Öge, Ke em; Quin in, Manuel
Resea ch Repo
Global amewo ks o egula ing acial ecogni ion
echnology and a i icial in elligence: Adap i e and
inclusi e go e nance
IDOS Policy B ie , No. 19/2025
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Ge man Ins i u e o De elopmen and Sus ainabili y (IDOS), Bonn
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Öge, Ke em; Quin in, Manuel (2025) : Global amewo ks o egula ing acial
ecogni ion echnology and a i icial in elligence: Adap i e and inclusi e go e nance, IDOS Policy
B ie , No. 19/2025, Ge man Ins i u e o De elopmen and Sus ainabili y (IDOS), Bonn,
h ps://doi.o g/10.23661/ipb19.2025
This Ve sion is a ailable a :
h ps://hdl.handle.ne /10419/329923
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Global F amewo ks o Regula ing
Facial Recogni ion Technology and
A i icial In elligence
Adap i e and Inclusi e Go e nance
Ke em Öge & Manuel Quin in
Summa y
Despi e g owing awa eness, he global egu-
la ion o acial ecogni ion echnology (FRT)
emains agmen ed, much like he go e nance
o A i icial In elligence (AI). In e na ional ini ia-
i es om he Uni ed Na ions (UN), O ganisa ion
o Economic Co-ope a ion and De elopmen
(OECD), and Wo ld Economic Fo um (WEF)
p o ide guiding p inciples bu all sho o
en o ceable s anda ds. On 27 July 2025, UN
ech chie Do een Bogdan-Ma in wa ned ha
he wo ld u gen ly needs a global app oach o AI
egula ion, as agmen ed e o s isk deepening
inequali ies.
This policy b ie explo es how FRT challenges
exis ing go e nance amewo ks due o i s apid
de elopmen , complexi y and e hical implica-
ions. Ou esea ch shows ha delays in
egula ion a e no only caused by he apid pace
o echnological change bu also by whose
oices a e included in he deba e. In FRT
deba es, ea ly wa nings om ci il socie y abou
p i acy and igh s we e sidelined un il echoed by
go e nmen s and majo ech i ms. This lack o
ep esen a ion, as much as he apid pace o
inno a ion, helps explain why egula ion so o en
lags behind public conce ns. To be e go e n
FRT, he policy b ie p oposes an adap i e and
inclusi e model ha balances lexibili y wi h demo-
c a ic legi imacy. Adap i e go e nance, ma ked
by decen alised decision-making, i e a i e
policy lea ning, and esponsi eness, helps
add ess he unce ain ies and e ol ing isks o
na ow AI applica ions like FRT. Inclusi i y is
equally c i ical in legi imising FRT go e nance.
We p opose h ee policy ecommenda ions o
na ional egula o s, mul ila e al bodies and
egional policymake s o u u e AI go e nance:
(1) equi e anspa en labelling o AI sys ems,
(2) e ame AI as a socie al issue, no jus a
secu i y ool, and (3) embed ci il socie y in AI
go e nance o ums. Taken oge he , hese
ac ions would p omo e a mo e p oac i e, equi -
able and con ex -sensi i e amewo k o egu-
la ing AI globally. These ecommenda ions a e
pa icula ly imely ahead o he AI Impac
Summi , scheduled o Feb ua y 2026 in Delhi,
which will b ing global policymake s oge he o
shape an in e na ional ision o AI go e nance
ha includes FRT.
IDOS POLICY BRIEF
19/2025
IDOS Policy B ie 19/2025
2
Backg ound
AI is a he cen e o global deba es on e hics and
policy, echoing pas echnological shi s om he
p in ing p ess o he in e ne ha spa ked un-
ce ain y o e isks and bene i s (Acemoglu &
Johnson, 2023). Eme ging echnologies a e ha d
o go e n because hey de elop apidly and
exceed he capaci y o exis ing laws and ins i u-
ions o espond. To explo e his gap be ween
echnological p og ess and egula o y change,
his policy pape ocuses on a speci ic subse o
AI: FRT. I speci ically builds on he FRAMENET
(2025) p ojec , which acks he e olu ion o global
public deba es h ough sys ema ic discou se
analysis. Beyond i s immedia e implica ions, FRT
egula ion se es as a es case o building
cohe en mul ila e al no ms and ensu ing con-
sis ency ac oss egimes, challenges ha also
shape clima e, heal h and digi al go e nance.
