Hadland, Eleano ; Elhan-Kayala , Yesim
Wo king Pape
Digi aliza ion o deca boniza ion: E idence om
Bangladesh, he Republic o Ko ea, and S i Lanka
ADBI Wo king Pape , No. 1479
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Asian De elopmen Bank Ins i u e (ADBI), Tokyo
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Hadland, Eleano ; Elhan-Kayala , Yesim (2024) : Digi aliza ion o
deca boniza ion: E idence om Bangladesh, he Republic o Ko ea, and S i Lanka, ADBI Wo king
Pape , No. 1479, Asian De elopmen Bank Ins i u e (ADBI), Tokyo,
h ps://doi.o g/10.56506/HCZW8997
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ADBI Wo king Pape Se ies
DIGITALIZATION FOR DECARBONIZATION:
EVIDENCE FROM BANGLADESH,
THE REPUBLIC OF KOREA, AND SRI LANKA
Eleano Hadland and
Yesim Elhan-Kayala
No. 1479
Sep embe 2024
Asian De elopmen Bank Ins i u e
The Wo king Pape se ies is a con inua ion o he o me ly named Discussion Pape se ies;
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Sugges ed ci a ion:
Hadland, E. and Y. Elhan-Kayala . 2024. Digi aliza ion o Deca boniza ion: E idence om
Bangladesh, he Republic o Ko ea, and S i Lanka. ADBI Wo king Pape 1479. Tokyo: Asian
De elopmen Bank Ins i u e. A ailable: h ps://doi.o g/10.56506/HCZW8997
Please con ac he au ho s o in o ma ion abou his pape .
Email: [email p o ec ed]
Eleano Hadland is di ec o o Hadland Ma i ime Limi ed. Yesim Elhan-Kayala is an
ad iso in he O ice o he Chie Economis and Di ec o Gene al, Economic Resea ch
and De elopmen Impac Depa men , Asian De elopmen Bank.
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ADBI Wo king Pape 1479 Hadland and Elhan-Kayala
Abs ac
Ma i ime indus y anspo s o e 90% o aded ca go annually and accoun s o 3% o global
g eenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The Asia and he Paci ic egion p ocess 64%
o global ca go, has 9 o he la ges 10 po s globally, and p o ide o e 65% o sea a e s
employed in he indus y o suppo global alue chains. In addi ion o i s global con ibu ions,
ma i ime is one o he mos impo an indus ies in he egion.
In his pape , we in es iga e he impac o deploying sma solu ions o acili a ing po
p oduc i i y, ade and dec easing GHG emissions. Using high equency po and au oma ic
iden i ica ion sys em da a o con aine essels in 2022, we assess he echnology up ake and
p oduc i i y le els a 53 con aine po s in he Asia and he Paci ic egion. Then, using a speed
managemen model, we simula e po en ial ime and emission sa ings achie able
a h ee Asian po s ep esen ing a ious le els o sma echnology solu ions in hei
ope a ions: Busan (high), Colombo (medium), and Chi agong (low). Resul s sugges an
in e se ela ionship be ween po p oduc i i y gains and echnology up ake, wi h hose po s
a lowe up ake le els showing highe ma ginal gains om in oduc ion o sma speed
managemen sys ems o essels. Second, based on he es ablished ela ionship be ween
ship speed and uel consump ion, we in es iga e GHG emissions impac o sma speed
managemen sys ems. This s udy helps demons a e wi h eal- ime po and essel a ic da a
he p omising po en ial o digi al echnology solu ions o g eene and mo e e icien ma i ime
ope a ions wi h egional and global bene i s.
Keywo ds: po s, sma po s, g eenhouse gas emissions, digi aliza ion, AIS
JEL Classi ica ion: R41, Q56, Q53, Q52
ADBI Wo king Pape 1479 Hadland and Elhan-Kayala
Con en s
1. INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 1
2. LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................ 2
3. METHODOLOGY ......................................................................................................... 3
3.1 S udy Objec i es .............................................................................................. 5
3.2 Da a .................................................................................................................. 5
4. SMART PORT SYSTEMS ............................................................................................ 7
5. REDUCING EMISSIONS FROM VESSELS IN PORTS .............................................. 9
5.1 In oduc ion ....................................................................................................... 9
5.2 Jus in Time A i al P o ocols ......................................................................... 10
5.3 Indus y Readiness o Jus in Time A i al P o ocols .................................... 12
5.4 Summa y o Asia and he Paci ic Po Pe o mance ...................................... 13
5.5 Vessel Emissions ........................................................................................... 19
6. ASSESSMENT OF THE POTENTIAL TIME AND EMISSIONS SAVINGS
ARISING FROM IMPLEMENTATION OF JIT ARRIVAL PROTOCOLS AT
SELECTED ASIAN PORTS ....................................................................................... 22
6.1 O e iew o Selec ed Po s ............................................................................ 22
6.2 Da a Analysis ................................................................................................. 23
6.3 Time Sa ing Po en ial Ac oss he Th ee Po s ............................................... 25
7. CONCLUSIONS ......................................................................................................... 28
REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................... 31
ADBI Wo king Pape 1479 Hadland and Elhan-Kayala
1
1. INTRODUCTION
The objec i e o his esea ch pape is o explo e how sma po sys ems can be
deployed o achie e a educ ion in g eenhouse gas (GHG) emissions associa ed wi h
po ac i i ies.
