B unneng äbe , Achim; Neuje ski, Mo i z; Plehwe, Die e
Book Pa — Published Ve sion
Clima e Obs uc ion in Ge many: Hidden in Plain Sigh ?
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
WZB Be lin Social Science Cen e
Sugges ed Ci a ion: B unneng äbe , Achim; Neuje ski, Mo i z; Plehwe, Die e (2024) : Clima e
Obs uc ion in Ge many: Hidden in Plain Sigh ?, In: B ulle, Robe J. Robe s, J. Timmons Spence ,
Mi anda C. (Ed.): Clima e Obs uc ion ac oss Eu ope, ISBN 978-0-19-776204-2, Ox o d Uni e si y
P ess, New Yo k, NY, pp. 136-161,
h ps://doi.o g/10.1093/oso/9780197762042.003.0006
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Achim B unneng äbe , Mo i z Neuje ski, and Die e Plehwe, Clima e Obs uc ion in Ge many In: Clima e Obs uc ion
ac oss Eu ope. Edi ed by: Robe J. B ulle, J. Timmons Robe s and Mi anda C. Spence , Ox o d Uni e si y P ess.
© Ox o d Uni e si y P ess 2024. DOI: 10.1093/ oso/ 9780197762042.003.0006
6
Clima e Obs uc ion in Ge many
Hidden in Plain Sigh ?
ACHIM BRUNNENGRÄBER, MORITZ NEUJEFFSKI,
AND DIETER PLEHWE
INTRODUCTION: GREEN GROWTH AND THE LIMITED
MITIGATION COALITION
Ge many is unique in he ealm o clima e change in Eu ope as i has been
on a sel - imposed pa h o ene gy ansi ion, o Ene giewende, o abou
i y yea s. Ye , in 2020, while 65% o Ge mans said hey ega ded clima e
change as a e y impo an issue,1 en i onmen al p o ec ion and clima e
policy in pa icula emain highly con es ed issues. Ba les ha e cen ed
on he implemen a ion o p ominen pieces o legisla ion— pa icula ly
he Renewable Ene gy Sou ces Ac (RESA)— ha a emp o edi ec no
jus he ene gy sys em bu all economic sec o s o mee na ional and in-
e na ional clima e goals. To be e unde s and he ene gy s a us quo, we
need o mo e ho oughly examine he e o s o bo h en i onmen al social
mo emen s and obs uc ionis o ces. As we will show, hese ensions e-
eal an ambi alence (and some imes hos ili y) owa d he ansi ion ha
is hinde ing p og ess, ed by powe ul incumben s and eac iona y o ces
ha a e mos ly ‘hiding in plain sigh ’.
ge many [ 137 ]
A sho his o y o he ene gy ansi ion
The ene gy ansi ion in Ge many has had an e en ul his o y. The coun y’s
jou ney om a cen alized, ‘ha d’ ene gy pa h dependen on la ge ossil and
nuclea powe plan s owa d a decen alized, ‘so ’ pa h elying on a ious
enewable ene gy sou ces was i s in luenced by he wo k o Ame icans
Amo y and Hun e Lo ins in he 1970s.2 The i s e e ence o an ene gy
ansi ion (Ene giewende) appea ed in a 1981 publica ion by he Ins i u e
o Applied Ecology (Öko- Ins i u )3 pa ly in esponse o Eu ope‘s depend-
ence on oil impo s, which became p oblema ic du ing he 1970s oil c ises,
and he ongoing deba e abou ‘limi s o g ow h’.4 Wi h an i- nuclea u u -
ologis Robe Jungk’s mid- 1980s plea o a Ge man so pa h,5 he ene gy
deba e had o icially a i ed in Ge many.
The in e na ional de elopmen o al e na i e ene gy pe spec i es
s eng hened he Ge man en i onmen al and peace mo emen s, om
which s ong an i- ossil/ nuclea nongo e nmen al o ganiza ions (NGOs)
and, ul ima ely, he G een Pa y (es ablished as a na ional pa y in
1993) eme ged. Ge many’s Fede al En i onmen al Agency (UBA) had been
c ea ed in 1974, ollowing he 1972 Uni ed Na ions en i onmen con e -
ence in S ockholm. A e he Che nobyl disas e in 1986, en i onmen al
policy esponsibili ies once dis ibu ed ac oss a ious minis ies we e con-
cen a ed in he Fede al Minis y o he En i onmen (BMU). The new
minis y was la gely esponsible o he g owing impo ance o clima e
change in go e nmen policy ha ollowed he coun y’s euni ica ion in
1990. Howe e , he BMU equen ly had o igh an uphill ba le wi hin he
go e nmen agains o he minis ies, no ably economics, anspo , and
inance.
Opponen s and suppo e s o he ene gy ansi ion had been openly
con on ing each o he in a ious poli ical a enas since he ea ly 1980s. The
G eens and he Social Democ a s (SPD) we e i s o o m le - leaning co-
ali ion go e nmen s. I ook longe o he cen e- igh - leaning Ch is ian
Democ a ic Union (CDU) and i s sis e pa y he Ch is ian Social Union
(CSU) o emb ace en i onmen al policymaking. The pa y o Kon ad
Adenaue , Ge manys i s chancello a e Wo ld Wa II, he CDU had uled
mos o he ime since hen and wo ked closely wi h Ge many’s indus ial
business sec o . Howe e , in he wake o he se e e ecological c ises o he
1980s and 1990s (e.g., apid o es decline due o acid ain) he pa y’s con-
se a i e wing joined a an ga de business leade s and he g een- leaning
poli ical pa ies in in eg a ing ecological conside a ions in o Ge many’s
social ma ke economy model. I was now o be edesigned o enhance
[ 138 ] Clima e Obs uc ion ac oss Eu ope
138
en i onmen al esponsibili y in he p oduc ion p ocess and along supply
chains.
