Ncanywa, Thobeka; Dyan yi, N sika; Asaleye, Abiola John
A icle
Empowe men h ough en ep eneu ship: A mixed-
me hods analysis o social g an s and economic su iciency
Economies
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Sugges ed Ci a ion: Ncanywa, Thobeka; Dyan yi, N sika; Asaleye, Abiola John (2025) : Empowe men
h ough en ep eneu ship: A mixed-me hods analysis o social g an s and economic su iciency,
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Ci a ion: Ncanywa, T., Dyan yi, N., &
Asaleye, A. J. (2025). Empowe men
Th ough En ep eneu ship: A
Mixed-Me hods Analysis o Social
G an s and Economic Su iciency.
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A icle
Empowe men Th ough En ep eneu ship: A Mixed-Me hods
Analysis o Social G an s and Economic Su iciency
Thobeka Ncanywa 1, N sika Dyan yi 2and Abiola John Asaleye 3,*
1Di ec o a e o Resea ch De elopmen and Inno a ion, M ha ha Campus, Wal e Sisulu Uni e si y,
M ha ha 5117, Sou h A ica; [email p o ec ed]
2Business Managemen Educa ion, Facul y o Educa ion, Queens own Campus, Wal e Sisulu Uni e si y,
Queens own 5320, Sou h A ica; [email p o ec ed]
3Depa men o Business Managemen & Economics, Facul y o Economic and Financial Sciences,
Zamukulungisa Campus, Wal e Sisulu Uni e si y, M ha ha 5099, Sou h A ica
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac : En ep eneu ship is c ucial in p omo ing inno a ion, job c ea ion, and po e y
alle ia ion, pa icula ly in de eloping economies. This s udy adop s a mixed-me hods
app oach, using quan i a i e and quali a i e analysis o examine mac oeconomic ac o s’
impac on en ep eneu ial ac i i y. The quan i a i e analysis u ilises ully modi ied leas
squa es and dynamic o dina y leas squa es o es ima e long- un ela ionships, while he
quali a i e componen applies hema ic analysis o assess he ole o school-based ga den-
ing ini ia i es in p omo ing s uden s’ economic pa icipa ion. Ou indings indica e ha
go e nmen expendi u e on educa ion signi ican ly enhances en ep eneu ship, whe eas ac-
cess o c edi emains ine ec i e, sugges ing pe sis en ba ie s in inancial in e media ion.
Labou o ce pa icipa ion shows a posi i e ela ionship wi h en ep eneu ship, suppo ing
he idea ha a mo e engaged labou o ce p omo es business c ea ion. The indings also
show a nega i e impac o egula o y quali y on en ep eneu ship, s essing he need o
egula o y e o ms o educe en y ba ie s. While echnology adop ion has a delayed
e ec , long- e m in es men s in digi al in as uc u e a e ecommended. A he mic o-
le el, school-based en ep eneu ship p og ams, such as ege able ga dening, cul i a e
en ep eneu ial skills, hough sus ainabili y depends on consis en suppo and esou ces.
Based on hese indings, his s udy sugges s he need o enhance educa ion, imp o e access
o inance, and s eamline egula o y amewo ks o p omo e en ep eneu ship.
Keywo ds: en ep eneu ship de elopmen ; new business egis a ions; social g an s and
economic su iciency; go e nmen expendi u e; mixed-me hods analysis
1. In oduc ion
En ep eneu ship is one o he key d i e s o economic g ow h and social de elopmen
(Pan e al.,2024;Ncanywa,2019). P omo ing en ep eneu ship in de eloping economies like
Sou h A ica is c ucial o educing unemploymen and income inequali y while p omo ing
g ea e economic pa icipa ion (Moko e,2024;Ma lala & Ncube,2025). Howe e , he
ex en o which public policies in luence en ep eneu ial beha iou emains deba able.
While social g an s p o ide inancial elie and imp o e li elihoods, hey may s imula e
en ep eneu ial ac i i y by educing he isk o c ea ing a dependency ha discou ages
business c ea ion (G as & Mendoza-Aba ca,2014;Nzabamwi a & Ndhlo u,2024). Simila ly,
go e nmen expendi u e on educa ion, egula o y amewo ks, and echnology adop ion
a e essen ial in enabling an en i onmen o en ep eneu ship (Geo ge & P abhu,2003;Pu
Economies 2025,13, 107 h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/economies13040107
Economies 2025,13, 107 2 o 27
e al.,2021). Ne e heless, he ela ionship be ween hese mac oeconomic de e minan s
and en ep eneu ship emains unde explo ed, pa icula ly in Sou h A ica. A he same
ime, p omo ing en ep eneu ship a he mic o-le el, such as en ep eneu ial educa ion and
school-based ag icul u al ini ia i es, has eme ged as a po en ial mechanism o ad ancing
en ep eneu ial skills and economic pa icipa ion (Mayombe,2017;Wallenbo n,2010;
Booi e al.,2024).
School-based ege able ga dening, o example, has been inc easingly p omo ed o
enhance ood secu i y, ins il en ep eneu ial capabili ies, and equip s uden s wi h p ac ical
skills o sel -su iciency (Food and Ag icul u e O ganiza ion (FAO) (2009)). The Na ional
School Nu i ion P og amme (NSNP) was in oduced o p omo e ood secu i y wi hin
Sou h A ica, which was cha ac e ised by a no able ini ia i e unded h ough a condi ional
g an delinea ed in he na ional budge (Omulo,2023;Mensah & Ka iem,2021). Ini ially
ins i u ed as a componen o he Recons uc ion and De elopmen P og ammes (RDP) in
1994 unde he auspices o he Depa men o Heal h, he p og amme wi nessed a s a egic
ansi ion o he Depa men o Educa ion by 2004 (Depa men o Basic Educa ion,2025).
The NSNP assumes a ca dinal ole in mi iga ing po e y and hunge among impo e ished
educa ional ins i u ions, mainly a ge ing hose classi ied wi hin “quin ile one o h ee
schools”, which ca e o he mos economically ma ginalised communi ies. I endea ou s
o p o ide nu i ious meals on ime o lea ne s, eaches heal hy ea ing habi s and li es yles
among he school populace, and subs an ially con ibu es owa ds ood secu i y and he
p omo ion o sus ainable ood p oduc ion p ac ices wi hin schools and hei su ounding
communi ies (Oos indje e al.,2017;Chaudha y e al.,2020). Howe e , he ex en o which
such ini ia i es con ibu e o economic engagemen , pa icula ly wi hin unde p i ileged
communi ies, emains an empi ical ques ion.
The ele ance o his s udy lies in i s con ibu ions, as ollows: (i) i in es iga es he
mac oeconomic de e minan s o en ep eneu ship, including go e nmen expendi u e
on educa ion, labou o ce pa icipa ion, access o c edi , and egula ion and echnology
adop ion in line wi h SDG 8 (decen wo k and economic g ow h) and SDG 10 ( educed in-
equali ies); (ii) i b idges he gap be ween policy in e en ions and g ass oo s en ep eneu -
ship, in ending o ensu e ha na ional policies e ec i ely ansla e in o localised economic
pa icipa ion, suppo ing SDG 1 (no po e y); (iii) i examines he ole o school-based
en ep eneu ial ege able ga dening in enhancing ood secu i y and skill de elopmen ,
con ibu ing o SDG 2 (ze o hunge ) and SDG 4 (quali y educa ion); and (i ) i ills an
impo an gap in he empi ical li e a u e. These a e discussed below.