O e 80% o global ade is anspo ed by sea (Uni ed Na ions Con e ence on T ade
and De elopmen 2021), while an In e na ional Ma i ime O ganiza ion (IMO) analysis
indica es ha ma i ime anspo accoun s o app oxima ely 2.8% o global GHG
emissions (IMO 2021). The e o e, po s play a i al ole in na ional and global economies.
Fo island economies, including hose in Asia and he Paci ic, he eliance on ma i ime
anspo is e en highe .
The po sec o is speci ically ulne able o he e ec s o clima e change due o (i)
p edic ed inc eases in sea le el ha could a ec he long- e m iabili y o some po s,
and (ii) he inc ease in ex eme wea he e en s ha a e al eady a ec ing he ope a ion
o global supply chains.
Fo de eloping economies in Asia and he Paci ic, he p o ision o e icien po s is
essen ial o pa icipa ion in global alue chains (GVCs) and can suppo economic
g ow h. Con e sely, he lack o po capaci y and capabili y (including echnology) may
see coun ies being unable o pa icipa e ully in GVCs, which can hinde g ow h.
I has also been well-documen ed ha e icien po s gene a e lowe emissions pe uni
o ca go handled han ine icien po s—wi h essels spending less ime wai ing and
in po and ucks spending less ime queueing o access po e minals. While some
po s ha e adop ed he e y la es echnologies, a ecen su ey o 4,900 po s showed
ha 80% elied on “manual legacy solu ions such as whi eboa ds and sp eadshee s o
manage c i ical ma ine se ices” (Chambe s 2021).
Addi ionally, many o he smalle po s in Asia and he Paci ic play an in e media e ole
in enabling ma i ime linkages wi h la ge po s ha handle deep sea shipping se ices.
This in e connec i i y means ha ine iciencies and delays a smalle po s can ha e
a knock-on e ec a hese egional hubs. Fo sys em-wide imp o emen s, he
digi aliza ion o small and medium-sized po s should he e o e be p og essed in
coope a ion wi h la ge egional hubs o each a minimum ope a ing s anda d, o
example in espec o da a exchange ela ing o essel and ca go mo emen s. Howe e ,
he physical eadiness and ope a ional and inancial capabili ies o hese po s may be a
cons ain o he implemen a ion o echnology, and he e o e digi aliza ion p ojec s
should be ca e ully scoped o ma ch he local equi emen s and abso p ion capaci ies.
In his pape , we will explo e how sma po echnologies can be deployed o suppo
e iciency gains and educe emissions, speci ically ocusing on he in e aces be ween
po au ho i ies and essel ope a o s. This can no only help coun ies mee hei clima e
change a ge s, bu i can also imp o e he ai quali y in u ban a eas adjacen o po s
and suppo ongoing economic de elopmen ia imp o ed connec i i y wi h GVCs.
Following his in oduc ion, sec ion 2 p o ides a b ie li e a u e e iew on he po -
e iciency–emissions- educ ion nexus. Sec ion 3 desc ibes ou me hodology and
p oposed app oach. In sec ion 4, we ocus on he unique ea u es o sma po s, ollowed
by a discussion on how hey may be le e aged o lowe essel emissions in sec ion 5.
To demons a e ou p oposed app oach, sec ion 6 in oduces use cases
(i.e., h ee selec ed po s om Asia and he Paci ic wi h low-, mid-, and high-le el sma
sys em adop ion, and hei espec i e p opensi ies o dec ease emissions h ough sma
essel speed managemen sys ems). Sec ion 7 concludes.
ADBI Wo king Pape 1479 Hadland and Elhan-Kayala
2
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
Sma po s, in oduced in he 1990s, ha e demons a ed hei e ec i eness in ea ly
adop ing egions h ough inc eased ca go olumes and p oduc i i y enhancemen s. This
success has p omp ed ou in es iga ion in o hei po en ial bene i s o de eloping Asian
economies. Bu “sma po ” is s ill an e ol ing concep , and as such he esea ch ela ing
o his opic emains limi ed.