The poin o depa u e o he many clima e policy deba es ha e en u-
ally eme ged in Ge many began wi h he mul ila e al Uni ed Na ions cli-
ma e con e ence, COP 1, in 1995, in Be lin. Since hen, Ge many has p ided
i sel as a clima e policy leade . Be o e Angela Me kel, a CDU membe , be-
came chancello (2005– 2021), she se ed as ede al minis e o he en i-
onmen unde Helmu Kohl om 1994 o 1998. Me kel con ibu ed o
he inc easing a en ion o clima e change in Ge many and suppo ed
he es ablishmen o clima e esea ch acili ies, including he Po sdam
Ins i u e o Clima e Impac Resea ch (PIK) and, much la e , he Ins i u e
o Ad anced Sus ainabili y S udies (IASS; since 2023 Resea ch Ins i u e
o Sus ainabili y, o RIFS). Indeed, al hough many o he cen e- igh
pa ies ha e demons a ed mo e ambi alen a i udes, Ge many’s majo i y
conse a i es ha e suppo ed high- le el clima e science and demons a ed
suppo o clima e ac ion.
Backed by a c oss- pa y coali ion behind he hink ank G een Budge
Ge many and he SPD- G een coali ion, since he la e 1990s, Ge many has
emb aced a new pa adigm, he ‘ecological social ma ke economy’.6 This
model seeks o in eg a e en i onmen al and social conce ns in o he p in-
ciples o a ma ke - based economy, aiming o achie e sus ainable de el-
opmen by p omo ing he e icien alloca ion o esou ces, social wel a e,
and ecological balance. Following he implemen a ion o some o hese
p inciples du ing he Social Democ a and G een coali ion go e nmen s
(1998– 2005), he clima e and ene gy poli ical landscape changed d as i-
cally. Measu es such as he ecological ax e o m (a adeo o highe axes
on ossil ene gy o a educ ion in social wage con ibu ions) in 1999 aimed
a a la ge social and ecological ans o ma ion o he economy. The RESA
o 2000 p o ided inancial s abili y o he in lux o elec ici y om e-
newable sou ces in o he public g id o p omo e ene gy con e sion om
ossil uels o enewables. The ac spu ed he apid g ow h o enewables
by p o iding a secu e in es men ia a gua an eed eed- in a i o wen y
yea s. Amended se e al imes, he mos ecen e sion o he RESA, as o
1 Janua y 2023, se a goal o 80% o elec ici y supply om enewable en-
e gy sou ces by 2030.
In pa allel, he sha e o nuclea ene gy in he elec ici y mix had been
alling s eadily. The Ge man go e nmen had al eady mo ed o phase ou
nuclea powe in 2001. This commi men was amended by he Me kel
go e nmen , which ex ended he deadline o eac o phaseou in 2010.
Howe e , hese ex ensions we e e oked again in 2011 ollowing he
Fukushima powe plan disas e in Japan. Nuclea p oduc ion peaked in
ge many [ 139 ]
1997 a a ound 31% o he ene gy mix and ell o ze o a e he las plan s
we e shu down in Ap il 2023. Agains his, enewables inc eased con in-
uously and, by 2022, accoun ed o 48.3% o Ge many’s g oss elec ici y
gene a ion.
Ge many’s clima e policy a a c oss oads
Since he app o al o he i s d a o he RESA in 2000,7 he landscape o
ac o s has changed conside ably. Ge many’s go e nmen since 2021— he
‘ a ic ligh coali ion’ o Social Democ a s ( ed), F ee Democ a s (yellow),
and G eens— has u he ele a ed clima e p o ec ion as a guiding p inciple
in na ional and in e na ional poli ics. New g oups o ci il socie y ac o s
ha e eme ged since 2018, wi h a ocal clima e mo emen now including
F idays o Fu u e (F F), Ex inc ion Rebellion (XR), and Las Gene a ion.
This ac i ism in Ge many has in ensi ied signi ican ly and has once again
led o a s onge public deba e in he clima e policy ield.
These ends, howe e , ha e no mean ha deca boniza ion is al eady
well on i s way ac oss all ele an sec o s, no leas due o pe sis en op-
posi ion o ambi ious clima e ac ion. Al hough Ge many has expe ienced
g owing con lic s a ound clima e policy, ou igh denialism has played a
subo dina e ole.8 Ra he , he ‘ a ic ligh ’ coali ion has epea edly ailed
o u n ambi ion in o eali y. Wi hin he go e nmen , he igh - leaning lib-
e al F ee Democ a ic Pa y (FDP) has been he mos ocal opponen o am-
bi ious clima e policymaking. Key clima e p o ec ion measu es, including
he phasing ou o coal and nuclea p oduc ion, he ‘mobili y ansi ion’ o-
wa d widesp ead sus ainable anspo a ion, and he eplacemen o ossil
hea ing de ices, ha e been subjec o nume ous delay s a egies o accom-
moda e he p e e ences o ossil in e es g oups and indi iduals wi h close
ies o he majo Ge man poli ical pa ies (e.g. he Wi scha sunion lobby
g oup in he CDU, he SPD’s business- iendly subg oup Seeheime K eis,
and he undamen alis neolibe al wing o he FDP’s Membe o Ge man
Pa liamen , F ank Schä le ).