This s udy examines he mac oeconomic de e minan s o en ep eneu ship, including
go e nmen expendi u e on educa ion, labou o ce pa icipa ion, access o c edi , and
egula ion and echnology adop ion, which a e key d i e s o economic ac i i y in de el-
oping economies. Pe sis en challenges such as po e y, unemploymen , and inadequa e
esou ces hinde inclusi e g ow h, making he assessmen o how hese ac o s in luence
en ep eneu ial beha iou essen ial (Ncanywa & Dyan yi,2022). Addi ionally, e alua ing
he ex en o which go e nmen expendi u e on educa ion and egula o y policies suppo
o cons ain en ep eneu ship con ibu es o he discou se on SDG 8 (decen wo k and
economic g ow h) by iden i ying ways o enhance sel -employmen , business c ea ion, and
economic pe o mance. Likewise, his s udy b idges he gap be ween policy in e en ions
and g ass oo s en ep eneu ship, ensu ing ha na ional policies e ec i ely ansla e in o
localised economic pa icipa ion, he eby suppo ing SDG 1 (no po e y). While social
p o ec ion, iscal policies, and egula o y amewo ks a e designed o s imula e economic
ac i i y, hei e ec i eness is o en limi ed by ins i u ional ine iciencies and bu eauc a ic
ba ie s (To m & Oehme,2024;Ma ins e al.,2024). S udies sugges ha op-down policies
equen ly ail o each ma ginalised communi ies, necessi a ing a shi owa ds inclusi e,
Economies 2025,13, 107 3 o 27
bo om-up en ep eneu ial s a egies (Ahmad & Islam,2024;Viswana han e al.,2024;
Fylling e al.,2019). The e o e, his s udy akes a s ep o examine he connec ion be ween
mac oeconomic policies and communi y-d i en en ep eneu ship o p o ide insigh s in o
how policy e o ms can enhance economic sel -su iciency, suppo small-scale en e p ise
de elopmen , and educe po e y.
This s udy looks a he ole o school-based en ep eneu ial ege able ga dening in en-
hancing ood secu i y and skill de elopmen , con ibu ing o SDG 2 (Ze o hunge ) and SDG
4 (Quali y Educa ion). Food insecu i y emains a p essing challenge in many de eloping
economies due o po e y, clima e change, and inadequa e ag icul u al in as uc u e (Ab-
dullahi e al.,2024). In eg a ing en ep eneu ial ga dening p og ams in o school cu icula
imp o es nu i ional pe o mance and equips s uden s wi h essen ial ag icul u al, busi-
ness, and inancial li e acy skills, de eloping long- e m economic impac s (A human,2023;
Co io,2022;Dyan yi e al.,2010). S udies indica e ha hands-on ag icul u al educa ion
enhances s uden s’ knowledge o ood sys ems, p omo es sel -su iciency, and encou ages
u u e en ep eneu ial en u es in ag ibusiness (Bami o e al.,2024;Mukembo e al.,2023).
Mo eo e , school-based ga dening p og ams ha e imp o ed academic pe o mance, hink-
ing, and p oblem-sol ing abili ies (Holloway e al.,2023;Williams & Dixon,2013); his
ini ia i e is a sus ainable model o po e y educ ion, you h empowe men , and local
economic de elopmen .
Despi e ex ensi e s udies on he ole o en ep eneu ship in economic g ow h, a gap
emains in he empi ical li e a u e on how mac oeconomic de e minan s in luence en-
ep eneu ship, pa icula ly in de eloping economies. Exis ing s udies ha e ocused on
mic oanalysis, i m-le el, and indi idual-le el ac o s while o e looking he mac oeco-
nomic and policy-d i en de e minan s (Dileo & Ga cía Pe ei o,2019;San o o e al.,2020;
See e al.,2021;Razmus & Laguna,2018;K yeziu e al.,2024). The impac o go e nmen
expendi u e on educa ion, egula o y amewo ks, echnology adop ion, and access o
c edi on en ep eneu ship is s ill g owing a he mac o-le el, especially whe e public
in e en ions and wel a e policies play a c ucial ole in in luencing economic beha iou .
Mo eo e , a he mic o-le el, while wel a e p og ams such as social g an s a e o en c i i-
cised o c ea ing dependency (Wood & Gough,2006;Walke e al.,2024), hei po en ial o
se e as mechanisms o en ep eneu ial ac i i y and economic pa icipa ion has no been
adequa ely examined in empi ical s udies (Wei e al.,2025;Saoula e al.,2024); his s udy
add esses his gap by assessing how mac oeconomic policies in luence en ep eneu ship
and whe he he mic o-e ec o social g an s a egies c ea e an enabling o cons aining
en i onmen o en ep eneu ship in Sou h A ica, and o he de eloping coun ies wi h a
simila s uc u e can bene i om his s udy.
Gi en he na u e o en ep eneu ship, his s udy adop s a mixed-me hods app oach o
cap u e s uc u al and g ass oo s beha iou . A he mac o-le el, he quan i a i e componen
u ilises mac oeconomic da a o examine how go e nmen expendi u e on educa ion, egu-
la o y amewo ks, echnology adop ion, and c edi accessibili y in luence en ep eneu ial
ac i i y. Howe e , en ep eneu ship also eme ges om localised, communi y-d i en ini-
ia i es, necessi a ing a mic o-le el pe spec i e. To his end, he quali a i e componen
employs hema ic analysis o semi-s uc u ed in e iews conduc ed a i e seconda y
schools, examining how school-based ga dening ini ia i es cul i a e en ep eneu ial skills
and p omo e economic pa icipa ion; his dual app oach will assis in unde s anding
how op-down policies in e ac wi h bo om-up en ep eneu ial engagemen . The main
objec i e o his s udy is o examine mac oeconomic ac o s and social g an impac on
en ep eneu ial ac i i y. Speci ically, his s udy seeks o achie e he ollowing:
•
In es iga e how go e nmen expendi u e on educa ion, egula ion, echnology adop-
ion, and c edi access in luence Sou h A ica’s en ep eneu ship.
Economies 2025,13, 107 4 o 27
•
Examine he impac o school-based ege able ga dening on en ep eneu ial skills and
economic pa icipa ion among seconda y school s uden s in he O.R. Tambo Inland
egion, Eas e n Cape.
This s udy is s uc u ed as ollows: Sec ion 1p o ides he in oduc ion. Sec ion 2
p esen s he heo e ical amewo k, me hodological app oaches, and hypo hesis de el-
opmen . Sec ion 3de ails he ma e ials and me hods. Sec ion 4p esen s he esul s and
discussion. Finally, Sec ion 5concludes his s udy by summa ising i indings and p o iding
policy ecommenda ions.
2. Theo e ical Founda ions, Hypo heses De elopmen , and
Me hodological App oaches
En ep eneu ship is a key d i e o economic empowe men , wi h i s success in lu-
enced by a ious ins i u ional, inancial, and human capi al ac o s. Theo e ically, he
human capi al heo y shows he ole o educa ion and skill acquisi ion in enhancing en-
ep eneu ial capabili ies, suppo ing he no ion ha go e nmen expendi u e on educa ion
aises en ep eneu ship by imp o ing knowledge and p oblem-sol ing abili ies (Kucel e al.,
2016;Becke ,1964). Likewise, access o c edi , as amed by he inancial cons ain heo y,
is essen ial o business o ma ion and expansion (E ans & Jo ano ic,1989;Cha eddine
e al.,2024), while labou o ce pa icipa ion enhances en ep eneu ial engagemen by e-
ducing unemploymen and p omo ion economic de elopmen (Rajsingho e al.,2024). The
ins i u ional heo y s esses he impo ance o a well-s uc u ed egula o y en i onmen in
lowe ing bu eauc a ic ba ie s and p omo ing business con idence (No h,1990;Nazi e al.,
2024). Fu he mo e, he echnological accep ance model sugges s ha echnology acili a es
en ep eneu ship by educing en y cos s and enhancing ma ke access (Sil a,2015). Re-
ga ding he social g an o inance school-based en ep eneu ial ini ia i es, heo e ically,
he expe ien ial lea ning heo y suppo s he a gumen ha hands-on p og ams, such as
ege able ga dening, ins il en ep eneu ial skills, enhance ood secu i y, and p omo e ea ly
economic pa icipa ion (Kolb e al.,2014;Sabe & Böhm,2024).
