es ima ions o
enjoymen du ing paid wo k episodes o emales and males, espec i ely. Columns (3)
and (4) exhibi he analogous es ima es o leisu e episodes, and Columns (5) and (6)
show es ima es o unpaid wo k episodes. Es ima es by gende on enjoymen du ing
paid wo k, and on enjoymen du ing unpaid wo k a e simila o hose in Table 6,asno
coe ficien s o in e es a e s a is ically significan a s anda d le els. Fu he mo e, no
pa ial co ela ions be ween WFH and enjoymen while doing paid wo k o while doing
unpaid wo k a e s a is ically significan a s anda d le els, i espec i e o he ime pe iod
conside ed. In summa y, he esul s sugges no s a is ically significan di e ence in
enjoymen le els be ween paid wo k and unpaid wo k episodes o ei he WFH o
WAFH wo ke s, ega dless o gende o he pandemic pe iod analyzed.
15
Howe e , di e ences a e obse ed in how emale wo ke s de i e enjoymen om
hei leisu e episodes be ween WFH and WAFH. Specifically, be o e Co id-19, emale
WFH wo ke s de i ed less enjoymen om hei leisu e episodes compa ed wi h hei
WAFH coun e pa s, aligning wi h exis ing esea ch indica ing ha WFH p ac ices blu
he bounda ies be ween wo k and leisu e, nega i ely impac ing wo ke s. This di e ence
is cap u ed by he poin es ima e associa ed wi h being a WFH, in Column (3) o
Table 7, which is nega i e and s a is ically significan a s anda d le els. Howe e , ou
findings sugges ha his dis inc ion disappea ed du ing and a e lockdowns, as indi-
ca ed by he posi i e and s a is ically significan in e ac ion e ms. In his line, pa ial
co ela ions be ween WFH and enjoymen du ing lockdowns and du ing he elaxa ion
pe iod a e no s a is ically significan a s anda d le els. Consequen ly, he esul s
indica e ha he Co id-19 pandemic ac ed as an equalize o how emale WFH and
WAFH wo ke s expe ienced leisu e ac i i ies, e en when conside ing companionship
du ing leisu e. (The es ima es, as well as he pa ial co ela ions on leisu e enjoymen o
males, a e all no significan , aligning wi h he esul s on paid wo k and unpaid wo k).
5.4 Discussion o well-being esul s
The well-being esul s shown in Table 6 o he pooled sample, and in Table 7 o he
emale and male samples, do no seem o align wi h he es ima es on ime alloca ion
shown in Tables 4and 5 o he pooled sample, and o he by-gende samples,
espec i ely. Specifically, ime alloca ion es ima es sugges ha he di e ence
be ween WFH and WAFH emales was sizeable and s a is ically significan be o e
he Co id-19 pandemic, bu no s a is ically significan a e wa ds. As a con-
sequence, one would expec some s a is ically significan di e ence be ween WFH
and WAFH wo ke s in e ms o enjoymen while doing paid wo k. We ound no
s a is ically significan di e ences be ween WFH and WAFH in e ms o leisu e
15
Resul s a e obus o he al e na i e iden ifica ion o WFH (“WFH (al e na i e)”), and a e also obus o
es ima es o e weekdays only (see Table 15 in he Appendix A). We also conduc a sensi i i y analysis by
unning he enjoymen analysis on ull- ime wo ke s only; he esul s emain simila (see Table 16 in
Appendix A).
Wo k om home, ime alloca ion, and well-being: he impac o lockdowns 525
ime, bu did find s a is ically significan di e ences be ween emale WFH and
WAFH in e ms o enjoymen while doing leisu e.
Rega ding paid wo k, he ac ha he enjoymen esul s we e no s a is ically
significan sugges s ha WFH used o be nega i ely ela ed o he ime spen in
ma ke wo k, bu no o he ins an aneous enjoymen expe ienced while doing such
ac i i ies, be o e he pandemic. Fu he mo e, enjoymen esul s show ha his no -
s a is ically significan co ela ion be ween WFH and expe ienced enjoymen while
doing paid wo k has emained so, whe eas he di e ence in he ime spen in paid
wo k be ween WFH and WAFH emales has con e ged. Thus, he di e en phases o
he Co id-19 pandemic ha e played a mode a ing ole in he ime de o ed o paid
wo k by emale WFH, bu has no modified he co ela ion be ween WFH and
enjoymen while doing paid wo k among hese indi iduals.