The ise o a new igh - wing populis pa y, Al e na i e ü Deu schland
(A D), Ge many’s only pa y ha openly ea u es clima e denial posi ions,
has added addi ional weigh o obs uc ionis e o s agains he mo e
ambi ious clima e policies p omo ed by he G een Pa y o he le - wing
opposi ion pa y Die Linke (The Le ). The coun y’s o icial clima e goal
is o achie e clima e neu ali y (‘ne ze o’) no la e han 2045, bu poli -
ical backsliding and ‘ho se ading’ o mee he demands o he FDP in he
a ic ligh coali ion ha e con inued o unde mine he implemen a ion
[ 140 ] Clima e Obs uc ion ac oss Eu ope
140
o necessa y measu es. Thus, he ime ame o a sla ed phaseou o he
combus ion engine in oad anspo and ossil gas- dependen hea ing in
buildings has been con inuously pos poned, mos ecen ly in 2023.
Ge many a a c oss oads
Due o e o s o unde mine ambi ious mi iga ion e o s, Ge many is ex-
pec ed o all sho o i s pledges (na ionally de e mined con ibu ions
[NDCs]) unde he Pa is Ag eemen , which a e designed o keep global
wa ming below a h eshold o 1.5°C. Al hough he coun y has dec eased
g eenhouse gas (GHG) emissions con inuously be ween he 1990s and
he p esen , i emains he la ges GHG emi e o he Eu opean Union
(Figu e 6.1).
Subs an ial e o s will be needed o u n he ide in he coming yea s.
As he Ge man En i onmen Agency (Umwel bundesam ) s a ed in 2022,
a e Ge many managed o cu i s emissions by 1.6%, ‘We need a a e o six
pe cen educ ion pe yea om now un il 2030’.9
As Figu e 6.2 shows, mos emission cu s in Ge many so a we e made
wi hin he elec ici y p oduc ion sec o . In con as , emissions in he ans-
po sec o ha e emained almos unchanged since 2010, as ha e hose o
mos o he sec o s.
Thus, he indus y has ailed o each he sec o - speci ic clima e goals
s ipula ed unde he RESA in 2021 and 2022. Ra he han inc easing po-
li ical p essu e, in 2023, he Ge man go e nmen abandoned he concep
o manda o y, sec o - speci ic goals and now ocusses solely on he o e all
educ ion o emissions na ionwide. In a ecen minis e ial epo , expe s
concluded ha Ge many will mos likely no mee i s na ional clima e goal
o educing GHG emissions by 65% compa ed wi h 1990 le els as planned10
and would ac ually need o educe GHG emissions by 70%.11
How can his si ua ion be explained in his alleged ‘clima e pionee ’
coun y? Fi s , we mus dis inguish be ween p ima y and seconda y
obs uc ion. P ima y obs uc ion, acco ding o schola s Ekbe g and
colleagues, e e s o he denial o clima e science and he e y exis ence
o ele ance o global wa ming. Seconda y obs uc ion ‘includes all hose
calls which do no deny he human- induced na u e o he clima e c isis
(science), bu ne e heless delay o o es all meaning ul clima e ac ion’.12
Such e o s o delay (1) ques ion he measu es equi ed o ackle clima e
change in gene al, (2) emphasize he downside o clima e policies, and/ o
(3) p esen allegedly be e , al e na i e, and ma ke - o ien ed solu ions o
ansi ion.13
0%
–10%
–20%
–30%
–40%
–50%
1400
1200
1000
800
MMT CO2e
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
Ge many G eenhouse Gas Emissions
To al GHG Emissions
Pe cen Change in Emissions
Figu e 6.1 To al g eenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (in MMT CO2e) and pe cen age change in emissions in Ge many be-
ween 1990 and 2021, inclusi e.
Sou ce: To al GHG emissions based on da a p o ided by Gü schow and P lüge (2023) o Kyo o Six G eenhouse Gas To als.
De elopmen and achie emen o g eenhouse gas emissions in Ge many
by he sec o s o he Fede al Clima e P o ec ion Ac .
Million ons o ca bon dioxide equi alen s
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
2010 2012 2014
1 - Ene gy p oduc ion In en o y
2 - Indus y In en o y
3 - Buildings In en o y
4 - T anspo In en o y
5 - Ag icul u e In en o y
6 - Was e managemen and o he In en o y
1 - Ene gy p oduc ion Ta ge
2 - Indus y Ta ge
3 - Buildings Ta ge
4 - T anspo Ta ge
5 - Ag icul u e Ta ge
6 - Was e managemen and o he Ta ge
2016 2018 2020 2022 2024 2026 2028 2030
Figu e 6.2 The de elopmen and achie emen o g eenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (in MMT C02e) unde he Fede al
Clima e P o ec ion Ac , by sec o .
Sou ce: Umwel bundesam (Ge man En i onmen Agency) p ess o ice.
ge many [ 143 ]
In Ge many, bo h ypes o obs uc ionism ha e played a ole in
main aining he s a us quo, especially he la e . When he ‘ a ic ligh
coali ion’ ook leade ship o he go e nmen in 2021, clima e p o ec ion
was ans e ed o he Minis y o Economic A ai s and Clima e Ac ion
(BMWK) unde he leade ship o G een Pa y Vice Chancello Robe
Habeck. The me ge o wo adi ionally hos ile minis ies unde he G eens
ep esen ed a new s a egy o align economic and clima e policy goals. This
end was also seen a he s a e le el ( he Lände ), whe e ea lie an ago-
nism be ween he p o- business pa ies o he cen e- igh and he G eens
had p og essi ely gi en way o ‘conse a i e- g een’ coali ion go e nmen s.