Me hodologically, en ep eneu ship is a phenomenon in luenced by mac oeconomic
condi ions and mic o-le el beha iou al changes (Vlados & Cha zinikolaou,2020;Rach-
mawa i,2025). A mixed-me hods app oach, which in eg a es quan i a i e mac o-le el
analysis wi h quali a i e mic o-le el, will explain be e how en ep eneu ship con ibu es
o economic pa icipa ion and social de elopmen . The a ionale o his me hodolog-
ical choice is oo ed in he need o b idge he gap be ween agg ega e mac oeconomic
beha iou and localised en ep eneu ial expe iences, ensu ing ha s uc u al de e minan s
and indi idual agencies a e accoun ed o in he analysis (Te jesen e al.,2016).
A he mac o-le el, quan i a i e echniques allow o examining la ge-scale economic
ela ionships. Empi ical s udies ha e demons a ed long- un and causal e ec s on en-
ep eneu ship o p oduc ion d i en by key socioeconomic ac o s (Samadi,2019;Dhah i
e al.,2021;Abdulai & Hussain,2024). Go e nmen expendi u e on educa ion enhances
human capi al, p omo ing en ep eneu ship o inc easing p oduc ion o e ime (A shed
e al.,2024). Technological inno a ion s imula es economic g ow h bu may wo sen income
inequali y i no inclusi ely managed (Bhamb i & Bajdo ,2025). Causal linkages indica e
ha access o c edi , egula o y quali y, and labou o ce pa icipa ion a e in luence en-
ep eneu ial o ien a ion and pe o mance (Nis o skaya & Cingolani,2016). The choice o
econome ic analysis is mo i a ed h ough he p elimina y analysis. Based on he ou come
o he uni oo es and coin eg a ion es , his s udy in es iga es long- un e ec s and
causal impac o enhance policy- ele an pe cep ions o he d i e s o en ep eneu ship.
Howe e , while his s a is ical analysis iden i ies mac o-beha iou , i does no ully cap u e
Economies 2025,13, 107 5 o 27
en ep eneu s’ li ed expe iences, mo i a ions, and challenges, pa icula ly in unde p i i-
leged and ma ginalised communi ies (Cooney & Liccia di,2019).
A he mic o-le el, quali a i e inqui y is essen ial o unco e ing speci ic beha iou s
ha may no be e lec ed in agg ega ed da a. Th ough semi-s uc u ed in e iews, case
s udies, and hema ic analysis, his s udy in es iga es how g ass oo s en ep eneu ial ini ia-
i es, such as school-based ege able ga dening p og ams, enhance ood secu i y, de elop
en ep eneu ial skills, and imp o e economic pe o mance; his app oach p o ides ich,
in-dep h insigh s in o he sociocul u al and ins i u ional ac o s ha a ec en ep eneu ial
beha iou , wi h a ocus on he bo om-up pe spec i e ha complemen s he mac o-le el s a-
is ical indings (Kalisz e al.,2021;Rajagopal & Da ila,2021). Howe e , a mixed-me hods
amewo k enhances he obus ness and c edibili y o his s udy, making i mo e ele an
o academic schola ship and policymaking (Hend en e al.,2023).
Building on he gap iden i ied in he empi ical li e a u e (as men ioned in Sec ion 1)
and heo e ical and me hodological ounda ions ou lined ea lie , we o mula e es able
hypo heses o empi ically assess he ela ionship be ween mac oeconomic ac o s, en-
ep eneu ship, and g ass oo s ini ia i es. Thus, his s udy posi s he ollowing hypo heses:
H
1
.Go e nmen expendi u e on educa ion signi ican ly in luences en ep eneu ship (by imp o ing
skills, knowledge, and p oblem-sol ing capabili ies).
Go e nmen expendi u e on educa ion is c ucial in p omo ing en ep eneu ship by
enhancing human capi al. In es men in educa ion imp o es skills, knowledge, and
p oblem-sol ing capabili ies essen ial o en ep eneu ial en u es (Gal ão e al.,2020;
Ja dim,2021). Educa ion equips indi iduals wi h he echnical and manage ial skills nec-
essa y o iden i y and exploi business oppo uni ies, s imula ing en ep eneu ial ac i i y
(O ache,2025). Mo eo e , an educa ed labou o ce con ibu es o inno a ion and economic
g ow h, c ea ing a conduci e en i onmen o en ep eneu ial ini ia i es (Suguna e al.,
2024;Asaleye & Ncanywa,2025).
H2. Access o c edi has a signi ican in luence on en ep eneu ship.
Access o c edi is one o he main ac o s in en ep eneu ial de elopmen , acili a ing
capi al accumula ion and in es men in business en u es (Ka o & Chiloane-Tsoka,2024).
En ep eneu s o en ace challenges in accessing inancing due o asymme ic in o ma ion
and colla e al equi emen s (Ncanywa,2019). The e o e, imp o ed access o c edi h ough
inancial ins i u ions o go e nmen ini ia i es can signi ican ly enhance en ep eneu ship
by educing inancial cons ain s and enabling en ep eneu ial inno a ion and expansion
(Pu e al.,2021).
H
3
.The e is a posi i e connec ion be ween labou o ce pa icipa ion and en ep eneu ship ( he
pa icipa ion a e may educe unemploymen in he long un).
A posi i e connec ion exis s be ween labou o ce pa icipa ion and en ep eneu ship,
as highe pa icipa ion a es indica e an imp o ed labou o ce capable o engaging in
en ep eneu ial ac i i ies (Akh a e al.,2023;Xholo e al.,2025). En ep eneu ship p o ides
an al e na i e o adi ional employmen , po en ially educing unemploymen a es and
enhancing economic pe o mance (Cie´slik & an S el,2024). Sus ainable en ep eneu ial
en u es con ibu e o job c ea ion and economic s abili y, p omo ing long- e m economic
g ow h (Ragmoun,2023).
H
4
.A well-s uc u ed egula o y en i onmen p omo es en ep eneu ship (by educing bu eau-
c a ic ba ie s and enhancing business con idence).
A well-s uc u ed egula o y en i onmen is i al o p omo ing en ep eneu ship by
educing bu eauc a ic ba ie s and enhancing business con idence (Beaze ,2012). Clea and
Economies 2025,13, 107 6 o 27
anspa en egula ions encou age a business- iendly clima e, inspi ing en ep eneu ial
en u es o lou ish (Ma lala & Ncube,2025;Asaleye e al.,2021). E ec i e egula o y
amewo ks s eamline business p ocedu es, acili a e ma ke en y, and p o ec p ope y
igh s, s imula ing en ep eneu ial ac i i y and economic de elopmen (Min ah e al.,2025).
H5.G ea e echnology adop ion posi i ely in luences en ep eneu ial ac i i y (by lowe ing en y
cos s and imp o ing ma ke access).
G ea e adop ion o echnology posi i ely in luences en ep eneu ial ac i i y by low-
e ing en y cos s, imp o ing ma ke access, and enabling inno a i e business ac i i ies
(Huang & Zhou,2025). Technological ad ancemen s enhance p oduc i i y and compe i i e-
ness, o e ing en ep eneu s new oppo uni ies o scale hei en u es and pene a e global
ma ke s (Meygoonpou y e al.,2024;Obadia u e al.,2018). Emb acing echnological inno-
a ion p omo es en ep eneu ial oppo uni ies, d i ing economic g ow h and sus ainable
de elopmen (Awad & Ma ín-Rojas,2024).
En ep eneu ial skills a e in luenced by mac oeconomic ac o s and localised in e -
en ions ha cul i a e hands-on expe ience and economic engagemen . School-based
en ep eneu ial p og ams like ege able ga dening p o ide a p ac ical pla o m o skill de-
elopmen , ood secu i y, and economic sel -su iciency (Reis & Fe ei a,2015). In eg a ing
ag icul u al en ep eneu ship in o he cu iculum has enhanced s uden s’ inancial li e acy,
business acumen, and sel -su iciency (Oyekan,2016). Mo eo e , such ini ia i es con ibu e
o ood secu i y and local economic pa icipa ion, as s uden s lea n esou ce managemen ,
ma ke beha iou , and alue-addi ion p ocesses (Liu e al.,2023). Acco dingly, his s udy
o e s he ollowing hypo hesis:
H
6
.School-based ege able ga dening inanced ia social g an s posi i ely in luences s uden s’
en ep eneu ial skills de elopmen .