Disc epancies in e ms o leisu e may poin o a di e en scena io. The esul s
show ha despi e he amoun o leisu e enjoyed by women, WFH is co ela ed wi h
how enjoyable leisu e is, and he no maliza ion o WFH du ing he phases o he
Co id-19 pandemic has played a mode a ing ole in ha co ela ion. Specifically,
WFH emales used o enjoy leisu e less han hei WAFH coun e pa s be o e lock-
downs, aligning wi h exis ing li e a u e sugges ing ha WFH blu s he ba ie be ween
wo k and amily, ul ima ely dec easing well-being (e.g., B indal e al., 2022). How-
e e , ou enjoymen es ima es sugges ha his co ela ion anished du ing he
lockdowns and he elaxa ion pe iod a e he pandemic. Gi en he iming o he da a,
we canno disen angle how ends a e e ol ing, i.e., i he co ela ion is e u ning o
he nega i e alue ound be o e he pandemic o i i is emaining no s a is ically
significan . Fu u e esea ch using ime use dia ies and well-being da a should conside
hese issues, using in o ma ion o longe ime pe iods since he pandemic.
These findings con as wi h p io s udies ha ha e explo ed he co ela ion
be ween WFH and a ious measu es o well-being in bo h he US and he UK, be o e
and du ing he Co id-19 pandemic, using ei he simula ed scena ios (Hame mesh,
2020; Gimenez-Nadal e al., 2023) o ime use dia ies du ing he lockdowns (Foliano
e al., 2022; Res epo and Zeballos, 2023).
Fo ins ance, in he US be o e he pandemic, Gimenez-Nadal e al. (2020) ound ha
WFH was associa ed wi h dec eased nega i e eelings, while in he UK, ou s udy does
no find a s a is ically significan associa ion be ween WFH and ins an aneous enjoy-
men . Hame mesh (2020) concluded ha ime spen a home wi h o he s was ela ed o
inc eased well-being, measu ed h ough o e all li e sa is ac ion, whe eas ou esul s do
no suppo such a conclusion in e ms o ins an aneous enjoymen while doing paid
wo k and unpaid wo k. Howe e , ou es ima es on leisu e a e pa ially consis en wi h
Hame mesh (2020), as he gap in leisu e enjoymen dec easing du ing he pandemic
may be explained by mo e people being a home o enjoy join leisu e ime. Addi-
ionally, Res epo and Zeballos (2023) used he ATUS da a and ound ha WFH
posi i ely impac ed emo ional well-being while wo king, bu he co ela ion was no
significan o leisu e ac i i ies. Ou es ima es in he UK show a di e en pa e n; we
find no significan ela ionship be ween WFH and ins an aneous enjoymen du ing paid
wo k o he ull sample o by gende . Howe e , we do find a nega i e co ela ion
be ween WFH and enjoymen du ing leisu e ac i i ies ha disappea ed du ing lock-
downs, a finding pa ially aligned wi h Res epo and Zeballos (2023) in he US.
526 J. I. Giménez-Nadal e al.
In he UK, Foa e al. (2020) and Foliano e al. (2022) epo ed dec eased well-being
d i en by lockdowns, hough no specifically ocusing on WFH. Simila esul s we e
ound by Möh ing e al. (2021) and Zache and Rudolph (2021) in Ge many, and by
B indal e al. (2022) in Aus alia, al hough hese s udies did no use ime use dia ies.
16
Ou esul s pa ially co obo a e hese findings, as we obse e nega i e co ela ions
be ween WFH and enjoymen in he pooled sample o women and men, al hough he
coe ficien s o in e es a e no s a is ically significan a con en ional le els.
In summa y, ou es ima es o he UK using ime use dia ies om he CaDDI
da abase indica e ha bo h in e ms o ime alloca ion and well-being, he p omo ion
o WFH p ac ices du ing he Co id-19 pandemic and associa ed lockdowns appea s
o ha e equalized wo ke beha io s o some ex en . P e-exis ing di e ences be ween
WFH and WAFH wo ke s seem o ha e lessened o e en anished. Howe e , he
CaDDI da a does no allow us o examine whe he his end pe sis s in he long e m.
Fu u e wa es o ime use su eys will be necessa y o explo e hese ongoing ends.