Agains his backg ound, and unlike in he Uni ed S a es o Uni ed
Kingdom, he oices o clima e denie s— he i s o m o obs uc ionism—
had been ma ginalized in Ge many. Bu hey had become ins i u ionalized
in he second decade o he new millennium wi h he ise o A D in 2013
(no ed ea lie ) and eme ging ne wo ks o clima e- scep ic ci il socie y ac-
o s.14 In opposi ion o he mains eam pa ies, A D— much like o he
igh - wing populis pa ies in neighbou ing Eu opean coun ies— has e-
cen ly gained s ong suppo in public polls. Despi e he inge cha ac e o
Ge man denialism, he e emains o he signi ican opposi ion o ambi ious
clima e policy, pa icula ly command- and- con ol egula o y ins umen s,
om ossil in e es g oups and in neolibe al policy expe ci cles. 15 Indeed,
be ween 2010 and he Russian in asion o Uk aine, he ea lie push o
ene gy ansi ion ins ead encoun e ed signi ican esis ance, culmina ing
in he 2014 amendmen s o he RESA, which eplaced he success ul eed-
in a i incen i e o he expansion o enewable ene gy capaci y wi h an
auc ion sys em.
Thus, in e ms o poli ical s a egies and policy ins umen s o clima e
ac ion, Ge many can ha dly be called p og essi e o pionee ing. Ins ead,
he coun y s ands a he c oss oads be ween ene gy egimes: one based
on con en ional ossil uels and he o he on mo e sus ainable enewables.
THE OPPONENTS OF CLIMATE ACTION
One use ul way o ob ain an o e iew o he ele an ac o landscape wi h
ega d o clima e policy is o ocus on he majo sou ces o CO2 emissions
in Ge many, which in 2016 we e ene gy gene a ion (37.8%), indus ial p o-
duc ion (20.7%), anspo (18.2%), and households (10.2%).16 Ag icul u e
(7.8%) also played a ole, bu la ge, ene gy- consuming and emissions-
in ensi e animal a ming pa ly bene i s om he ansi ion o enewable
[ 150 ] Clima e Obs uc ion ac oss Eu ope
150
Hea land’s (and wi h he pa icipa ion o expe s ea u ed a Hea land
con e ences) oge he wi h he Ins i u ü Un e nehme ische F eihei
(IUF), a small neolibe al hink ank in Be lin. Social media in luence Naomi
Seib has appea ed a hese con e ences, gi ing alks and p esen ing ideos
in which, among o he hings, she denies he eali y o clima e change.
Seib is some imes e e ed o as he ‘an i- G e a’ in con as wi h Swedish
clima e p o ec ion ac i is G e a Thunbe g.35
While A D’s and EIKE’s posi ions do no equen ly en e he main-
s eam media, a dedica ed g oup o A D pa y and igh - wing media
ou le s such as F eie Wel ea u e denialis a gumen s and au ho s. These
publica ions, in addi ion o hei social media channels, help hese g oups
o sus ain ‘ a ie ies o igh - wing populis clima e poli ics’.36
STRATEGIES AND TACTICS UTILIZED
Ge man companies and allied in e es g oups engage in a numbe o delay
s a egies o p ese e ossil uel dependency. Beyond adi ional business
associa ions, he public campaigns o ossil in e es coali ions ely on hink
anks and NGOs o in luence public opinion. Medium- and long- e m
campaigns ha e been key o he conside able e o s unde aken o slow and
shape Ge many’s ene gy ansi ion ollowing he app o al o he RESA in
2000. Apa om he inge igh - wing g oups ha con inue o deny he ex-
is ence o ele ance o man- made clima e change, mos g ey ene gy g oups
o icially endo se in e na ional clima e policy commi men s. Howe e ,
many i ms and associa ions ail o li e up o hei o icial posi ions and
equen ly lobby o lowe ambi ions, engage in g eenwashing, and a emp
o shi he bu den o change o o he s o p o ec adi ional business.37
Championed by a coali ion o Social Democ a ic and G een MEPs, he
RESA o 2000 was unusual as i did no o igina e in he minis ies bu
esul ed om a pa liamen a ian ini ia i e. I was buil on he a o emen-
ioned g id- opening 1990 Elec ici y Feed- In Ac , which allowed small
enewable elec ici y p oduce s o sell o he u ili ies. In addi ion o g id
access, he RESA p o ided addi ional suppo o he de elopmen o e-
newable elec ici y p oduc ion along he en i e p oduc ion chain, wi h
long- e m s able p ices p o ided by he eed- in a i .38
U ili y companies opposed ene gy libe aliza ion. The Hanno e - based
la ge u ili y P eußenElek a (la e me ged in o E.ON) in pa icula ough
ha d agains he ise o enewables in no he n Ge many, whe e i had held
he egional g id monopoly. The company e en p essed i s case be o e he
Eu opean Cou o Jus ice, bu los ha legal ba le.39 Incumben ossil
ge many [ 151 ]
ene gy p oduce s and la ge indus ial cus ome s opposed he eme ging
suppo o enewables bu ough an uphill ba le un il he conse a i e
libe al coali ion go e nmen led by Angela Me kel ook o ice in 2009.
Thei adi ional in luence in he Minis y o Economics, which had been
in cha ge o ene gy policy, no longe su iced du ing he i s decade o he
new millennium. Responsibili y o enewable ene gy had been mo ed
om he Minis y o Economics o he En i onmen al Minis y (un il
2005 headed by Jü gen T i in, a membe o he G een Pa y, un il 2009 by
Sigma Gab iel, membe o SPD) in he ea ly 2000s. Unde he Ch is ian
Democ a ic and libe al leade ship o he Minis y o Economics and he
En i onmen al minis y, espec i ely, access o indus y g oups once
again imp o ed.