School-based ini ia i es, such as ege able ga dening p og ams inanced ia social
g an s, posi i ely in luence s uden s’ en ep eneu ial skills de elopmen . These p o-
g ams encou age p ac ical knowledge in ag icul u al p ac ices, esou ce managemen ,
and en ep eneu ial decision-making (Liu e al.,2023). The e o e, by p omo ing hands-
on lea ning expe iences, school-based ga dening cul i a es en ep eneu ial mindse s
om an ea ly age, p epa ing s uden s o u u e economic pa icipa ion and inno a ion
(Bucea-Manea-T
,onis
,e al.,2024).
H
7.
Pa icipa ion in school-based ga dening p og ams enhances ood secu i y (by p omo ing
sel -su iciency and sus ainable ag icul u al p ac ices).
Pa icipa ion in school-based ga dening p og ams enhances ood secu i y by p o-
mo ing sel -su iciency and sus ainable ag icul u al p ac ices (Sha p e al.,2024). These
p og ams empowe communi ies o add ess nu i ional needs and educe dependence
on ex e nal ood sou ces, enhancing economic s abili y (Kanos amhi a,2025). So, by
in eg a ing ood p oduc ion in o educa ional cu icula, schools con ibu e o b oade soci-
e al goals o p omo ing heal h, en i onmen al s ewa dship, and economic de elopmen
(Oyekan,2016).
H
8.
School-based en ep eneu ial ac i i ies inc ease s uden s’ economic pa icipa ion, p omo ing
ea ly exposu e o business oppo uni ies and income gene a ion.
School-based en ep eneu ial ac i i ies inc ease s uden s’ economic pa icipa ion by
p o iding ea ly exposu e o business oppo uni ies and income gene a ion (Bax e e al.,
2014). These ac i i ies p omo e en ep eneu ial skills, such as ini ia i e, c ea i i y, and
inancial li e acy, essen ial o u u e ca ee success and economic empowe men (Bu chi
e al.,2021). Schools encou age en ep eneu ial endea ou s a a young age, leading o
Economies 2025,13, 107 7 o 27
a cul u e o inno a ion and en ep eneu ship, d i ing sus ainable economic g ow h and
social de elopmen (Zemlyak e al.,2023).
3. Ma e ials and Me hods
3.1. Empi ical Models o Mac oanalysis o De e minan s o En ep eneu ship
The human capi al heo y posi s ha educa ion enhances cogni i e and manage ial
skills, imp o ing en ep eneu ial capabili ies (Becke ,1964;Kucel e al.,2016). The ela-
ionship be ween human capi al accumula ion and en ep eneu ship can be exp essed
as ollows:
HC =δEDU +ε (1)
In Equa ion (1),
HC
ep esen s human capi al a ime, EDU deno es go e nmen
expendi u e on educa ion, and δcap u es he e ec o educa ion on skill accumula ion.
ENP =ϕHC +ε (2)
Equa ion (2) exp esses en ep eneu ship (
EDU
) as a unc ion o human capi al. Sub-
s i u ing Equa ion (1) in o Equa ion (2), we ha e he ollowing:
ENP =ϕ(δEDU ) + ε (3)
Equa ion (3) sugges s ha inc easing go e nmen expendi u e on educa ion p omo es
en ep eneu ship by enhancing he skills necessa y o business c ea ion. Access o inancial
esou ces is ano he c i ical de e minan o en ep eneu ship, as emphasised by he inancial
cons ain heo y (E ans & Jo ano ic,1989;Cha eddine e al.,2024). En ep eneu s equi e
capi al o s a and expand hei businesses, and limi ed c edi a ailabili y es ic s business
o ma ion. The inancial cons ain model assumes ha an indi idual will engage in
en ep eneu ship i hei expec ed p o i exceeds hei oppo uni y cos :
πE
≥πW
(4)
πE
is he expec ed p o i om en ep eneu ship in Equa ion (4), and
πW
is he ex-
pec ed wage om employmen . Since expec ed en ep eneu ial p o i depends on capi al
a ailabili y, he c edi cons ain unc ion can be w i en as ollows:
K =λACC +ε (5)
In Equa ion (5),
K
is he a ailable capi al o in es men ,
ACC
ep esen s access
o c edi , and
λ
deno es he elas ici y o capi al wi h espec o c edi a ailabili y. Since
en ep eneu ship depends on capi al, we can speci y Equa ion (6) as ollows:
ENP =θK +ε (6)
Subs i u ing he capi al cons ain equa ion in Equa ion (6) in o Equa ion (3), we ha e
he ollowing:
ENP =ϕ(δEDU ) + θ(λACC ) + ε (7)
Equa ion (7) sugges s ha imp o ed access o c edi acili a es business c ea ion by e-
ducing inancial cons ain s. The labou ma ke en ep eneu ship heo y links labou o ce
pa icipa ion and en ep eneu ship (Rajsingho e al.,2024). High labou o ce pa icipa ion
(LFP) inc eases he pool o skilled indi iduals, he eby enhancing business c ea ion:
ENP =γLFP +ε (8)
Economies 2025,13, 107 8 o 27
In Equa ion (8),
γ
ep esen s he e ec o labou o ce pa icipa ion on en ep eneu -
ship. Since en ep eneu ship also in luences he labou ma ke , highe pa icipa ion a es
may educe unemploymen and d i e economic expansion in he long un. Likewise,
Technological ad ancemen is c ucial in enhancing en ep eneu ship, as a icula ed in
he inno a ion-d i en g ow h model (Dyan yi e al.,2010). Inno a ion (
INO
) acili a es
business o ma ion by educing ma ke en y ba ie s and imp o ing p oduc i i y. We
exp ess he ela ionship as ollows:
Y =A F(K ,L )(9)
In Equa ion (9),
Y
is ou pu ,
A
ep esen s echnological p og ess (p oxied by inno-
a ion), and
F(K
,
L )
is a p oduc ion unc ion dependen on capi al (
K
) and (
L
). Since
en ep eneu ship d i es echnological adop ion, we ha e
A =ηINO +ε
, which, when
subs i u ed in o he p oduc ion unc ion, yields he ollowing:
ENP =βINO +ε (10)
Equa ion (10) sugges s ha g ea e inno a ion enhances en ep eneu ial ac i i y by
inc easing p oduc i i y and ma ke access. Finally, ins i u ional quali y is undamen al
o en ep eneu ship, as emphasised by he ins i u ional heo y (No h,1990;Nazi e al.,
2024). A well-s uc u ed egula o y en i onmen p omo es business con idence by educing
bu eauc a ic ba ie s and ensu ing s able p ope y igh s. The ole o egula o y quali y
(RLQ) in en ep eneu ial ac i i y can be exp essed as ollows:
ENP =ρRLQ +ε (11)
In Equa ion (11),
ρ
cap u es he esponsi eness o en ep eneu ship o changes in
egula o y quali y. A s able and anspa en egula o y amewo k enhances ease o doing
business, p omo ing business c ea ion and economic di e si ica ion.
Building on he heo e ical amewo k and combining Equa ions (7), (8), (10), and (11),
he unc ional speci ica ion o he model is gi en as ollows:
ENP = (LFP,EDU,ACC,INO,RLQ)(12)
Equa ion (12) can be ep esen ed as an es imable log-linea model as ollows:
InENP =βo+β1InLFP +β2InEDU +β3InACC +β4InINO +β5InRLQ +ε (13)
In Equa ion (13),
βo
is he in e cep ;
ε
is he e o e m;
β1
,
β2
,
β3
,
β4
, and
β5
a e
elas ici y coe icien s ha cap u e he pe cen age change in en ep eneu ship due o changes
in each explana o y a iable; and is he pe iod o obse a ion.