6 Conclusions
Ou s udy examines he ela ionships be ween WFH and Co id-19 phases on he one
hand, and wo ke ime use and enjoymen while doing paid wo k, leisu e and unpaid
wo k on he o he , wi h a ocus on di e ences ac oss gende . The esul s sugges ha , in
gene al e ms, WFH is no ela ed o al e a ions in wo ke ime-alloca ion pa e ns, bu
no able gende di e ences su ace. P e-pandemic, emale WFH alloca ed less ime o paid
wo k han WAFH. Howe e , empo al pa e ns in wo k and leisu e fluc ua ed o e ime,
aligning mo e closely du ing lockdowns, hin ing a po en ial con e gence.
This s udy explo es he in e connec ions be ween WFH dynamics, indi iduals’ ime
alloca ion, and hei subjec i e expe iences, cen e ing specifically on he unique, gende -
ela ed wo k pa e ns ha ha e su aced. These obse ed pa e ns signi y a po en ial
o e haul in he con en ional equilib ium be ween wo k and pe sonal li e, especially
conce ning women who a e ac i ely in ol ed in WFH a angemen s. This implies a
subs an ial ans o ma ion in how women s ike a balance be ween hei p o essional
commi men s and pe sonal li e demands, signaling a necessi y o comp ehensi e
in es iga ion in o he oo causes ca alyzing hese ans o ma i e shi s.
Comp ehending hese empo al ansi ions goes beyond un a eling how indi iduals
o ganize hei ime; i se es as a c ucial esou ce o bo h employe s and policymake s.
Un eiling hese e ol ing pa e ns empowe s employe s o fine- une wo k se ups, aligning
wi h he dynamic p e e ences and equi emen s o hei wo k o ce. Fo policymake s,
hese insigh s p esen an oppo uni y o design mo e impac ul policies ha os e flexible
wo k s uc u es and con on gende gaps wi hin he e ol ing wo k e ain shaped by he
di e se phases o he Co id-19 pandemic.
Limi a ions include defining WFH wi hou dis inguishing occasional om egula
elecommu ing, due o spa se da a poin s pe esponden . Second, he CaDDI da a does no
include in o ma ion on he easons why wo ke s WFH, and hus pa - ime employmen o
16
Con e sely, Recchi e al. (2020) ound an inc ease in well-being du ing lockdowns, a pa adox
explained by he subjec i e alua ion o emaining heal hy and unin ec ed du ing he Co id-19 pandemic
in F ance. We do no find suppo o his pa adox using ime use dia ies om he UK.
Wo k om home, ime alloca ion, and well-being: he impac o lockdowns 527
endogenous WFH choices may be a ec ing ou esul s. Fo example, we canno iden i y i
wo ke s eques WFH on ce ain days because o some ex e nal eason, such as ligh wo k
schedules, some addi ional cho es, o busy days. Rela edly, he lack o pos -summe 2021
da a limi s ou unde s anding o ansi ional WFH phases pos - elaxa ion, and also en ails
po en ial seasonali y issues, since he only elaxa ion pe iod is in he summe . The s udy’s
c oss-sec ional na u e aises conce ns abou es ablishing causal ela ionships, wa an ing
u u e longi udinal s udies o mo e obus conclusions. The well-being analysis is based
on compa ing o dinal alues o a subjec i e measu e ac oss indi iduals, which may be
p oblema ic (see Bond and Lang (2019)andBloem(2022)). Finally, he analysis cen e s
on con en ional ime use ou comes, encompassing he cumula i e ime dedica ed o paid
wo k, leisu e, and unpaid wo k, along wi h he empo al aspec s and he enjoymen
associa ed wi h hese ac i i ies. Subsequen esea ch endea o s should del e in o al e -
na i e me ics, such as he pe cen age o wo k conduc ed om home as an indica o o
emo e wo k (WFH), he pe cen age o non-paid wo k asks pe o med be ween he ini ial
and final paid wo k episodes h oughou he day, as a gauge o flexible wo k schedules, o
wake-up ime and bed ime as measu es o o e all daily ac i i y ime.
Da a a ailabili y The da a is a ailable in he co e collec ion o he UK Da a A chi e.
Acknowledgemen s We hank he edi o , En ica C oda, wo anonymous e e ees, and con e ence
pa icipan s in he Wo kshop “Commu ing and ime use in he con ex o inc eased elewo king”a
Eu o ound.
Au ho con ibu ions All au ho s con ibu ed equally o he pape . All au ho s ead and app o ed
he final manusc ip .
Funding This wo k was suppo ed by he Go e nmen o A agón [P ojec S32_23R, P og am FSE
A agón 2014–2020], he Spanish Minis y o Educa ion [G an PRX23-00184], and he Uni e si y
o Za agoza [P ojec UZ2023-CSJ- 02]. Open Access unding p o ided hanks o he CRUE-CSIC
ag eemen wi h Sp inge Na u e.