Belmouka i, Audy, and Fo ge (2023: 1) ecognized a gap in he li e a u e and p esen ed
a sys ema ic e iew wi h he objec i e o p o iding a “b oade and comp ehensi e
unde s anding o he sma po concep by business domain.” They we e able o iden i y
jus 70 pape s (published be ween 2016 and 2020) ha di ec ly add essed he opic in
su icien de ail o analysis.
Heikkilä, Saa ni, and Sau ama (2022) looked a seaside ope a ions, a he e minal, and
landside (i.e., hin e land a ic managemen ), while keeping in iew pe o mance
indica o s such as sa e y and cybe secu i y, ene gy e iciency, ins i u ional ac o s, and
s akeholde in e ac ions (Figu e 1).
Figu e 1: Digi aliza ion Wi hin he Con ex o Sma Po s
Sou ce: Au ho s’ in e p e a ion o indings om Heikkilä, Saa ni, and Sau ama (2022).
Al hough much o he li e a u e a emp s o de ine he sma po based on size o he
ype o echnology employed, he con inued e olu ion o echnology and sys ems means
ha de ining he concep based on speci ic echnologies is no ideal. The e o e, we
sugges ha a sma po is one ha applies echnology o imp o e ope a ional
pe o mance, and he leading sma po s a e applying he la es echnologies o de elop
new sys ems ha o e ime will cascade ac oss he indus y.1
O e all, he sma po concep is a new opic in he academic li e a u e, and much
o he esea ch is ocused on de ining he concep a he han quan i ying he bene i s
ha implemen a ion can b ing o po au ho i ies, e minal ope a o s, and o he
s akeholde s.
1 The sma sys ems discussed in his pape (i.e., he essel a ic managemen in o ma ion sys ems) a e
de ined uni o mly o de eloped and de eloping coun y con ex s. Howe e , he scale and scope o po
ope a ions in each po may call o di e en le els o complexi y and co e age o hese in o ma ion
sys ems.
ADBI Wo king Pape 1479 Hadland and Elhan-Kayala
3
In espec o academic s udies o emissions gene a ed by po s, Wang e al. (2023)
examined how po emissions educ ion s a egies ha e e ol ed om an ea ly ocus on
“en i onmen al ac o s and ene gy scheduling” o he cu en ocus on “low ca bon and
g een po s.” O speci ic in e es was he di e en ia ion be ween ene gy measu es and
measu es associa ed wi h op imiza ion o ope a ions, wi h he la e being di ec ly linked
wi h he deploymen o sma po sys ems.
The de elopmen o academic li e a u e mi o s he on- he-g ound de elopmen s in he
global po s and e minal sec o . The IMO and many leading po s we e ini ially ocused
on educing pollu an emissions om shipping and po ope a ions (i.e., NOx, SOx, and
PM). The in oduc ion o Emissions Con ol A eas equi ed essel ope a o s o swi ch o
using low-sul u uel, and landside egula ion was simila ly ocused on ai quali y (e.g.,
Cali o nia Ai Resou ces Boa d). Mo e ecen ly, he ocus o he ma i ime sec o has
shi ed o educing GHG emissions.
I can be challenging o es ablish he po en ial emissions sa ings a ibu able o sma
po sys ems, as e idenced by he limi ed esea ch on his opic o da e, because po s
a e he e ogeneous—in size, scope o ac i i y, physical layou , and loca ion ( ela i e o
bo h ci ies and ca go o igins and des ina ions), which esul s in di e en emissions
p o iles. Addi ionally, baseline condi ions a y widely among po s—some po s ha e
al eady emb aced au oma ion; o he s a e less echnologically de eloped; simila ly, some
a e hea ily conges ed, while o he s a e unde u ilized. As a esul , he esea ch li e a u e
is ypically speci ic o single po s a he han d awing gene alized conclusions, likely
because due o he he e ogenei y o po s i is di icul o d aw gene alized conclusions
om po -speci ic indings. None heless, hese po -le el s udies p o ide a body o wo k
ha suppo s he hypo hesis ha sma po echnologies can play a ole in deli e ing
emissions educ ions.
While mul ila e al de elopmen banks ha e p e iously examined he equi emen o
e iciency gains in po s and he wide logis ics sec o (e.g., he Wo ld Bank’s Logis ics
Pe o mance Index), he linkage be ween sma po sys ems, po e iciency, and
emissions educ ion po en ial has no ye been explo ed a a egional le el. This linkage
is seen o be pa icula ly impo an , as he applica ion o echnology can enable mo e
in ense use o exis ing asse s and he e o e delay he equi emen o new po
in as uc u e, p o iding addi ional emissions- educ ion po en ial.