Fossil indus y suppo e s o iginally we e also ill- p epa ed o he chal-
lenge o ene gy con e sion poli ics. Mos expe s we e su p ised by he
apid expansion o he sha e o decen alized elec ici y p oduced by wind
and sola ene gy a e he g id opening. A he beginning o he new mil-
lennium, incumben ossil p oduce s and he la ge elec ici y cus ome s,
unlike he u ili ies, we e no ye ala med by he de elopmen . Mos expe s
(including Angela Me kel a he ime) expec ed only a low- single- digi sha e
o enewable ene gy p oduc ion o esul om he legisla ion. In he cou se
o he 2000s, dedica ed ac o s om indus y, academia, and he hink ank
wo ld aimed o ensu e such limi s by unde mining he incumben enew-
able and clima e egime h ough a a ie y o s a egies and ac ics.
Scien i ic s udies, lobbying, and media campaigns
Sho ly a e he passage o he RESA, academic and hink ank opponen s
o he s a e- led e o o inc ease wind, sola , and biomass sou ces o elec-
ici y gene a ion ad anced a gumen s agains he eed- in a i - based
incen i e o enewable in es men . Ins i u ions in ol ed included he
academic council o he Fede al Minis y o Economics, he RWI, and he
indus y co- inanced EWI. In 2004, a g oup o h ee esea ch ins i u es
published a s udy con ac ed h ough he academic council o he Fede al
Minis y o Economics on he gene al economic, sec o al, and ecological im-
pac o he enewable ene gy ac .40 The au ho s claimed he sys em in place
would no be an e icien way o p oceed in he long un and emphasized
he eme gence o unnecessa ily high consume p ices as a esul o he
gua an eed a i hen in place. To mend his p oblem, he s udy p oposed
incen i es o inc ease inno a ion e o s and mo e owa d compe i ion be-
ween di e en ypes o enewable ene gy. This endea ou was in ma ked
[ 152 ] Clima e Obs uc ion ac oss Eu ope
152
con as o he poli ical e o o de elop all enewable sou ces oge he o
ake ad an age o hei complemen a i y ( he wind blows when he sun is
down, sola wo ks whe he o no he wind is blowing, and so on). Ins ead
o he eed- in a i , he s udy p oposed a quo a sys em (which al eady
exis ed in he Uni ed Kingdom and Sweden and compa ed poo ly wi h he
eed- in a i in Ge many in e ms o expanding he sha e o enewable en-
e gy). Besides aising he spec e o incompa ibili y wi h EU law, he main
conce ns o he s udy we e e iciency and cos .
Based on ha s udy, he academic council o he Fede al Minis y o
Economics (headed by Wol gang Clemen , a conse a i e Social Democ a
om he coal and s eel s a e o No d hein- Wes alen) demanded he RESA
be cancelled. Subsequen s udies published by RWI’s ene gy depa men
epea ed he co e messages o he ea ly expe documen : he eed- in a i
is ine icien , al e na i e solu ions based on compe i ion a e supe io , and
Ge man law may no be compa ible wi h EU law (despi e he Eu opean
Cou o Jus ice’s a ou able uling in 2001). Ul ima ely, a ious aca-
demic and pa isan hink anks, including RWI and he employe - unded
IW, as well as go e nmen expe commissions such he Ge man Council
o Economic Ad iso s (SVR) and he Monopoly Commission, con e ged
on p oposing a quo a sys em as an al e na i e o he eed- in a i . This
alignmen on an al e na i e policy ins umen was unsu p ising due o
he in e locking posi ions o key academics in ol ed simul aneously in ac-
ademic esea ch, go e nmen commissions, and indus y- inanced hink
ank and campaign e o s.41
In he mean ime, addi ional a gumen s had been de eloped by he ange
o esea ch ins i u es also opposed o he eed- in a i . They ocused on he
g owing cos o inancing he ixed a i o enewable ene gy. Al hough
he igu es p o ided in indus y- unded s udies we e in la ed (up o an ‘un-
necessa y’ €52 billion in addi ional expenses42), and, aken ou o con ex ,
hey se ed o eed an ex ended public media campaign agains he a i .
Du ing he 2000s, c i icism om RWI in ensi ied. RWI esea che
Manuel F ondel p o ided a s udy on he supposed high cos o Ge man e-
newable ene gy o a US hink ank, he Ins i u e o Ene gy Resea ch (IER),
enewing he claim ha he RESA was ine ec i e.43 Acco ding o F ondel,
he EU ETS, a ma ke - based app oach o educing GHGs ha se s a cap on
emissions and allows allowance ading, unde mined he ecological impac
o Ge many’s own enewables policy. Howe e , he claim did no ake in o
accoun he p ac ice o educing he numbe o ce i ica es aded acco ding
o he e ec i eness o he eed- in a i .44 Al hough he Eu opean emis-
sions ading scheme ailed o li e up o i s CO2- educ ion p omises (see
Chap e 13, on he Eu opean Union), he Ge man Inno a ion Council— an
ge many [ 153 ]
expe commission composed o economis s and managemen schola s—
also demanded he elimina ion o public suppo o enewables. While
men ioning one s udy ha ecognized inno a ion in wind ene gy, he
council’s epo elied on s udies claiming he opposi e and summa ily
denied ‘measu able’ inno a ion e ec s.45
Opposi ion also came om Ge many’s inge clima e- denial camp. Fo
example, be ween 2013 and 2018, EIKE placed c i icism o RESA a he
cen e o i s social media ac i i ies.46 In addi ion, he neolibe al INSM an
a dedica ed media campaign demanding he aboli ion o he eed- in a i ,
pa o a sus ained e o o mobilize he public agains he RESA. Relying
on RWI- con ac ed esea ch and ope a ing wi h a budge o up o €8 mil-
lion pe yea , he 2012 campaign ocused a en ion ac oss he spec um o
mass and social media, helping o pa e he way o he elimina ion o he
eed- in a i in 2014 (we p o ide a mo e de ailed analysis o na a i es
deployed in his highly success ul campaign in he inal sec ion o his
chap e ).