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7 Appendix A: Addi ional esul s
Tables 8–16
528 J. I. Giménez-Nadal e al.
Table 13 Es ima es on wo ke ime alloca ion, obus ness checks
PAID WORK LEISURE UNPAID WORK
VARIABLES Women (1) Men (2) Women (3) Men (4) Women (5) Men (6)
A. ALTERNATIVE DEFINITION OF WFH (1 hou +)
WFH (al e na i e) −86.053** (35.188) 18.413 (36.536) 30.505 (33.410) 38.917 (47.267) 8.748 (14.184) −4.104 (10.998)
Lockdown 28.788 (23.099) −32.140 (31.529) 27.205 (28.571) 14.483 (39.408) −14.628 (14.791) 40.540** (17.445)
Relaxa ion 25.301 (24.715) −11.096 (33.453) −24.660 (34.019) 7.764 (42.257) −24.986 (15.605) 52.755*** (18.241)
WFH (al .) x Lockdown 59.958 (37.521) −37.262 (38.818) −23.531 (36.650) −10.038 (49.006) 2.908 (16.135) 13.440 (13.214)
WFH (al .) x Relaxa ion 133.472*** (42.127) −11.306 (40.538) −24.120 (43.680) −27.031 (52.866) 2.574 (18.414) −5.773 (13.616)
All o he con ols Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Obse a ions 739 1069 739 1069 739 1069
R-squa ed 0.253 0.264 0.150 0.113 0.209 0.124
B. WEEKDAYS ONLY
WFH −82.116** (41.170) −13.662 (58.903) 35.585 (40.933) 26.579 (68.390) 13.337 (17.880) 1.825 (14.138)
Lockdown 44.391* (26.815) −10.413 (36.620) 1.307 (36.382) −33.475 (42.528) −18.823 (16.531) 63.343*** (22.194)
Relaxa ion 41.306 (28.548) 12.552 (38.515) −47.469 (41.705) −18.371 (45.834) −30.314* (17.127) 77.715*** (23.692)
WFH x Lockdown 35.469 (44.307) −26.407 (61.016) −12.225 (45.156) 12.018 (69.257) −4.343 (19.954) 10.330 (16.937)
WFH x Relaxa ion 112.072** (50.321) 4.338 (62.353) −0.698 (52.919) −67.718 (72.686) 0.838 (22.378) −7.866 (17.204)
All o he con ols Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Obse a ions 542 801 542 801 542 801
R-squa ed 0.270 0.299 0.159 0.128 0.244 0.135
The sample (CaDDI) is es ic ed o employed indi iduals who wo ked du ing he dia y day. Robus s anda d e o s in pa en heses. WFH a e defined as wo ke s whose paid wo k
ac i i ies we e all epo ed a home. Dependen a iables a e he ime spen in paid wo k, leisu e, o unpaid wo k, measu ed in minu es pe day. *** significan a he 1%; **
significan a he 5%; * significan a he 10%
Wo k om home, ime alloca ion, and well-being: he impac o lockdowns 535

Table 14 Time alloca ion es ima es on ull- ime wo ke s
PAID WORK LEISURE UNPAID WORK
VARIABLES Women (1) Men (2) Women (3) Men (4) Women (5) Men (6)
WFH (al e na i e) −175.455*** (41.379) −49.916 (53.720) 47.869 (46.642) 92.513 (65.655) 31.920** (13.936) −0.004 (11.736)
Lockdown 15.548 (26.774) −43.286 (34.151) 38.194 (34.421) 17.208 (36.939) 3.059 (14.078) 41.081** (19.197)
Relaxa ion 4.239 (28.450) −28.465 (36.387) 0.137 (40.866) 15.426 (40.443) −10.543 (15.293) 51.189** (20.302)
WFH (al .) x Lockdown 129.769*** (44.272) 19.146 (55.740) −28.287 (49.762) −60.932 (67.213) −23.588 (16.161) 11.886 (13.836)
WFH (al .) x Relaxa ion 234.400*** (50.305) 43.226 (56.492) −42.658 (57.529) −89.189 (68.717) −30.158 (18.395) −0.870 (14.318)
All o he con ols Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Obse a ions 605 964 605 964 605 964
R-squa ed 0.185 0.189 0.140 0.094 0.140 0.102
The sample (CaDDI) is es ic ed o employed indi iduals who wo ked du ing he dia y day and a e ull- ime wo ke s. Robus s anda d e o s in pa en heses. WFH a e defined as
wo ke s whose paid wo k ac i i ies we e all epo ed a home. Dependen a iables a e he ime spen in paid wo k, leisu e, o unpaid wo k, measu ed in minu es pe day. ***