FRT is a biome ic sys em ha e i ies iden i y by
ma ching acial ea u es om images o ideo wi h
s o ed da abases, using machine lea ning as a
o m o na ow AI. The apid expansion o FRT
aises se ious ci il and human igh s conce ns.
FRT sys ems can unde mine p i acy by ha es ing
la ge amoun s o pe sonal da a om su eillance
o social media wi hou consen (Leong, 2019).
Ce ain applica ions o his echnology exhibi algo-
i hmic bias, especially agains women and people
o colou , aising conce ns abou i s eliabili y in
law en o cemen (Buolamwini & Geb u, 2018).
In au ho i a ian egimes, FRT enables digi al
ep ession by moni o ing ci izens, supp essing
dissen , and con olling mino i y popula ions. In
democ acies, legal o e sigh is o en weak, and
p i a e companies may sha e su eillance da a
wi h law en o cemen wi hou accoun abili y
(F an z e al., 2020). These conce ns ha e g own
wi h he inc easing use o eal- ime acial ecog-
ni ion, whe eby police came as scan c owds o
ma ch aces agains undisclosed wa chlis s.
These de elopmen s ha e p omp ed ci izens, ci il
socie y and ac i is s o call o s onge egula ion,
echoing wide demands o global AI go e nance.
Ye he o m such go e nance should ake
emains unclea . T adi ional app oaches all sho
no only in keeping pace wi h apid echnological
change and i s e hical implica ions bu also in
including di e se oices in he deba e. This policy
pape explo es wo cen al ques ions: How should
FRT be egula ed? And wha can FRT deba es
each us abou go e ning b oade AI echnologies?
We begin by e alua ing exis ing egula o y
app oaches and iden i ying hei key limi a ions.
Nex , based on ou o iginal esea ch, we explo e
how shi s in FRT discou se highligh s he need
o adap abili y and inclusi i y. Finally, we p opose
clea amewo ks o enhance global go e nance
s a egies ha can e ec i ely add ess he
challenges posed by AI. We a gue ha he case
o FRT o e s impo an insigh s in o how we migh
go e n b oade AI sys ems.
Exis ing egula ion o acial
ecogni ion echnology
New echnologies like AI a e ma ked by apid
g ow h, no el y and unce ain y, o en ou pacing
he capaci y o go e nmen s o espond (Tinni-
ello, 2022). Regula ion lags because go e nance
sys ems mo e slowly, au ho i y is agmen ed,
indus y lobbying delays ac ion, and ew ins i u-
ions an icipa e eme ging isks. Beyond hese
s uc u al ba ie s, go e nance is highly con ex
speci ic. In FRT, egula ion e lec s no jus ech-
nical ea u es bu also shi ing poli ical and social
iews o su eillance (Bü he e al., 2022), p odu-
cing wide a ia ion ac oss he globe. Fo example,
despi e being a global leade in FRT de elop-
men , he Uni ed S a es (US) lacks comp e-
hensi e ede al legisla ion, leading o a ag-
men ed egula o y landscape wi h a ying ules
ac oss s a es. In con as , he Eu opean Union
(EU) s ands ou wi h i s AI Ac , which places s ic
limi s on acial ecogni ion, including a ban on
eal- ime public use, excep unde na owly
de ined excep ions (S ix, 2024). In China, while
he s a e deploys FRT wi h minimal accoun abili y,
i s use by p i a e en i ies is subjec o s ic egu-
la ion. India has mo ed ahead wi h a na ional FRT
sys em, again unde weak o e sigh , while in
La in Ame ica, he echnology is la gely deployed
wi hou clea sa egua ds.