3. METHODOLOGY
Du ing he co ona i us disease (COVID-19) pandemic and he ea e , po e iciency
eme ged as a leading ac o in main aining global alue and supply chains. Secondly,
mos coun ies a ound he wo ld, including in Asia and he Paci ic, ha e commi ed o
clima e change mi iga ion and adap a ion measu es. Bo h c ea ing mo e e icien po s,
a guably h ough he use o sma sys ems, and managing clima e change equi e
subs an ial esou ces, which a e sca ce in he a e ma h o he dual heal h and economic
c ises igge ed by he pandemic. Fu he mo e, dec easing he GHG emissions o he
ma i ime sec o will ul ima ely equi e long- e m solu ions, such as lee eplacemen s o
acili a e enewable ene gy sou ces being used ins ead o ca bon-based uels, and he
cons uc ion o expansion o po s o la ge essel in ake, among o he s. Gi en he
u gen need o enhance po e iciency as pa o global economic eco e y and pos -
pandemic g ow h measu es, and o mi iga e emissions om he ma i ime sec o , a mo e
cos -e ec i e solu ion han building a new po , which can cos as much as $666.7 million
ADBI Wo king Pape 1479 Hadland and Elhan-Kayala
4
pe million wen y- oo equi alen uni (TEU) capaci y, in he sho o medium e m is
equi ed.2
Acco dingly, ou esea ch seeks o es ablish whe e suppo can be bes ocused o
achie e maximum emissions educ ion gi en he le el o echnology up ake in a
pa icula po in Asia and he Paci ic in he sho o medium e m.
This pape has been compiled based on desk-based esea ch and in e iews wi h po
s akeholde s. We ha e conside ed bo h academic and indus y sou ces du ing ou
esea ch; his dual app oach was seen as essen ial o cap u e he la es de elopmen s
in he global po s sec o , which is apidly e ol ing in esponse o a ious ne ze o
pledges (e.g., cus ome s, companies, po s) and go e nmen -le el commi men s o
achie e measu able educ ions in GHG emissions.
Since sma po sys ems p ima ily add ess po e iciency issues, and ine icien po s
gene a e highe emissions pe uni o ca go handled han e icien po s, we p opose ha
exis ing po e iciency me ics be used o iden i y po s wi h he g ea es po en ial o
e iciency gains and emissions educ ions.
Du ing he compila ion o his pape , se e al obse a ions eme ged:
• The implemen a ion o sma po sys ems is ypically ocused on imp o ing
ope a ional e iciency. A educ ion in GHG emissions is a seconda y bene i and
may no always be quan i ied.
• The wide a ia ion in he size, geog aphic se ing, ca go h oughpu , ca go
ype(s), and u iliza ion le els means ha he e ec i eness o di e en emissions
educ ion s a egies can a y widely among po s—measu es ha gene a e la ge
educ ions in some po s may no be applicable o ha e only a ma ginal impac
in o he po s.
• The baseline posi ion a ies widely ac oss po s—some po s a e mo e ad anced
han o he s in hei pu sui o GHG emissions educ ions. Po s ha ha e ye o
emba k on he jou ney owa d ne ze o will be able o gene a e la ge absolu e
and pe cen age emissions sa ings han o he s ha a e u he ad anced along
he pa hway.
• The cos o implemen ing sma po sys ems a ies widely. Howe e , he apid
pace o echnological de elopmen has esul ed in g ea e a ailabili y o “o - he-
shel ” solu ions and b ough he cos downwa d. An a ea ha wa an s u he
explo a ion is he deg ee o which po s in eme ging ma ke s may be able o
“leap og” echnologies o implemen sma po sys ems.
• The po s ha demons a e he g ea es need o sma po echnologies a e
ypically less p epa ed o adop hese echnologies. Go e nmen iscal space is
limi ed, and eme ging ma ke loca ions may no be a ac i e o indus y and
in e na ional ins i u ional in es o s. The e a e also sho alls in capaci y and
go e nance in some de eloping coun ies ha may hinde he in oduc ion and
sus ained use o sma po sys ems.
2 Ma i ime Execu i e (2022). Cons uc ion Begins in Cambodia on new 1.5b Po Buil by China. 6 May.
h ps://ma i ime-execu i e.com/a icle/cons uc ion-begins-in-cambodia-on-new-1-5b-po -buil -by-china.