Gi en ha he uni oo es con i ms he se ies a e I (1), and Johansen’s coin eg a ion
es es ablishes a long- un ela ionship, his s udy employs ully modi ied leas squa es
(FMOLS) and dynamic leas squa es (DOLS) o es ima e he long- un dynamics o e he
pe iod 2006Q1–2024Q4. The ec o e o co ec ion model (VECM) is used o analyse he
causali y. We ensu e obus ness using Canonical Coin eg a ing Reg ession (CCR). The
gene al o m o he FMOLS es ima o o a coin eg a ed sys em is gi en as ollows:
ˆ
βFMOLS = T
∑
=1
X X′ !−1 T
∑
=1
X Y∗
!(14)
Economies 2025,13, 107 15 o 27
Need o aining and suppo —“En ep eneu ship can d i e inancial independence,
bu success hinges on access o aining and esou ces” (T5).
E idence om he ou come shows ha en ep eneu ial educa ion enhances inancial
au onomy, economic pa icipa ion, and sel -su iciency by p omo ing inancial li e acy,
business acumen, and inno a ion skills. School-based ini ia i es, such as ege able ga -
dening p og ams, p omo e ea ly ma ke exposu e, s eng hen ood secu i y, and de elop
en ep eneu ial mindse s (Reis & Fe ei a,2015;Oyekan,2016;Liu e al.,2023). Ta ge ed
aining educes psychological ba ie s, boos ing con idence and educing wel a e depen-
dency, while s uc u ed en ep eneu ial ac i i ies cul i a e c ea i i y essen ial o long- e m
economic g ow h (Bax e e al.,2014;Bu chi e al.,2021). Ul ima ely, educa ion-d i en en-
ep eneu ship ca alyses inclusi e economic empowe men and sus ainable de elopmen .
4.2.2. En ep eneu ial Skill De elopmen Th ough he School Nu i ion P og amme
P ac ical engagemen in he school nu i ion p og amme os e s essen ial en ep eneu ial
skills, educing dependency on ex e nal g an s. Hands-on pa icipa ion in school ga dens,
ood p oduc ion, and business ini ia i es equips s uden s and s a wi h sel -su iciency
and economic-independence compe encies.
Pa icipan Insigh s
Responsibili y and ime managemen —“Managing daily ope a ions ins ils discipline,
esponsibili y, and adhe ence o schedules” (T1).
P oblem-sol ing and c ea i i y—“O e coming esou ce cons ain s os e s adap abil-
i y and inno a i e hinking” (T2).
Financial managemen and s a egy—“Budge ing and esou ce alloca ion enhance
inancial li e acy and s a egic planning” (T3).
Ne wo king and s akeholde engagemen —“Building ela ionships wi h supplie s
and o icials s eng hen business acumen” (T4).
Inno a ion and e iciency—“Op imising p og amme ope a ions nu u e p oblem-
sol ing and en ep eneu ial e iciency” (T5).
The indings show ha he school nu i ion p og amme p omo es essen ial en-
ep eneu ial compe encies, including inancial li e acy, discipline, and s a egic decision-
making, while enhancing so skills o leade ship and adap abili y. Aligning wi h p io
indings on school-based en ep eneu ial p og ams, such ini ia i es p o ide a ounda-
ion o inancial au onomy, sel -su iciency, and business acumen (Reis & Fe ei a,2015;
Oyekan,2016). In eg a ing ag icul u al en ep eneu ship, such as ege able ga dening,
in o educa ional cu icula s eng hens esou ce managemen skills and ma ke awa eness,
con ibu ing o ood secu i y and local economic pa icipa ion (Liu e al.,2023;Sha p
e al.,2024). Ea ly exposu e o en ep eneu ial ac i i ies ad ances a cul u e o inno a-
ion, equipping s uden s wi h he necessa y skills o na iga e economic challenges and
pu sue sus ainable business en u es (Bax e e al.,2014;Bu chi e al.,2021). Embedding
en ep eneu ial aining in o school nu i ion p og ams can p omo e long- e m economic
empowe men and sus ainable de elopmen .
4.2.3. En ep eneu ial Mindse as a Tool o Socioeconomic De elopmen
Reducing eliance on nu i ion g an s h ough en ep eneu ship os e s sus ainable
solu ions, add essing nu i ional needs and d i ing communi y de elopmen .
Pa icipan Insigh s
Pa h o sel -su iciency—“En ep eneu ship c ea es jobs, educing unemploymen and
po e y” (T1).
Economies 2025,13, 107 16 o 27
Economic upli men —“Skills and con idence in business empowe indi iduals o
gene a e income and suppo communi ies” (T2).
Inno a ion and local solu ions—“C ea i e p oblem-sol ing helps add ess po e y
h ough sel -d i en oppo uni ies” (T3).
Need o policy suppo —“En ep eneu ship equi es policies and esou ces o max-
imise i s impac ” (T4).
Role o aining and men o ship—“Access o aining and unding de e mines en-
ep eneu ial success” (T5).
I can be unde s ood om he esul s ha en ep eneu ship p omo es sel -su iciency,
income gene a ion, and economic imp o emen bu h i es wi h s uc u al suppo , in-
cluding educa ion, unding, and men o ship. S udies ha e documen ed ha inancial
managemen , ne wo king, and c ea i e p oblem-sol ing a e key en ep eneu ial compe-
encies ha can be cul i a ed h ough in e en ions (Reis & Fe ei a,2015;Oyekan,2016).
School-based ini ia i es, such as ege able-ga dening p og ams inanced ia social g an s,
p o ide a p ac ical pla o m o de eloping en ep eneu ial skills, enhancing inancial
li e acy, and encou aging business ac i i ies (Liu e al.,2023;Bucea-Manea-
T
,
oni
s
,
e al.,
2024). These p og ams p omo e ood secu i y and esou ce managemen , equipping s u-
den s wi h he skills necessa y o economic pa icipa ion and inno a ion (Sha p e al.,
2024;Kanos amhi a,2025). Ea ly exposu e o en ep eneu ship h ough hands-on lea ning
p omo es a cul u e o sel - eliance, c ea i i y, and economic empowe men , enhancing
sus ainable de elopmen and po e y educ ion (Bax e e al.,2014;Zemlyak e al.,2023).
4.2.4. Skill De elopmen Successes and Engagemen Challenges
En ep eneu ial ac i i ies os e con idence, esponsibili y, and inancial li e acy among
lea ne s and meal se e s. Howe e , sus aining engagemen is hinde ed by low in e es ,
esou ce cons ain s, and he need o con inuous suppo .
Pa icipan Insigh s
Con idence and esponsibili y—“Some lea ne s h i e in small business en u es, bu
no all a e in e es ed o mo i a ed” (T1).
P ac ical skill de elopmen —“School ga dens each aluable skills, bu educa o ime
and esou ces limi sus ainabili y” (T2).
Financial li e acy—“Managing mini-businesses os e s esponsibili y, ye inconsis en
ollow-up weakens long- e m success” (T3).
Resou ce managemen —“Meal se e s gain budge ing skills bu lack aining in
ma ke ing and s a egic planning” (T4).
Ma ke pa icipa ion—“S uden s engage en husias ically in communi y ma ke s, bu
in e es ades wi hou guidance” (T5).
En ep eneu ial ini ia i es p omo e sel -e icacy and p ac ical skills, ye challenges
such as s uden mo i a ion and esou ce cons ain s h ea en long- e m sus ainabili y. S ud-
ies ha e shown he e ec i eness o school-based en ep eneu ial p og ams, pa icula ly
ege able ga dening, in enhancing inancial li e acy, business acumen, and sel -su iciency
(Reis & Fe ei a,2015;Oyekan,2016). These ini ia i es con ibu e o ood secu i y, esou ce
managemen , and local economic pa icipa ion, equipping s uden s wi h ma ke -o ien ed
skills (Liu e al.,2023;Bucea-Manea-
T
,
oni
s
,
e al.,2024). Howe e , educa o suppo and con-
inuous men o ship a e c ucial o sus aining engagemen and in eg a ing en ep eneu ial
lea ning in o communi y ma ke s (Sha p e al.,2024;Kanos amhi a,2025). Wi h ea ly
exposu e o en ep eneu ship, schools cul i a e an inno a ion-d i en mindse , p omo -
ing economic empowe men and long- e m sus ainable de elopmen (Bax e e al.,2014;
Zemlyak e al.,2023).