IDOS Policy B ie 19/2025
3
Table 1: In e na ional ini ia i es on FRT
O ganisa ion/Ini ia i e S eng hs Limi a ions
Wo ld Economic Fo um
(WEF)
P o ides mul i-s akeholde p inciples
and con enes indus y–go e nmen
dialogue
Non-binding, limi ed legi imacy
beyond p i a e sec o , weak ollow-
up mechanisms
Uni ed Na ions
In e egional C ime and
Jus ice Resea ch
Ins i u e (UNICRI)
Focus on human igh s in law
en o cemen use o AI and FRT, o e s
oolki s o police o ces
Na ow scope, limi ed up ake, non-
en o ceable
Council o Eu ope
(Con en ion 108+)
Legally binding amewo k on da a
p o ec ion, s ong p i acy sa egua ds
Regional in scope, limi ed each
beyond Eu ope
UN Model P o ocol o
Law En o cemen
O icials (2023)
Explici ly links su eillance
echnologies, including FRT, o human
igh s in he con ex o peace ul p o es
Non-binding, depends on olun a y
adop ion, no en o cemen
mechanism
Global P i acy
Assembly
Se s p inciples and expec a ions o
guide esponsible use o pe sonal da a,
including FRT, by egula o s wo ldwide
So law: elies on olun a y
adop ion, une en implemen a ion
ac oss ju isdic ions
Sou ce: Au ho s’ compila ion
Meanwhile, in e na ional e o s o se sha ed FRT
s anda ds ha e gained momen um. Examples
include he WEF and he Uni ed Na ions In e -
egional C ime and Jus ice Resea ch Ins i u e
(UNICRI), which p oposed policy amewo ks
aimed a se ing esponsible bounda ies o he
use o FRT. The Global P i acy Assembly has
endo sed p inciples and expec a ions o guide he
app op ia e use o pe sonal in o ma ion in FRT
applica ions. Addi ionally, he Council o Eu ope’s
upda ed Con en ion o he P o ec ion o
Indi iduals wi h ega d o Au oma ic P ocessing o
Pe sonal Da a (Con en ion 108+) emphasises
he igh o p i acy and sa egua d pe sonal da a.
The UN has also in oduced a p ac ical oolki o
law en o cemen o icials o p omo e and p o ec
human igh s, pa icula ly in he con ex o he use
o digi al echnologies in peace ul p o es s. These
ini ia i es a e p omising.
Ye , as Table 1 demons a es, hei impac emains
limi ed, hinde ed by he lack o en o ceable
s anda ds and inclusi e pa icipa ion. Gi en hese
cons ain s, i is c ucial o examine he key policy
deba es ha con inue o shape, and a imes
hinde , meaning ul p og ess.
E olu ion o deba es on acial
ecogni ion echnology
Regula ing AI ools like FRT p esen s a di icul
challenge. Public deba e, uelled by g owing
awa eness and di e se pe spec i es, has sig-
ni ican ly shaped egula o y esponses. Ou
discou se ne wo k analysis o mo e han 4,000
news a icles om he Financial Times, New Yo k
Times, Agence F ance-P esse, Associa ed P ess,
and Reu e s, published be ween 2000 and 2020,
e eals how aming o FRT e ol ed o e ime
and how hese shi s aligned wi h egula o y
de elopmen s (Öge & Quin in, o hcoming).
We ind ha om 2000 o 2009, FRT was amed
mainly as a secu i y ool, wi h deba e cen ed on
e ec i eness a he han e hics. Be ween 2010
and 2016, conce ns abou bias and anspa ency
g ew, and ci il socie y oices gained isibili y, a
shi we desc ibe as desecu i isa ion. This co-
incided wi h he EU’s GDPR, which aised
s anda ds o da a p o ec ion.