These a ious academic, legal, and media s a egies ul ima ely
con ibu ed o he majo e isions o he RESA in 2014, ending he as
acking o enewable ene gy con e sion in Ge many— a leas un il he
Russian in asion o Uk aine. The e o m eplaced he eed- in a i - based
suppo o enewable de elopmen wi h an auc ioning sys em, which p i -
ileged la ge capi al in es men ins ead o he decen alized expansion o
enewables p io i ized ea lie . A e he elimina ion o he eed- in a i ,
o me suppo e s o he ‘quo a sys em’ men ioned ea lie ell silen , e-
ealing he ins umen al cha ac e o Ge many’s policy ins umen compe-
i ion: o end a highly success ul egime o und enewable expansion ha
had accoun ed o 47% o CO2 educ ion in Ge many, compa ed wi h a 10%
d op ela ed o emissions ading. 47
An i- wind powe campaigns
Beyond igh ing he RESA, he e o s o esea ch ins i u es and hink
anks o igh he ene gy ansi ion ha e been accompanied by single-
issue ini ia i es and igh - wing g oups alike, which can be illus a ed by
hei dedica ed campaigns agains wind ene gy. Se e al o ganiza ions in-
cluding Windwahn (wind delusion), Ve nun k a ( a ionali y powe ), and
Wild ie s i ung (wildli e ounda ion) ocused on ying o b eak he mo-
men um o Ge many’s ene gy ansi ion.48
Windwahn is an online pla o m ha aims o o ganize ci ic ini ia i es
(CI) unde one oo and sees i sel as a mou hpiece o hese CI. I s websi e
[ 154 ] Clima e Obs uc ion ac oss Eu ope
154
ea u es a map lis ing mo e han 1,100 associa ions and ini ia i es and ex-
plici ly welcomes o he ini ia i es ‘ ha ac acco ding o he mo o ‘wind
powe yes, bu . . .’. The websi e also includes ac ual easons o oppose
wind ene gy. Howe e , headlines such as ‘My h o cheap g een elec ici y’,
‘Ene gy u na ound as a dange o he whole o Ge many’, ‘Da k lull
app oaches’, and ‘Wind powe megalomania’ p edomina e, illus a ing he
g oup’s adical ejec ion o wind powe expansion.49
Ve nun k a calls i sel a ‘ ede al ini ia i e o sensible ene gy
policy’ and is an umb ella o ganiza ion o ou een s a e and egional
associa ions ha oppose he RESA, wind ene gy, and o he enewable en-
e gy p ojec s. In con as o Windwahn, Ve nun k a a gues mos ly ac-
ually. I ein o ces he local conse a ion conce ns i aises by deploying
p o essionals o lobby he go e nmen . Poli ically, Ve nun k a has been
suppo ed by he A D, EIKE, pa s o he CDU, and pa s o he FDP as well
as wi hin he Minis y o Economics.50
Finally, he Wild ie s i ung is commi ed o na u e conse a ion and
educa ion and ep esen s he mode a e edge o he spec um c i ical o
wind ene gy. Howe e , om 2012 o 2019, he ounda ion was headed by
F i z Vah enhol , a p ominen clima e change denie , a o me enewable
ene gy indus y manage a RWI Innogy, and a long- e m membe o he
supe iso y boa d o Au ubis AG. Vah enhol and he ounda ion’s head
o communica ions, Michael Mie sch, a acked he go e nmen ’s clima e
policy goals and used an i- wind and o he campaigns o suppo ossil in-
dus y posi ions. A e he ounda ion dismissed Vah enhol in 2019, cli-
ma e change denial no longe played a ole in he o ganiza ion’s wo k, as
a look o he Wild ie - Webina , he Blog, o he lis o publica ion show.
Since his depa u e, Vah enhol has engaged in a coun y- wide an i- clima e
policy campaign e med ‘sa e ou indus y’.
Righ - wing ex emis mobiliza ion
The o ces o business- ela ed clima e policy delay and clima e deni-
alis g oups ha e ecen ly been joined by igh - wing ex emis o ganiza-
ions a ge ing clima e p o ec ion as pa o hei pla o m o deg ow h,
a decen alized economy, popula ion con ol, and an end o immig a ion.