ADBI Wo king Pape 1479 Hadland and Elhan-Kayala
11
Figu e 6: Compa ison o No mal and Jus in Time A i al P ocesses
No es: Es ima ed ime o a i al (ETA) is p o ided by he essel o he des ina ion po a pe iodic poin s du ing he inbound
oyage. RTA is p o ided by he po o he essel based on expec ed be h a ailabili y.
Sou ce: Ame ican Bu eau o Shipping (2020).
Table 1: Fuel Consump ion Sa ings A ising om Jus in Time Vessel
A i al Sys ems
Scena io:
JIT PBT – PBP
JIT 24
JIT 12
Desc ip ion
Speed adjus men
applied om pilo
boa ding place (po o
depa u e) o
pilo boa ding place
(po o a i al)
Speed adjus men
applied o e las
|24-hou s o oyage
be o e a i al a pilo
boa ding place
Speed adjus men
o e las 12-hou s
o oyage be o e
a i al a pilo
boa ding place
To al CO2 sa ing (MT)
19.39 million
8.08 million
5.80 million
To al uel consump ion sa ing
(MT)
6.23 million
2.59 million
1.86 million
Mean uel consump ion sa ing on
a pe oyage basis compa ed o
baseline
14.16%
5.90%
4.23%
MT = me ic on.
No e: Resul s epo ed a e based on a s udy o 339,390 con aine ship oyages.
Sou ce: IMO (2022a).
In he bulk shipping sec o whe e oyage cha e s a e mo e common, he e is o en
a inancial incen i e o essel owne s o a i e as soon as possible o maximize
demu age paymen s. To add ess his, BIMCO (Bal ic and In e na ional Ma i ime
Council, an indus y o ganiza ion ha includes 60% o global ship lee as membe s) has
in oduced he Jus in Time A i al Clause 2021 o use in oyage cha e pa ies o
suppo oyage op imiza ion measu es.
No mal A i al P ocess
“Jus In Time” a i al p ocess
ADBI Wo king Pape 1479 Hadland and Elhan-Kayala
12
In he con aine shipping sec o , be h alloca ion is usually based on p ebooked slo s
(i.e., be hing windows), wi h mul i-po schedules de eloped o enable on- ime a i al a
each po . Howe e , global supply chain dis up ion du ing he pandemic saw many po s
e e o “ i s -come- i s -se ed” be h alloca ion s a egies, which a e mo e common a
smalle po s handling domes ic, in a egional, and eede se ices, as well as eede
se ices a mainline po s ha a e less likely o ope a e on ixed weekly schedules
(po en ially due o delays a ou po s) and a e gene ally alloca ed lowe p io i y han
mainline essels.
Fi s -come- i s -se ed be h alloca ion s a egies esul in essels sailing a highe
speeds o po s o secu e a a o able posi ion in he queue o a be h. This esul s
in highe uel consump ion (i.e., because essels u ilize mo e uel pe on/kilome e a
highe speeds) and longe imes a po ancho ages, which gene a es addi ional GHG
and pollu an emissions a he po .
In con as , implemen ing JIT a i al p o ocols enables essels o main ain op imal speed
o a i e a he po when he a ailabili y o he be h, channel, and echnical-ma ine
se ices (i.e., pilo , ugs, and linesmen) is gua an eed.
Sma po sys ems a e needed o implemen JIT a i al p o ocols e icien ly, as hey can
au oma e he ongoing communica ion among s akeholde s, u ilize AIS o ack and
moni o essel p og ess, and deli e o suppo ope a ional decision-making (e.g.,
p o ide upda ed oyage plans when be h a ailabili y changes).
5.3 Indus y Readiness o Jus in Time A i al P o ocols
The IMO adop ed esolu ion FAL.14(46) in May 2022, which upda es he exis ing IMO
Facili a ion Con en ion o equi e manda o y elec onic da a exchange in po s o ship
clea ance. Globally, po s ha e been p epa ing o he in oduc ion o Ma i ime Single
Window (MSW), which en e ed in o o ce on 1 Janua y 2024.
Po au ho i ies mus he e o e “es ablish, main ain, and use single window (SW)
sys ems o he elec onic exchange o in o ma ion equi ed on a i al, s ay and
depa u e o ships in po s. In addi ion, public au ho i ies will ha e o combine o
coo dina e he elec onic ansmission o he da a o ensu e ha in o ma ion is submi ed
o p o ided only once and e-used o he maximum ex en possible.”4
Despi e he in oduc ion o MSW being a manda o y equi emen om Janua y 2024,
a su ey unde aken by he In e na ional Associa ion o Po s and Ha bo s in la e
2020, o which 111 po s esponded, indica ed ha a majo i y o esponden s we e
s uggling o con o m o he equi emen on elec onic da a exchange, wi h ba ie s
o implemen a ion ela ed o (i) he complexi ies o managing mul iple s akeholde
in e es s; (ii) he need o add ess and s eamline exis ing wo king p ac ices and
p ocesses; and (iii) he equi emen o implemen he sys em wi hin exis ing na ional legal
amewo ks, which ypically equi e coope a ion om di e en le els and
sec o s o go e nmen adminis a ions. Con i ming he ba ie s o MSW compliance,
echnology p o ide Kale Logis ics published he esul s o a su ey o 200 global po s
in Oc obe 2023, which e ealed ha 30% we e unp epa ed o mee he Janua y 2024
deadline.