Figu e 1 shows he e olu ion o ames in ou
global da ase , highligh ing he decline o secu i y
aming and he ise o e hics and igh s conce ns
o e his pe iod.
IDOS Policy B ie 19/2025
4
Figu e 1: E olu ion o FRT ames
Sou ce: Au ho s’ compila ion om o iginal da ase
Since 2017, e hical conce ns ha e domina ed.
Racial bias and police use o FRT ha e become
cen al hemes, and ech companies a e echoing
ci il socie y demands, some e en imposing mo a-
o iums.
Figu e 2 illus a es his ise in an i-FRT aming in
ou global da ase . A i s glance, he imeline
sugges s a simple pa e n: ising conce ns lead
i s o nega i e sen imen s and hen o egula ion,
as seen wi h he GDPR and he e en ual adop ion
o he 2024 AI Ac by he EU. Ye ou da a show a
mo e nuanced s o y. C i ical oices ha e been
p esen in he deba e since he beginning. Fo
ins ance, in he US, NGOs such as he Ame ican
Ci il Libe ies Union (ACLU) aised e hical
conce ns as ea ly as he 2000s, bu hese we e
sidelined unde a secu i ised aming. As such,
egula ion lagged no only because echnology
ad anced oo quickly bu also because ea ly
oices lacked ep esen a ion.
Closing his gap equi es mo e han jus as e
legisla ion. I demands inclusi e go e nance
s uc u es ha b ing di e se oices, especially
hose om ci il socie y, in o policymaking om he
ou se . Wi hou hem, ea ly wa nings will be
igno ed, and egula ion will con inue o lag behind
public needs. The nex sec ion explo es how
hese p oblems can be add essed.
Figu e 2: E olu ion o an i-FRT ames (as % o o al ames)
Sou ce: Au ho s’ compila ion om o iginal da ase
IDOS Policy B ie 19/2025
5
How o egula e acial ecogni ion
echnology
The egula ion o FRT equi es he na iga ion o
he inhe en complexi y o echnological eco-
sys ems, ma ked by apid inno a ion, di e se
s akeholde s, nes ed decision-making s uc u es
and global in e dependencies (O sini e al., 2020;
Walby, 2009). These dynamics e eal he limi a-
ions o adi ional go e nance models and
highligh he inadequacy o igid, hie a chical
app oaches. This sec ion explo es how adap i e
go e nance, g ounded in lexibili y and inclusi i y,
can b idge he gaps o adi ional amewo ks and
inco po a e di e se socie al oices.
Adap i e and inclusi e go e nance
Adap i e go e nance manages unce ain y and
change h ough decen alised decision-making,
s akeholde pa icipa ion, con inuous lea ning and
policy lexibili y (Die z e al., 2003; Folke e al.,
2005). I is especially ele an o digi al go e -
nance and AI, whe e collabo a i e app oaches
a e needed o keep pace wi h apid echnological
change and e ol ing ci izen demands (Wang e
al., 2018).
Adap i e go e nance emphasises con inuous
lea ning, allowing objec i es and policies o be
e ised as new insigh s eme ge (Juhola, 2023).
This app oach sui s he unce ain ies o FRT’s
e ol ing capabili ies, impac s, and unin ended
consequences. The EU’s AI Ac illus a es his
model wi h i s isk-based app oach o algo i hms,
which enables i e a i e policy cycles ha adjus
o new e idence and public eedback. I shows
his dynamism h ough i s e iew clause (A icle
112), which allows upda es based on echno-
logical change, social shi s and s akeholde
inpu . Adap i e go e nance also allows policy-
make s o balance sa egua ds wi h lexibili y o
suppo inno a ion (G i in, 2003). In FRT, adap i e
amewo ks can be esilien and esponsi e,
add essing immedia e h ea s while enabling es-
ponsible use. The AI Ac e lec s his balance by
p ohibi ing eal- ime biome ic iden i ica ion in
public spaces while allowing na ow excep ions,
such as o p e en ing e o is a acks (EU, 2024).