These g oups ha e o ganized o iolen ly obs uc he clima e jus ice mo e-
men . Fo example, he egional o ganiza ion P o- Lausi ze B aunkohle
e.V., which ad oca es o he con inued use o coal, o ganized coun e -
demons a ions agains he Ge man clima e jus ice g oup Ende Gelände in
2016 du ing i s occupa ion o he coal mining company Leag in he Lausi z.
ge many [ 155 ]
Local a - igh g oups pa icipa ed in hese coun e - demons a ions,
physically a acking ac i is s. Va ious ci ic ini ia i es p omo ed on social
ne wo ks (e.g. F idays o Hub aum, o ‘cubic capaci y’) and ‘No ban on gas-
oline and diesel ehicles in Ge many’ se ed as channels o adicaliza ion
in which an asies o ha m and some imes e en mu de a e oiced agains
clima e ac i is s. The la e g oup is adminis e ed by he Au omobilclub
Mobil Ge many, a compe i o o he la ge Gene al Ge man Au omobile
Club. Toge he , hese g oups push o Ge many o emb ace s e eo ypes o
pe o- masculini y.51
CLIMATE POLICY OBSTRUCTION DISCOURSES: THREE
INSM CAMPAIGNS
O e he yea s, he INSM has inc easingly engaged wi h Ge man clima e
policy. In addi ion o i s campaign agains he RESA, men ioned abo e, he
hink ank con inued o c i icize Ge man clima e ac ion and accompanied
hei a gumen s wi h high- p o ile media campaigns in 2012, 2017, and
2019. A e iew o he discou ses displayed in hese h ee campaigns o e s
clea examples o he ypes o na a i es ossil in e es g oups use o in-
en ionally obs uc clima e ac ion, which s and in con as o hei o icial
suppo o i .
INSM’s i s campaign was launched wi h he slogan: ‘S op he RESA—
do he ene gy ansi ion’, p esen ing he RESA as i s opposi e: an obs acle
o clima e p o ec ion. The INSM claimed ha he RESA p omo es ine i-
cien echnologies and hus makes he ene gy ansi ion oo expensi e.
By p o iding a coun e - na a i e based on an al e na i e Compe i i e
Model o Renewable Ene gies, he INSM aimed o p omo e ma ke - based
ins umen s ins ead o go e nmen egula ion and hus igh o he eed-
in a i , which was becoming inc easingly unpopula amongs Ge man in-
dus y due o he g owing unce ain y c ea ed by obs uc ionis a acks
om a ious qua e s. Thus, he na a i es o cos ine iciency and ine ec-
i eness included a mo e appealing na a i e: ma ke solu ions ha would
pu po edly esul in be e clima e p o ec ion wi h ewe es ic ions
upon indus y.
In he media campaign accompanying his discu si e aming, an elec-
ical ou le supe imposed wi h symbolic images se ed as a isual mo i
o p in ads and pos e s in public spaces. Fo example, unde he ques-
ion: ‘How does Ge man ene gy policy a ec he p ice o elec ici y?’ he
INSM placed a pic u e o a ime bomb o e he powe socke . In ano he
comme cial, he iconic image o Ed a d Munch’s pain ing The Sc eam
[ 156 ] Clima e Obs uc ion ac oss Eu ope
156
appea ed o e he socke . Abo e, i said: ‘Help! The ene gy ansi ion is
becoming una o dable’.
The ollow- up campaign in 2017 e ained om such d ama ic image y,
bu he o ganiza ion con inued o adhe e o i s cos c i icism and he al-
leged ine ec i eness o he RESA. Howe e , he INSM no longe con as ed
he RESA wi h i s own ma ke - based model. Ins ead, he g oup ex ended
i s a gumen o o he conce ns. While he o ganiza ion s ill s ongly
emphasized he alleged addi ional bu den o elec ici y cus ome s and
especially indus y, i now also s oked ea s o a loss o indus ial com-
pe i i eness. Wi h e e ence o cheape ene gy cos s as a ‘cen al loca ion
ac o ’, he o ganiza ion c ea ed he spec e o he eloca ion o indus y
and a concomi an loss o employmen while igno ing he well- es ablished
nega i e e ec s o unchecked clima e change on jobs and he economy.
In i s 2019 campaign, INSM ocused mo e on he ede al go e nmen ’s
clima e policy in gene al. In addi ion o he na a i es o ene gy po e y,
ine iciency, and loss o compe i i eness, he o ganiza ion gene a ed ye
ano he image. While i desc ibed clima e change as ‘cu en ly he g ea es
challenge acing humani y’, i also e e ed o a 2°C a ge o limi ing
global wa ming in he Pa is Ag eemen . Th ough his he o ical igu e, he
o ganiza ion lowe ed he ba o emissions educ ions needed (i is 1.5°C in
he Pa is ea y). Mo eo e , INSM’s campaign highligh ed he need o in-
e na ional e o s o igh clima e change while also sides epping espon-
sibili y, s a ing ha Ge many’s sha e o global CO2 emissions is ma ginal, a
s aple a gumen o ossil in e es g oups in many coun ies whose his o -
ical emissions, like Ge many’s, a e subs an ial.
In addi ion, he INSM elied on ano he agg essi e media campaign o
p omo e i s posi ions on Ge man clima e policies. I began a ge ing he
leade o he G een Pa y, Annalena Bae bock, du ing he elec ion cam-
paign o 2019. In INSM’s pa odic p in campaign, Bae bock appea ed
d essed as he biblical igu e Moses, holding up wo s ones eng a ed wi h
he Ten Commandmen s. These commandmen s s a ed ha ‘you may no
d i e a combus ion engine’, ‘you may no ly’, and o he such es ic ions,
ending wi h ‘you may no e en hink ha he e is an end o p ohibi ions’.