4 IMO (2022b). Resolu ion FAL.14(46) (adop ed on 13 May 2022), Amendmen s o he Annex o
he Con en ion on Facili a ion o In e na ional Ma i ime T a ic 1965. h ps://wwwcdn.imo.o g/
local esou ces/en/KnowledgeCen e/Indexo IMOResolu ions/FALDocumen s/FAL.14(46).pd (accessed
on 15 No embe 2023).
ADBI Wo king Pape 1479 Hadland and Elhan-Kayala
13
The e is a ole o bo h he IMO and mul ila e al de elopmen banks o play in p o iding
echnical assis ance and unding o he implemen a ion o MSW.
In mos po s, ma ine ope a ions a e go e ned h ough by-laws ha dic a e he o de
o p io i y o ha bo access channels and alloca ion o be hs. The in oduc ion o
JIT a i al p o ocols will equi e hese local egula ions o be upda ed. Technology
p o ide s in he sec o iew he in oduc ion o JIT a i al sys ems as “low-hanging ui ”
in e ms o using digi aliza ion o imp o e po e iciency (Wa sila 2021).
The e a e a g owing numbe o o - he-shel solu ions ha can p o ide po au ho i ies
wi h JIT a i al unc ionali y— o example, he Wä silä Na i-Po sys em and he
Kongsbe g No con ol sys em. The Po o Go henbu g (Sweden) is cu en ly
implemen ing i s Digi al Po Call Sys em, which will go li e in 2024. In summa y, he
sys em is expec ed o gene a e:
• a 1,000- on annual educ ion in he po ’s CO2 emissions achie ed ia a 500-hou
educ ion in cumula i e be h imes and a 250-hou educ ion in cumula i e
ancho age imes;
• addi ional ime and cos sa ings o essels calling a he po ;
• synch oniza ion and in o ma ion sha ing among o e 120 di e en s akeholde s;
• ou e sha ing (issued o essel cap ains 36 hou s p io o depa u e) and digi al
po call a i al decla a ion, which can suppo essel-led oyage op imiza ion;
• in e ope abili y wi h exis ing digi al sys ems a he po , including Allbe h, he
digi al be h planning ool; and
• o al in es men s o €1.5 million (abou $1.6 million).
5.4 Summa y o Asia and he Paci ic Po Pe o mance
Th oughpu and Po Calls
The sample o 53 Asia and he Paci ic po s, which includes he majo po s in he egion,
handled 439 million TEU (MTEU) in 2022, equi alen o 51% o he o al global con aine
po h oughpu (Figu e 7).5 The a e age h oughpu in 2022 was 8.3 MTEU, and he
median h oughpu was 4.3 MTEU.
The 53 sample po s handled o e 176,000 con aine essel calls in 2022—58% o
he o al con aine essel calls eco ded in D ew y’s p op ie a y AIS model (based on
194 global po s). The o al numbe o con aine essel calls ecei ed a he sample po s
d opped in 2020 due o he e ec o he COVID-19 pandemic, alling u he in 2021 due
o he ongoing dis up ion o global supply chains (Figu e 8).
P e-Be h Wai ing Time
P e-be h wai ing ime is when a essel ancho s be o e be hing o unde ake ca go
ope a ions. Time spen by essels a ancho gene a es bo h pollu an and GHG
emissions wi hin he po a ea.
5 Calcula ed using da a ob ained om he D ew y Ma i ime Resea ch’s global po h oughpu da abase.
ADBI Wo king Pape 1479 Hadland and Elhan-Kayala
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Figu e 7: Asia and he Paci ic Po Sample—To al Con aine Po Th oughpu ,
2019–2022 (MTEU)
Sou ce: Au ho s’ calcula ions based on D ew y Ma i ime Resea ch da abase.
Figu e 8: Asia and he Paci ic Po sample—To al Con aine Po Calls,
2019–2022
Sou ce: Au ho s’ calcula ions based on D ew y Ma i ime Resea ch da abase.