Economies 2025,13, 107 17 o 27
4.2.5. P ac ical En ep eneu ship in School-Based Ini ia i es
Educa o s, meal se e s, and lea ne s gain hands-on en ep eneu ial expe ience
h ough school ga dens, mini-en e p ises, a e -school clubs, and communi y ma ke s,
os e ing budge ing, sales, and inancial managemen skills.
Pa icipan Insigh s
Educa o s as acili a o s—“Teache s can lead small p ojec s like school ga dens, each-
ing basic business skills” (T1).
Financial li e acy o meal se e s—“Meal se e s lea n budge ing by managing ood
o de s and selling su plus p oduce” (T2).
S uden -led en e p ises—“Lea ne s engage in mini-businesses like c a o ood sales,
gaining business expe ience” (T3).
En ep eneu ship clubs—“A e -school clubs help s uden s de elop business ideas,
ma ke p oduc s, and manage inances” (T4).
Communi y ma ke pa icipa ion—“Selling goods in communi y ma ke s builds i-
nancial and cus ome se ice skills” (T5).
E idence om he indings shows ha school-based en ep eneu ship p omo es inan-
cial li e acy and business pene a ion by engaging lea ne s in eal-wo ld economic ac i i ies.
Empi ical s udies a i m ha en ep eneu ial ini ia i es, such as ege able ga dening, p o-
ide s uden s wi h p ac ical exposu e o inancial decision-making, esou ce managemen ,
and ma ke beha iou (Reis & Fe ei a,2015;Oyekan,2016;Liu e al.,2023). These p o-
g ams enhance sel -su iciency and economic pa icipa ion, encou aging ea ly exposu e o
business oppo uni ies and income gene a ion (Bax e e al.,2014;Bu chi e al.,2021). Fu -
he mo e, school-based en ep eneu ial ac i i ies con ibu e o ood secu i y and economic
empowe men by in eg a ing sus ainable ag icul u al p ac ices and he de elopmen o
inno a ion-d i en mindse s (Sha p e al.,2024;Kanos amhi a,2025). Howe e , sus ained
suppo , men o ship, and esou ces emain c ucial o long- e m success, ensu ing hese
ini ia i es ansla e in o las ing economic and social bene i s (Zemlyak e al.,2023).
4.2.6. En ep eneu ship Educa ion o S uden De elopmen and Communi y Engagemen
En ep eneu ship educa ion equips s uden s wi h essen ial li e skills, enhances ca ee
p ospec s, and s eng hens school–communi y ies h ough eal-wo ld business expe iences.
Pa icipan Insigh s
Building li e and ca ee skills—“S uden s gain p oblem-sol ing, inancial managemen ,
and c ea i i y skills, p epa ing hem o u u e ca ee s” (T1).
Enhancing lea ning h ough p ac ical applica ion—“En ep eneu ship makes lea ning
engaging by p o iding eal-wo ld, applicable skills” (T2).
S eng hening school-communi y ies—“Business p ojec s os e ela ionships wi h
local businesses, bene i ing bo h s uden s and schools” (T4).
Boos ing ca ee p ospec s—“En ep eneu ial skills imp o e job eadiness and c ea e
oppo uni ies o in e nships and business pa ne ships” (T5).
The indings show ha en ep eneu ship educa ion plays a ole in equipping s uden s
wi h essen ial skills o economic pa icipa ion. Empi ical e idence epo ed ha school-
based en ep eneu ial ini ia i es, such as ege able ga dening, enhance inancial li e acy,
business acumen, and sel -su iciency by in eg a ing eal-wo ld economic ac i i ies in o
he cu iculum (Reis & Fe ei a,2015;Oyekan,2016;Liu e al.,2023). Addi ionally, school-
business pa ne ships a e essen ial o indus y exposu e and men o ship, impac ing
communi y de elopmen (Bax e e al.,2014;Bu chi e al.,2021). These p og ams cul i a e
en ep eneu ial mindse s and con ibu e o socioeconomic goals, including ood secu i y
and local economic empowe men (Sha p e al.,2024;Kanos amhi a,2025).
Economies 2025,13, 107 18 o 27
4.2.7. Enhancing En ep eneu ship Educa ion: Key A eas o Imp o emen
Schools mus in es in esou ces, eache aining, business pa ne ships, cu iculum
enhancemen , and s uden suppo o p omo e an en ep eneu ial mindse and long- e m
economic sel -su iciency.
Pa icipan Insigh s
In es ing in esou ces—“Mo e ma e ials like ex books, so wa e, and p ac ical ools
would imp o e en ep eneu ship lessons” (T1).
T aining educa o s—“Teache s need aining in mode n business p ac ices and each-
ing me hods o deli e e ec i e en ep eneu ship educa ion” (T2).
Building business pa ne ships—“Collabo a ions wi h local businesses can p o ide
s uden s wi h men o ship, eal-wo ld expe ience, and in e nships” (T3).
Enhancing he cu iculum—“En ep eneu ship cou ses should include hands-on
p ojec s and case s udies o b idge heo y and p ac ice” (T4).
P o iding s uc u al suppo —“S uden s need unding, space, and men o ship o u n
business ideas in o success ul en u es” (T5).
The indings show ha s eng hening en ep eneu ship educa ion equi es upda ed
lea ning ma e ials, con inuous eache de elopmen , and indus y collabo a ions o en-
hance ca ee eadiness. Empi ical s udies ha e epo ed on he e ec i eness o hands-on
cu icula, such as school-based ege able ga dening, in equipping s uden s wi h business
p oblem-sol ing skills, inancial li e acy, and sel -su iciency (Reis & Fe ei a,2015;Oyekan,
2016;Liu e al.,2023). These ini ia i es cul i a e en ep eneu ial mindse s ea ly on and con-
ibu e o socioeconomic ac o s, including ood secu i y and economic pa icipa ion (Sha p
e al.,2024;Kanos amhi a,2025). Mo eo e , access o unding and men o ship emains
c ucial o sus aining s uden -led en u es, s eng hening he need o s uc u ed suppo
sys ems wi hin educa ional ins i u ions (Bax e e al.,2014;Bu chi e al.,2021). The e o e,
schools mus in eg a e expe ien ial lea ning, indus y linkages, and inancial esou ces o
maximise impac , ensu ing a well-suppo ed en ep eneu ial lea ning en i onmen ha
p omo es long- e m economic empowe men (Zemlyak e al.,2023).
4.3. E alua ion o Hypo heses and Implica ions
The hypo heses we e e alua ed using bo h quan i a i e and quali a i e app oaches. The
quan i a i e analysis employed FMOLS and DOLS es ima o s, and hypo hesis es ing was
conduc ed a a 5% signi icance le el. The quali a i e componen used hema ic analysis o semi-
s uc u ed in e iews wi h indings iangula ed o p o ide a comp ehensi e unde s anding
o he ela ionship be ween mac oeconomic policies and g ass oo s en ep eneu ship. The
e alua ion o he hypo heses and hei implica ions a e gi en as ollows:
H1.Go e nmen expendi u e on educa ion signi ican ly in luences en ep eneu ship.
Educa ion posi i ely impac s en ep eneu ship, wi h indings con i ming ha in es -
men in human capi al enhances skills, knowledge, p oblem-sol ing abili ies, and he
de elopmen o business c ea ion and inno a ion (Gal ão e al.,2020); his shows he
impo ance o sus ained public spending on educa ion o d i e en ep eneu ial g ow h and
economic de elopmen .
H2.Access o c edi signi ican ly in luences en ep eneu ship.
Con a y o expec a ions, c edi access does no signi ican ly a ec en ep eneu ship,
sugges ing ha inancial ba ie s such as asymme ic in o ma ion and colla e al cons ain s
may es ic en ep eneu ial inancing (Pu e al.,2021). The e o e, add essing ine iciencies
in c edi alloca ion is essen ial o enhance inancial accessibili y o business o ma ion.
Economies 2025,13, 107 19 o 27
H3.Labou o ce pa icipa ion posi i ely connec s o en ep eneu ship.