Ul ima ely, adap i e go e nance o e s a p o-
ac i e and esilien way o egula e FRT, e ol ing
wi h he echnology while a oiding he limi s o
igid hie a chies. Can his model be implemen ed
globally? As a case s udy, he EU AI Ac o e s a
p og essi e, igh s-based amewo k wi h po-
en ial o shape global no ms, bu i s global adop-
ion is cons ained by di e gen poli ical sys ems,
une en capaci ies, and he absence o uni ied
en o cemen . E ec i e adap i e go e nance,
na ionally and mul ila e ally, mus accoun o
poli ical and social di e si y and adop a plu alis ic
app oach ha accommoda es di e en alues
and capaci ies. This equi es genuine inclusi i y
and anspa ency, ensu ing ha ci il socie y and
a ec ed communi ies a e pa o na ional and
global AI go e nance.
Ci il socie y plays a key ole in making his plu a-
lis ic app oach wo k. By aising ea ly conce ns
abou p i acy, bias and su eillance, NGOs o en
an icipa e isks be o e s a es o companies
espond. P oac i ely including hese oices in
egula o y deba es can na ow he gap be ween
echnological change and e ec i e go e nance,
ensu ing ha egula ion is bo h imely and socially
legi ima e. Empi ical case s udies ein o ce his
a gumen . Da a and Cha in (2022) illus a e how
he in eg a ion o local knowledge in he decision-
making p ocess allows o a mo e e icien and
adap i e egula o y esponses. D awing on local
insigh s allows policymake s o add ess issues
like p i acy iola ions o w ong ul iden i ica ion
be o e hey escala e. Ea ly, con ex -speci ic in e -
en ions and anspa ency can p e en public
backlash and build us in bo h he echnology
and i s egula o s. A he mac o-le el, Ulnicane e
al. (2021) show ha go e nance o new echnol-
ogies bene i s om in ol ing a wide ange o
s akeholde s. The inclusion o di e se social
g oups can educe egula o y lag and s eng hen
legi imacy.
Gi en AI’s apid e olu ion, a ied in e p e a ions,
and inc easing geopoli ical i al ies among he
US, he Eu opean Union, and China, a single
global amewo k based on he EU AI ac is
unlikely. Mo e e ec i e go e nance would
IDOS Policy B ie 19/2025
6
combine he p o ec ion o igh s wi h con ex ual
lexibili y and in e na ional coo dina ion. T ans-
pa ency and inclusi i y emain essen ial as
sha ed p inciples ha can build us ac oss
di ides, while adap i e go e nance o e s a plu al-
is ic pa h o wa d by allowing egional a ia ion
wi hin common e hical baselines.
Mo ing o wa d: lessons o
go e ning a i icial in elligence
The case o FRT o e s b oade lessons o AI
go e nance. Despi e e o s a all le els,
egula ion has s uggled o keep pace wi h as -
mo ing echnologies, a challenge ha is espe-
cially clea wi h gene a i e AI, he use o which is
ou s ipping he de elopmen o legal and e hical
no ms. Ye ou analysis shows ha adap i e and
inclusi e go e nance o FRT is possible in
speci ic con ex s. This sec ion se s ou key policy
ecommenda ions o suppo a global go e nance
amewo k o AI.
Recommenda ion 1: Se anspa ency as a
minimum e hical AI s anda d
The expe ience wi h FRT shows he u gen need
o minimum e hical s anda ds in AI go e nance.
Exis ing amewo ks such as he GDPR, he EU
AI Ac , and local mo a o iums in he US emain
agmen ed, allowing companies like Clea iew AI
o exploi loopholes by sc aping pe sonal images
ac oss bo de s (Shephe d, 2024). Wi hou in e -
na ionally ag eed no ms, domes ic ules a e
easily ci cum en ed.