significan a he 1%; ** significan a he 5%; * significan a he 10%
536 J. I. Giménez-Nadal e al.
Table 15 Es ima es on enjoymen , obus ness checks
PAID WORK EPISODES LEISURE EPISODES UNPAID WORK EPIDOSDES
VARIABLES Women (1) Men (2) Women (3) Men (4) Women (5) Men (6)
A. ALTERNATIVE DEFINITION OF WFH (1 hou +)
WFH −0.595 (0.608) 0.544 (0.438) −0.977*** (0.361) 0.271 (0.428) −0.535 (0.654) −0.716 (0.625)
Lockdown 0.126 (0.610) −0.447 (0.492) −0.730* (0.383) 0.005 (0.523) 0.057 (0.593) −1.253** (0.588)
Relaxa ion 0.397 (0.610) 0.015 (0.515) −0.257 (0.408) 0.261 (0.518) −0.248 (0.773) −0.849 (0.629)
WFH x Lockdown 0.319 (0.653) −0.533 (0.493) 1.197*** (0.380) −0.111 (0.486) 0.159 (0.687) 1.280* (0.648)
WFH x Relaxa ion 0.153 (0.669) −0.785 (0.575) 1.000* (0.510) −0.357 (0.462) 1.682* (0.870) 0.867 (0.705)
All o he con ols Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Obse a ions 5602 8979 4366 8820 726 882
R-squa ed 0.512 0.464 0.429 0.329 0.625 0.637
B. WEEKDAYS ONLY
WFH 0.130 (0.647) 0.735 (0.560) −0.909** (0.404) −0.042 (0.493) −2.068*** (0.746) 0.342 (0.587)
Lockdown 0.027 (0.814) −0.582 (0.525) −0.935* (0.513) −0.331 (0.746) 0.227 (0.806) −1.161* (0.696)
Relaxa ion 0.389 (0.760) −0.505 (0.550) −0.305 (0.488) −0.130 (0.749) −0.166 (1.221) −0.653 (0.682)
WFH x Lockdown −0.372 (0.754) −0.947 (0.634) 1.235*** (0.459) 0.296 (0.559) 3.242*** (1.137) −0.265 (0.643)
WFH x Relaxa ion −0.329 (0.695) −1.132 (0.782) 0.852 (0.564) −0.075 (0.603) 0.668 (1.558) −0.389 (0.901)
All o he con ols Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Obse a ions 4015 6629 3251 6346 475 646
R-squa ed 0.523 0.532 0.483 0.344 0.742 0.691
The sample (CaDDI-episode) is es ic ed o episodes o employed indi iduals who wo ked du ing he dia y day. Robus -clus e (a he indi idual le el) s anda d e o s in
pa en heses. WFH a e defined as wo ke s whose paid wo k ac i i ies we e all epo ed a home. The dependen a iable is he enjoymen o paid wo k, leisu e, o unpaid wo k
episodes. *** significan a he 1%; ** significan a he 5%; * significan a he 10%
Wo k om home, ime alloca ion, and well-being: he impac o lockdowns 537
Table 16 Enjoymen es ima es on ull- ime wo ke s
PAID WORK EPISODES LEISURE EPISODES UNPAID WORK EPIDOSDES
VARIABLES Women (1) Men (2) Women (3) Men (4) Women (5) Men (6)
WFH 0.003 (0.698) 0.942* (0.541) −1.059*** (0.403) 0.234 (0.424) 0.170 (0.666) 0.409 (0.595)
Lockdown 0.531 (0.601) −0.047 (0.498) −0.545 (0.468) −0.068 (0.586) 0.413 (0.535) −1.126** (0.542)
Relaxa ion 0.649 (0.615) 0.279 (0.527) −0.286 (0.465) 0.137 (0.587) 0.259 (0.809) −0.852 (0.567)
WFH x Lockdown −0.428 (0.753) −1.158* (0.615) 1.133** (0.478) −0.114 (0.493) −0.262 (0.793) −0.136 (0.686)
WFH x Relaxa ion −0.335 (0.764) −1.068 (0.680) 1.746*** (0.547) −0.429 (0.475) −2.642* (1.392) −0.395 (0.736)
All o he con ols Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Obse a ions 5079 7907 3457 7347 545 770
R-squa ed 0.512 0.516 0.432 0.331 0.718 0.671
The sample (CaDDI-episode) is es ic ed o episodes o employed indi iduals who wo ked du ing he dia y day and a e ull- ime wo ke s. Robus -clus e (a he indi idual le el)
s anda d e o s in pa en heses. WFH a e defined as wo ke s whose paid wo k ac i i ies we e all epo ed a home. The dependen a iable is he enjoymen o paid wo k, leisu e,
o unpaid wo k episodes. *** significan a he 1%; ** significan a he 5%; * significan a he 10%