Labou o ce pa icipa ion s ongly d i es en ep eneu ship, suppo ing he iew ha
highe labou engagemen p omo es business c ea ion and educes unemploymen in he
long un (Akh a e al.,2023;Cie´slik & an S el,2024); his s esses he need o policies ha
enhance labou ma ke e iciency and skill de elopmen o sus ain en ep eneu ial ac i i y.
H4. A well-s uc u ed egula o y en i onmen p omo es en ep eneu ship.
The nega i e impac o egula o y quali y sugges s ha excessi e bu eauc a ic con-
s ain s hinde en ep eneu ship a he han suppo i . While e ec i e egula ions should
enhance business con idence, es ic i e policies may ins ead ac as ba ie s o en y (Beaze ,
2012;Ma lala & Ncube,2025). Regula o y e o ms a e necessa y o s eamline business
p ocedu es and p omo e an enabling en i onmen .
H5. G ea e echnology adop ion posi i ely in luences en ep eneu ial ac i i y.
Technology adop ion does no immedia ely impac en ep eneu ship, implying ha
i s bene i s, such as lowe en y cos s and expanded ma ke access, may ake ime o
ma e ialise (Awad & Ma ín-Rojas,2024). Long- e m in es men in digi al in as uc u e
and capaci y-building is essen ial o unlock i s ull en ep eneu ial po en ial.
H
6
.School-based ege able ga dening posi i ely in luences s uden s’ en ep eneu ial skills de elopmen .
Findings indica e ha school ga dens p omo e en ep eneu ial skills, pa icula ly
in inancial managemen , esou ce alloca ion, and sales. Lea ne s gain hands-on busi-
ness expe ience h ough g owing, managing, and selling p oduce. Howe e , sus ainabili y
depends on consis en educa o suppo and esou ces. In eg a ing s uc u ed en ep eneu -
ship aining in o ga dening p og ams can enhance long- e m skill de elopmen and ensu e
s uden engagemen .
H
7
.Pa icipa ion in school-based ga dening p og ams enhances ood secu i y (by p omo ing
sel -su iciency and sus ainable ag icul u al p ac ices).
While school ga dens con ibu e o ood p oduc ion and p o ide oppo uni ies o
s uden s o engage in ag icul u e, challenges such as inconsis en pa icipa ion and limi ed
esou ces hinde long- e m sus ainabili y. Some schools success ully use ga dens o
nu i ional suppo , bu he widesp ead ood secu i y impac is limi ed. S eng hening
ins i u ional suppo , aining, and unding o school-based ga dening can imp o e i s
ole in enhancing sel -su iciency and ood secu i y.
H
8
.School-based en ep eneu ial ac i i ies inc ease s uden s’ economic pa icipa ion, p omo ing
ea ly exposu e o business oppo uni ies and income gene a ion.
E idence suppo s ha en ep eneu ship educa ion h ough school-based ini ia i es,
such as mini-businesses and communi y ma ke s, enhances s uden s’ economic pa ici-
pa ion. Howe e , engagemen le els a y, and p ojec s isk losing momen um wi hou
sus ained men o ship. Embedding s uc u ed business incuba ion p og ams and men-
o ship oppo uni ies in o school cu icula can maximise s uden s’ long- e m economic
pa icipa ion and ca ee p ospec s.
5. Conclusions and Policy Recommenda ions
The expansion o en ep eneu ial ac i i y is widely ecognised o i s abili y o spu
economic ans o ma ion and inclusi e de elopmen . This s udy adop ed a mixed-me hods
app oach, combining quan i a i e analysis wi h quali a i e explo a ion, o examine he
impac o mac oeconomic de e minan s such as go e nmen expendi u e on educa ion, ac-
cess o c edi , labou o ce pa icipa ion, egula o y en i onmen , and echnology adop ion
Economies 2025,13, 107 20 o 27
on en ep eneu ial ac i i y. The quan i a i e componen employed ully modi ied leas
squa es and dynamic o dina y leas squa es o es ima e long- un ela ionships, while he
quali a i e pa u ilised hema ic analysis o examine he ole o school-based ga dening
ini ia i es in enhancing s uden s’ economic pa icipa ion.
E idence om he indings con i ms ha go e nmen expendi u e on educa ion signi i-
can ly in luences en ep eneu ship by enhancing human capi al, imp o ing skills, and p omo -
ing inno a ion. These indings emphasise he impo ance o sus ained public in es men in
educa ion as a cen al pilla o en ep eneu ial de elopmen and economic g ow h. Con e sely,
while access o c edi was expec ed o play a ole, his s udy ound i o ha e a negligible impac
on en ep eneu ship; his sugges s ha inancial ba ie s, such as asymme ic in o ma ion
and s ingen colla e al equi emen s, pe sis en ly limi en ep eneu s’ access o unding, hus
hinde ing business o ma ion. The esul calls o policies ha add ess ine iciencies in inancial
in e media ion. Also, his s udy e ealed ha highe labou o ce pa icipa ion posi i ely co -
ela es wi h en ep eneu ship, s eng hening he no ion ha a mo e engaged labou o ce can
acili a e business c ea ion and educe unemploymen in he long un.
In con as , he nega i e impac o egula o y quali y on en ep eneu ship shows he
challenge posed by excessi e o complex egula o y amewo ks. S ic e egula ions can s i-
le business c ea ion by inc easing en y cos s and causing an un a ou able business clima e.
Thus, s eamlining egula o y p ocesses and imp o ing anspa ency and e iciency in egu-
la o y en o cemen a e essen ial o c ea ing a mo e conduci e en ep eneu ial en i onmen .
Al hough echnology adop ion was ound o ha e a delayed impac on en ep eneu ship,
his s udy sugges s ha i s ole in educing en y cos s and imp o ing ma ke access may
equi e long- e m in es men in digi al in as uc u e and capaci y-building.
In addi ion o hese mac oeconomic ac o s, his s udy ound ha school-based en-
ep eneu ial ini ia i es, such as ege able ga dening p og ams, p o ide aluable pla o ms
o p omo ing en ep eneu ial skills among s uden s. These ini ia i es enhance inancial
li e acy and con ibu e o de eloping a hands-on unde s anding o business ope a ions.
Howe e , he sus ainabili y o hese p og ams depends on consis en educa o suppo ,
su icien esou ces, and s uc u ed men o ship.
Based on ou indings, his s udy sugges s he ollowing ecommenda ions: Poli-
cymake s should p io i ise inc eased in es men in educa ion, pa icula ly in a eas ha
enhance en ep eneu ial skills, such as oca ional aining, business managemen , and
inno a ion. Go e nmen expendi u e should ocus on in eg a ing en ep eneu ship in o he
cu iculum, equipping s uden s wi h he skills o d i e business c ea ion and inno a ion.
Fu he mo e, expe ien ial lea ning ini ia i es like business simula ions and school-based
en ep eneu ship p og ams should be expanded. Secondly, policymake s should ocus
on educing ba ie s o c edi access by acili a ing mo e inclusi e inancing op ions, such
as mic o inance and en u e capi al, and implemen ing measu es o minimise colla e al
equi emen s. Thi dly, policies should imp o e labou ma ke condi ions by p o iding
aining p og ams ha enhance skills ele an o en ep eneu ship. Go e nmen ini ia i es
ha suppo sel -employmen , such as ax incen i es o access o s a -up capi al, can en-
cou age business c ea ion and p o ide he necessa y suppo o indi iduals ansi ioning
om unemploymen o en ep eneu ship. Finally, he go e nmen should p o ide unding
and echnical suppo o expand he scope and impac o local p og ams, ensu ing ha
schools ha e he necessa y ools, aining, and in as uc u e o main ain success ul ini ia-
i es. S eng hening pa ne ships wi h local ag icul u al coope a i es could also enhance
ma ke access and sus ainabili y.