Global go e nance should he e o e es on a
co e se o sha ed e hical p inciples. While ull
consensus on alues is unlikely, ag eemen on
minimum s anda ds is achie able. The upcoming
AI Impac Summi in Delhi in Feb ua y 2026
p o ides an oppo uni y o ad ance his agenda
by building consensus on anspa ency as a
global baseline. These s anda ds should de ine
pe missible da a p ac ices, equi e anspa ency
in model de elopmen , and es ablish en o ceable
in e na ional ules.
The i s s ep is manda o y anspa ency equi e-
men s o AI sys ems. Ou esea ch shows ha
anspa ency has been cen al o shaping he
GDPR and he EU AI Ac (Öge & Quin in, o h-
coming). Unlike con es ed human igh s a gu-
men s, anspa ency no ms a e b oadly accep -
able, e en in au ho i a ian se ings (Öge, 2017). AI
models should be accompanied by s anda dised
documen a ion co e ing aining da ase s,
in ended use, es ing me hods, known isks and
deploymen con ex s.
Such disclosu es mus be en o ced h ough co-
o dina ed mechanisms in ol ing na ional egu-
la o s and mul ila e al bodies such as he OECD,
UN and G20. Recen AI summi s in London, Seoul
and Pa is p o ide pla o ms o build consensus.
Collabo a ion o his kind is essen ial o ensu e
meaning ul o e sigh and p e en egula o y
a bi age.
Recommenda ion 2: F ame AI as a socie al
issue, no jus a secu i y ool
Secu i ised aming na ows deba e and sidelines
ea ly conce ns om ci il socie y. When AI is
ea ed mainly as a secu i y issue, i is emo ed
om no mal poli ics and limi a ions a e placed on
who can pa icipa e (Wæ e , 1993). Ou esea ch
shows ha desecu i isa ion o FRT coincided wi h
g ea e isibili y o igh s-based conce ns and
b oade ci il socie y ep esen a ion (Öge &
Quin in, 2024). This shi also o e lapped wi h
egula o y inno a ions such as ci y-le el mo a-
o iums in he US and igh s- ocused amewo ks
in he EU.
San F ancisco’s 2019 ban on go e nmen use o
FRT illus a es his dynamic. Ci il socie y e-
amed he issue as being ela ed o ci il libe ies
and acial jus ice a he han public sa e y,
enabling he ci y’s Boa d o Supe iso s o pass
one o he i s mo a o iums. This shows how
shi ing he deba e beyond secu i y can c ea e
space o b oade pa icipa ion and conc e e
egula o y change. To sus ain his app oach,
mul ila e al o ums, ci y au ho i ies and pa lia-
men s should ac i ely desecu i ise AI deba es.
IDOS Policy B ie 19/2025
7
Recommenda ion 3: Embed ci il socie y in AI
go e nance o ums
The FRT case shows ha aming shapes egu-
la ion by de e mining who pa icipa es and whose
pe spec i es a e legi imised. Na ow, echnical
amings p io i ise s a e ac o s and expe s,
excluding b oade socie al oices and ein o cing
powe asymme ies.
To s eng hen democ a ic o e sigh and egula-
o y du abili y, UN-led wo king g oups, as well as
egional o ganisa ions, mus b oaden AI policy
deba es. F aming AI a ound issues such as da a
go e nance, accoun abili y and anspa ency
c ea es space o mo e inclusi e pa icipa ion and
mo e cohe en egula ion.
Reducing echnical ba ie s is also essen ial.
Go e nance p ocesses should a oid exclusi e
expe o ums, as seen in some Global AI
summi s, and adop pa icipa o y app oaches ha
e lec AI’s c oss-sec o al impac s. Embedding
ci il socie y and a ec ed communi ies in o global
egula o y o ums ensu es ha e hical conce ns
a e sus ained and socie al impac s a e ecog-
nised. In sum, sys ema ically including ci il
socie y helps gua d agains na ow secu i y o
echnical amings, enhances legi imacy and
suppo s adap i e, inclusi e go e nance capable
o keeping pace wi h echnological change.
IDOS Policy B ie 19/2025
8
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