The pandemic esul ed in a s eep inc ease in egional p e-be h wai ing ime beginning
in he hi d qua e o 2020, wi h an ini ial peak in Augus 2021 d i en by s ong consume
demand (Figu e 9). The seconda y peak in May 2022 was caused by
he inal-wa e lockdowns in he People’s Republic o China, which impac ed
manu ac u ing, landside anspo , and po pe o mance ac oss se e al majo Chinese
po s, including Shanghai.
Figu e 10 anks he po s in o de o p e-be h wai ing incu ed in 2022, showing ha he
majo i y o he o al wai ing ime is gene a ed by a small numbe o po s. The op i e
po s in he sample in e ms o he sha e o o al wai ing ime—Ningbo (16%), Shanghai
(11%), Shenzhen (11%), Qingdao (9%), and Manila (7%)—accoun ed o 53% o he
o al p e-be h wai ing ime. While he Chinese po s comp ised ou o he i e la ges
con aine po s in he wo ld in 2022—Shanghai (47.3 MTEU), Ningbo (33.4 MTEU),
Shenzhen (30.0 MTEU), and Qingdao (25.7 MTEU)—Manila (5.5 MTEU) anked as he
32nd-la ges global con aine po in 2022.
51% 51% 51% 51%
-
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1,000
2019 2020 2021 2022
MTEU
Asia and he Paci ic po sample (53 po s) Global con aine po handling
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Figu e 9: Asia and he Paci ic Po Sample—To al Wai ing Time Incu ed
a Sample Po s, 2019–2022 (Days)
Sou ce: Au ho s’ calcula ions based on D ew y Ma i ime Resea ch da abase.
Figu e 10: Asia and he Paci ic Po Sample—To al Wai ing Time Incu ed
by Po , 2022
Sou ce: Au ho s’ calcula ions based on D ew y Ma i ime Resea ch da abase.
While he e is a s ong ela ionship be ween he size o he po and he o al wai ing ime
incu ed, analysis shows ha some la ge po s (e.g., Shanghai, Singapo e, Busan)
incu ed p opo ionally less p e-be h wai ing ime in 2022 han o he s (e.g., Ningbo)
(Figu e 11).
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Figu e 11: Asia and he Paci ic Po Sample—To al P e-Be h Wai ing Time
Ve sus To al Po Th oughpu , 2022
Sou ce: Au ho s’ calcula ions based on D ew y Ma i ime Resea ch da abase.
To accoun o he di e ence in po size, we also looked a p e-be h wai ing ime pe
call and pe one housand TEU (KTEU) po h oughpu . This enabled he iden i ica ion
o po s ha gene a ed a disp opo iona ely high amoun o wai ing ime in compa ison
o hei size:
• The po s wi h he highes a e age p e-be h wai ing ime pe call in 2022 we e
Chi agong (Bangladesh), 1.72 days pe call; Manila (Philippines), 1.68 days;
Tau anga (New Zealand), 1.51 days; Auckland (New Zealand), 1.44 days; and
Ningbo (People’s Republic o China), 0.97 (Figu e 12).
• The po s wi h he highes a e age p e-be h wai ing ime pe 1KTEU h oughpu
in 2022 we e Manila (Philippines), 0.72 days; Chi agong (Bangladesh), 0.71
days; Auckland (New Zealand), 0.70 days; Bangkok (Thailand), 0.59 days; and
Tau anga (New Zealand), 0.43 days (Figu e 13).
The a e age p e-be h wai ing ime pe call was consis en ly high be ween 2019 and
2022 a he po s o Chi agong (Bangladesh), Manila (Philippines), and Tanjung P iok
(Indonesia), while he s eep inc ease in wai ing ime a po s in Aus alia and New
Zealand can be a ibu ed o he pandemic.
Simila ly, he a e age p e-be h wai ing ime pe 1KTEU h oughpu was consis en ly
high a he po s o Bangkok (Thailand), Chi agong (Bangladesh), Manila (Philippines),
Su abaya (Indonesia), and Tanjung P iok (Indonesia) be ween 2019 and 2022.
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Figu e 12: Asia and he Paci ic Po Sample—A e age P e-Be h Wai ing Time
pe Vessel Call, 2022
Sou ce: Au ho s’ calcula ions based on D ew y Ma i ime Resea ch da abase.
Figu e 13: Asia and he Paci ic Po Sample—A e age Wai ing Time
pe 1KTEU Po Th oughpu , 2022
Sou ce: Au ho s’ calcula ions based on D ew y Ma i ime Resea ch da abase.
ADBI Wo king Pape 1479 Hadland and Elhan-Kayala
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Sma Po Sys em Adop ion
The e is wide dispa i y in he up ake o sma po sys ems ac oss he egion (Figu e 14).