538 J. I. Giménez-Nadal e al.
8 Appendix B: The iming o ac i i ies
Figu es 1–6
Lockdowns
Relaxa ion
Fig. 1 The iming o paid wo k. The sample (CaDDI-episode) is es ic ed o employed indi iduals who
wo ked du ing he dia y day. WFH a e defined as wo ke s whose paid wo k ac i i ies we e all epo ed
a home
Wo k om home, ime alloca ion, and well-being: he impac o lockdowns 539
Lockdowns
Relaxa ion
Fig. 2 The iming o leisu e. The sample (CaDDI-episode) is es ic ed o employed indi iduals who
wo ked du ing he dia y day. WFH a e defined as wo ke s whose paid wo k ac i i ies we e all epo ed a
home
540 J. I. Giménez-Nadal e al.

Lockdowns
Relaxa ion
Fig. 3 The iming o unpaid wo k. The sample (CaDDI-episode) is es ic ed o employed indi iduals who
wo ked du ing he dia y day. WFH a e defined as wo ke s whose paid wo k ac i i ies we e all epo ed a
home
Wo k om home, ime alloca ion, and well-being: he impac o lockdowns 541
Lockdowns
Relaxa ion
Fig. 4 Tempog am o paid wo k (ne o obse ables). The sample (CaDDI-episode) is es ic ed o
employed indi iduals who wo ked du ing he dia y day. WFH a e defined as wo ke s whose paid wo k
ac i i ies we e all epo ed a home. Coe ficien s ep esen he di e ence in he a e o WFH and WAHF
doing paid wo k, ne o obse ables, each hou o he day
542 J. I. Giménez-Nadal e al.
Lockdowns
Relaxa ion
Fig. 5 Tempog am o leisu e (ne o obse ables). The sample (CaDDI-episode) is es ic ed o employed
indi iduals who wo ked du ing he dia y day. WFH a e defined as wo ke s whose paid wo k ac i i ies
we e all epo ed a home. Coe ficien s ep esen he di e ence in he a e o WFH and WAHF doing
leisu e, ne o obse ables, each hou o he day
Wo k om home, ime alloca ion, and well-being: he impac o lockdowns 543
Ou subsequen analysis compa es he ime alloca ion pa e ns o WFH and
WAFH wo ke s ac oss paid wo k, leisu e, and unpaid wo k ac i i ies h oughou he
day. This compa ison allows us o in es iga e whe he WFH wo ke s exhibi a
p e e ence o adhe ing o egula wo king hou s (e.g., mo nings and a e noons) and
when hey alloca e ime o non-wo k ac i i ies (leisu e and unpaid wo k), while
accoun ing o obse able ac o s. Figu es 1,2,and3show he p opo ion o WFH
and WAFH wo ke s doing paid wo k, leisu e, and unpaid wo k, o each minu e o
he day, di e en ia ing be ween emales and males, and among he h ee ime pe iods
conside ed. Howe e , hese figu es (o en e e ed o as empog ams, e.g., Pabilonia
& Ve non, 2022) ep esen aw di e ences, and no di e ences ne o obse able
ac o s, which we will explo e subsequen ly.
We adop he app oach ou lined by Hame mesh (1999). Fo each indi idual i and
hou o he day, we c ea e a dummy a iable indica ing whe he he indi idual is
Lockdowns
Relaxa ion
Fig. 6 Tempog am o unpaid wo k (ne o obse ables). The sample (CaDDI-episode) is es ic ed o
employed indi iduals who wo ked du ing he dia y day. WFH a e defined as wo ke s whose paid wo k
ac i i ies we e all epo ed a home. Coe ficien s ep esen he di e ence in he a e o WFH and WAHF
doing unpaid wo k, ne o obse ables, each hou o he day
544 J. I. Giménez-Nadal e al.