This image, i led ‘Why we do no need a s a e eligion’, appea ed in leading
Ge man newspape s such as F ank u e Allgemeine Zei ung. He e, INSM’s
pic o ial language con e ged wi h he na a i es o he Ge man denial o -
ganiza ion EIKE, which has s a ed ha ‘no he clima e is endange ed, bu
ou eedom’.52
As pa o hei la es campaign, in a 23 Feb ua y 2023 a icle ‘Fi e ways
o a be e ene gy policy’,53 he INSM e lec ed he undamen al edi ec-
ion o Ge man clima e policy a e Russia’s in asion o Uk aine and he
ge many [ 157 ]
subsequen in la ion c isis. In con as o i s p e ious posi ions, he g oup
now p omo ed a as e expansion o enewable ene gy. Bu i s messages s ill
con ained a oned- down c i icism o cos ine iciencies and s a e subsidies.
Now, he o ganiza ion placed a s onge emphasis on echnology op ions
by p omo ing hyd ogen de elopmen , he expansion o liqui ied na u al
gas (LNG) e minals, acking, and ca bon cap u e and s o age (CCS).
CONCLUSION: INDUSTRY HEADWINDS AGAINST
CLIMATE AMBITIONS
As his chap e has shown, exis ing clima e policies and en i onmen al
p o ec ion in Ge many ha e been s ongly con es ed. Ini ial demands
by en i onmen ally conscious ci il socie y g oups, he ise o he G een
Pa y, and he ecen eme gence o F idays o Fu u e and o he clima e
mo emen s ha e aced headwinds om powe ul indus y associa ions,
neolibe al hink anks, employe lobby g oups, and conse a i e ci il so-
cie y mo emen s since he 1980s. Especially since he mid- 2010s, a solid
neolibe al opposi ion o he coun y’s ene gy ansi ion has de eloped
ha has p o en mo e in luen ial han he inge clima e denial posi ion
o a ew ac o s. Howe e , Ge many displays a di e se ange o opponen s
o enewable ene gy p ojec s whose membe s ha e ies o ac ions o he
majo poli ical pa ies including he Ch is ian and Social Democ a s and
he smalle , igh - leaning libe al FPD.
Posi ions beyond and be ween he le – igh spec um make o ien a ion
di icul . No all conse a i es a e clima e obs uc ionis s. Some a - igh
g oups concei e o clima e p o ec ion as a ma e o homeland secu i y.
The dogma ic cha ac e o ce ain ‘ci izen ini ia i es’ agains enewable en-
e gy p ojec s sugges s he in ol emen o o ganized obs uc ionis s. The e
is a end o ‘co e ’ ne wo ks o an i- enewables lobbyis s h oughou
Ge many who— on behal o companies— ile lawsui s, ad ise CI, and ac as
expe s. Simila o ‘as o u ’ o ganiza ions in he Uni ed S a es and o he
coun ies, some ac i is g oups se up o oppose wind a ms and sola
panels in Ge many ha appea o be g ass oo s mo emen s a e ac ually
sus ained by ( ossil) in e es g oups.54
Ce ainly, he s onges e o s ha e been o ches a ed agains
Ge many’s RESA. Th ough academic opposi ion (e.g. om RWI), pa isan
hink anks (e.g. CEP), public media campaigns (e.g. INSM), and con in-
uous lobby p essu e om powe ul companies and indus y associa ions
( ep esen ed by he indus y- inanced hink ank IW), he once adical ac
o expand decen alized enewable ene gy p oduc ion e en ually mo phed
[ 158 ] Clima e Obs uc ion ac oss Eu ope
158
in o a so measu e unlikely o help mee Ge many’s goal o becoming cli-
ma e neu al by 2045.
Un il ecen ly, he ‘g ey’ g oup o obs uc ionis ac o s has po ayed
he con inued use o ossil uels as necessa y o ensu e eliable, a o d-
able powe and domes ic ene gy secu i y.55 Following he Russian in-
asion o Uk aine, Ge man ene gy policy has been con adic o y, wi h a
ocus on bo h he di e si ica ion o ossil gas supplies and a ein igo a ion
o e o s o inc ease he use o enewable ene gy. The BMWK concluded
long- e m con ac s wi h gas and oil supplie s and con inues building LNG
e minals on Ge many’s coas s. While egula o y hu dles agains he ex-
pansion o wind powe ha e been emo ed, he Libe al Pa y- led Minis y
o Digi al and T anspo succeeded in e ec ing ano he ba ie by blocking
he Eu opean phase- ou o combus ion engines by 2035, a demand om
he au omo i e sec o and he eFuels Alliance. Simila ly, he plan o phase
ou ossil gas hea ing an in o s ong opposi ion and has since been bo h
weakened and u he delayed.
To be e unde s and he ambigui ies in he policy posi ions o he
majo indus ial sec o s and poli ical pa ies in Ge many, i will be neces-
sa y o s udy sys ema ically he e ol ing doo be ween poli ical and busi-
ness ca ee s and he alliances be ween inne - pa y g oupings and ou side
in e es g oups. Fo example, while ca , s eel, ossil ene gy, and chemical
indus y in e es s play a ole in he SPD ia i s wo ks council and union ep-
esen a i es, he links be ween indus y and he Ch is ian Democ a ic and
F ee Democ a ic pa ies un mainly h ough managemen ci cles. Fu u e
esea ch is needed o be e unde s and he s uc u al dimensions o and
s a egic e o s in he anspo and cons uc ion indus ies in addi ion
o he ene gy sec o . While he igh agains he RESA shows he capaci y
o obs uc ionis o ces o igh and win uphill ba les, he Ene giewende is
s ill he policy a ena wi h he bes eco d o o wa ding Ge many’s clima e
policy agenda. The ocus o clima e policymaking u gen ly needs o shi
o anspo , hea ing, and housing. Much mo e esea ch is needed on he
lobby g oups in hese a eas, which ha e so a succeeded in blocking o de-
laying deca boniza ion.
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