Limi a ions o This S udy and Sugges ions o Fu he S udies
This s udy’s quali a i e componen shows he ole o school-based en ep eneu ship
ini ia i es h ough in-dep h in e iews conduc ed a i e seconda y schools. The sample
Economies 2025,13, 107 21 o 27
selec ion was in en ional, allowing o a de ailed, speci ic in es iga ion o how localised,
hands-on p ojec s in luence en ep eneu ial skills and economic pa icipa ion. Howe e ,
his limi ed sample size may a ec he gene alizabili y o he indings beyond he s udied
schools and egions. Also, his s udy p ima ily cap u es pe cep ions and expe iences
a he han quan i iable en ep eneu ial pe o mance, which u u e esea ch could add ess
h ough longi udinal acking o s uden en ep eneu ial ac i i ies. While mac oeconomic
ac o s we e igo ously analysed, po en ial unobse ed a iables, such as sociocul u al
in luences o he in o mal sec o , may also a ec en ep eneu ship and should be exam-
ined in u u e s udies. Finally, expanding his s udy o include a compa a i e analysis
ac oss di e se egions, income le els, and ypes o en e p ises would p o ide a be e
unde s anding o en ep eneu ship d i e s and policy in e en ions’ e ec i eness.
Au ho Con ibu ions: Concep ualiza ion, T.N. and N.D.; Da a cu a ion, T.N. and N.D.; Fo mal
analysis, T.N.; Funding acquisi ion, T.N. and A.J.A.; In es iga ion, T.N., N.D. and A.J.A.; Me hodology,
T.N., N.D. and A.J.A.; P ojec adminis a ion, T.N.; Resou ces, T.N., N.D. and A.J.A.; So wa e, T.N.;
Valida ion, T.N.; Visualiza ion, T.N.; W i ing—o iginal d a , T.N. and N.D.; W i ing— e iew &
edi ing, T.N. and A.J.A. All au ho s ha e ead and ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding: This esea ch ecei ed no ex e nal unding.
Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d S a emen : The s udy was conduc ed in acco dance wi h he guidelines o
he Decla a ion o Helsinki and app o ed by he Wal e Sisulu Uni e si y Resea ch E hics Commi ee
(WSU-UREC) on 15 June 2023 wi h P o ocol Numbe FEDREC15-06-23-3.
In o med Consen S a emen : In o med consen was ob ained om all subjec s in ol ed in
he s udy.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen : The da a can be p o ided on eques om he au ho s, in o ma ion
abou he da a is p o ided in he a icle.
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic o in e es .
Appendix A
Table A1. Desc ip i e s a is ics and co ela ion analyses.
Desc ip i e S a is ics
ENP ACC EDU INO LFP RLQ
Mean 5.5199 2.0696 0.7377 1.2852 1.7327 1.8369
Median 5.5568 2.0916 0.7399 1.281 1.734 1.8464
Maximum 5.6971 2.1591 0.8258 1.825 1.7648 1.8831
Minimum 5.2398 1.9545 0.6377 0.4904 1.7001 1.7697
S d. De . 0.1314 0.0578 0.0511 0.3568 0.015 0.0328
Sum 419.5154 157.2942 56.0706 97.681 131.6872
139.6094
Sum Sq. De . 1.2955 0.2513 0.1965 9.5481 0.01703 0.0811
Obse a ions 76 76 76 76 76 76
Co ela ion Analysis
ENP ACC EDU INO LFP RLQ
ENP 1
ACC −0.6258 1
EDU 0.6582 −0.7895 1
INO 0.4062 −0.4314 0.616 1
LFP 0.0152 0.4286 −0.5679 −0.3285 1
RLQ −0.8418 0.6098 −0.6627 −0.4012 0.1002 1
Sou ce: au ho s’ compu a ion.
Economies 2025,13, 107 22 o 27
Table A2. S a iona i y es a le el.
Augmen ed Dickey–Fulle Tes Resul
Se ies In e cep T end and In e cep None
Value P ob Value P ob Value P ob Ou come
ENP −1.0558 0.7290 −2.4514 0.3509 0.6489 0.8542 NS
ACC −1.8531 0.3524 −2.4425 0.3552 −0.8857 0.3291 NS
EDU −0.6645 0.8486 −3.3852 0.0613 1.6777 0.9766 NS
INO −3.1341 0.0283 −4.1617 0.0081 −0.5505 0.4754 Mix
LFP −2.6452 0.0887 −3.2094 0.0907 −0.8746 0.3338 NS
RLQ −0.8417 0.8010 −2.8492 0.1851 −0.8612 0.3396 NS
Phillips–Pe on Tes Resul
Se ies In e cep T end and In e cep None
Value P ob Value P ob Value P ob Ou come
ENP −0.8340 0.8034 −1.8978 0.6458 0.9605 0.9093 NS
ACC −1.0065 0.7472 −1.8996 0.6448 −0.9807 0.2898 NS
EDU −0.6819 0.8444 −2.2886 0.4346 2.2205 0.9934 NS
INO −2.4121 0.1419 −3.1333 0.1063 −0.3205 0.5668 NS
LFP −2.2616 0.1870 −2.3013 0.4278 −0.9336 0.3091 NS
RLQ −0.6997 0.8400 −1.9015 0.6439 −1.1004 0.2437 NS
NS is “no s a iona y” sou ce: au ho s’ compu a ion.
Table A3. S a iona i y es a i s di e ence.
Augmen ed Dickey–Fulle Tes Resul
Se ies In e cep T end and In e cep None
Value P ob Value P ob Value P ob Ou come
ENP −4.3233 0.0008 −4.3195 0.0051 −4.2878 0.0000 I (1)
ACC −4.0036 0.0024 −3.9421 0.0150 −3.9239 0.0002 I (1)
EDU −4.2291 0.0011 −4.1953 0.0073 −3.8104 0.0002 I (1)
INO −5.5313 0.0000 −5.4961 0.0001 −5.5626 0.0000 I (1)
LFP −3.9036 0.0032 −3.8417 0.0197 −3.8289 0.0002 I (1)
RLQ −4.3312 0.0008 −4.4143 0.0038 −4.2573 0.0000 I (1)
Phillips–Pe on Tes Resul
Se ies In e cep T end and In e cep None
Value P ob Value P ob Value P ob Ou come
ENP −4.3685 0.0007 −4.3573 0.0045 −4.3253 0.0000 I (1)
ACC −4.0515 0.0020 −3.9521 0.0146 −3.9729 0.0001 I (1)
EDU −4.2866 0.0010 −4.2542 0.0062 −3.8314 0.0002 I (1)
INO −5.5313 0.0000 −5.4961 0.0001 −5.5626 0.0000 I (1)
LFP −3.9589 0.0027 −3.8977 0.0169 −3.8282 0.0002 I (1)
RLQ −4.3682 0.0007 −4.4206 0.0037 −4.2876 0.0000 I (1)
Sou ce: au ho s’ compu a ion.
Economies 2025,13, 107 23 o 27
Table A4. Johansen coin eg a ion es .
Summa ise All Fi e Se s o Assump ion
Sample: 2006Q1 2024Q4
Included obse a ions: 73
Se ies: ENP ACC EDU INO LFP RLQ
Lags in e al: 1 o 2
Selec ed (0.05 le el) numbe o coin eg a ing ela ions by model
Da a T end: None None Linea Linea Quad a ic
Tes ype No in e cep In e cep In e cep In e cep In e cep
No end No end No end T end T end
T ace 0 1 1 2 6
Max-Eig 0 0 0 1 1
C i ical alues based on MacKinnon e al. (1999)
Sou ce: au ho s’ compu a ion.
Table A5. Robus ness check esul s (Canonical Coin eg a ing Reg ession).
Canonical Coin eg a ing Reg ession (CCR)
Dependen a iable: ENP
Va iable Coe icien S d. E o -S a is ic P ob.
ACC −0.3425 0.3208 −1.0676 0.2894
EDU 1.3604 0.5079 2.6782 0.0092
INO −0.0083 0.0392 −0.2118 0.8328
LFP 3.9228 1.0239 3.8312 0.0003
RLQ −1.6857 0.5381 −3.1328 0.0025
C 1.5316 2.7165 0.5638 0.5747
R-squa ed 0.7921 Mean dependen a 5.5213
Adjus ed R-squa ed 0.7770 S.D. dependen a 0.1317
S.E. o eg ession 0.0621 Sum squa ed esid 0.2669
Long- un a iance 0.0099
Sou ce: au ho s’ compu a ion.
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