While Busan and Singapo e can be conside ed wo ld leade s in he deploymen o sma
po echnologies, o he s such as Chi agong (Bangladesh),
Ho Chi Minh Ci y (Vie Nam), Po i (Geo gia), and Sihanouk ille (Cambodia) a e lagging
behind in he adop ion o echnology o suppo e icien ope a ions.
Fo he pu poses o his s udy, we will conside he sma sys ems lis ed in Sec ion 2.2
abo e. The mos popula sma po sys em implemen ed ac oss he 53-po sample is
Au oma ed Ga e Sys ems (46 ou o 53 po s, 91%), which educe p ocessing imes o
ucks en e ing and lea ing he e minal and a e popula wi h e minal ope a o s. They
educe manpowe cos s and usually in eg a e a means o digi ally eco ding con aine
condi ions on a i al in o he e minal, which educes he cos o damage claims.
The e is also a high up ake o o he sma po sys ems, which encompass sys ems
add essing speci ic elemen s o he po o e minal ope a ion no included in he o he
ca ego ies, such as main enance, en i onmen al moni o ing, and he use o a i icial
in elligence.
In con as , he lowes up ake is o VTMIS and JIT a i al sys ems, which p o ide an
ad anced digi al in e ace be ween he po au ho i y, essels, e minal ope a o s, and
ma ine se ice p o ide s.
Figu e 14: Adop ion o Sma Sys ems by Po , 2022
Sou ce: Au ho ’s elabo a ion.
Figu e 15: Sma Po Sco e e sus A e age P e-Be h Wai ing Time pe 1KTEU
Po Th oughpu . 2022
No e: 1KTEU = 1,000 wen y- oo equi alen uni s.
Sou ce: Au ho s’ calcula ions.
ADBI Wo king Pape 1479 Hadland and Elhan-Kayala
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Analyzing he sma po sco es and p e-be h wai ing delays o he sample po s (Figu e
15), i is e iden ha po s wi h he highes adop ion o sma po echnologies eco ded
lowe a e age p e-be h wai ing imes in 2022 (i.e., < 0.3 days pe 1KTEU po
h oughpu ). Simila ly, po s wi h he highes a e age p e-be h wai ing imes ha e low
le els o adop ion o sma po echnologies (i.e., sma po sco es o 50%
o lowe ).
5.5 Vessel Emissions
Calcula ing GHG Emissions om Shipping
Vessel emissions can be calcula ed ei he based on uel consump ion (mos accu a e
bu limi ed da a a ailabili y) o assessmen o essel ype and speed and dis ance
a eled (less accu a e bu g ea e da a a ailabili y).
Figu e 16: Calcula ing Vessel Emissions
Sou ce: Au ho s’ elabo a ion based on T ozzi (2010).
Figu e 16 p o ides a simpli ied equa ion o calcula ing essel emissions ha akes in o
accoun he essel’s design, speed, and emissions ac o associa ed wi h uel and ime.
The equa ion is applicable o bo h GHG and pollu an gas emissions.
• Powe . This is dependen upon he design, size, and age o he essel. IMO
egula ions and e ol ing ma ke condi ions will con inue o lead o changes in he
design and powe o new essels en e ing he global shipping lee .
• Load ac o . This is co ela ed wi h he speed o he essel, and wi h essels
emi ing lowe emissions a lowe load ac o s.
• Emissions ac o . This is dependen on he ype, age, and main enance o
he engine; uel ype; and he use o emissions ea men measu es (e.g.,
sc ubbe s). Emissions ac o s a e expec ed o imp o e o e ime due o
a combina ion o imp o ed ship e iciency (due o egula o y equi emen s and/o
echnology gains) oge he wi h inc eased use o low-ca bon and
ze o-ca bon uels.
• Time a sea. This is also a unc ion o speed (i.e., lowe speed = longe ime a
sea), while i is also pa ially de e mined by ope a ional and ma ke condi ions.
ADBI Wo king Pape 1479 Hadland and Elhan-Kayala
20
Fo po -le el s udies, es ima ions based on essel ype, speed, and dis ance
a eled will be equi ed since ga he ing uel consump ion da a o all essels is no
easible. AIS da a can be used o iden i y essels en e ing o lea ing po s, as well
as hei speed, while powe da a can be ob ained om ship lee da abases. These
wo comme cially a ailable da a sou ces enable he es ima ion o essel emissions on a
oyage-by- oyage and po -by-po basis o e ex ended pe iods.
How Does a Jus in Time A i al P o ocol Reduce Vessel Emissions?
Implemen a ion o a sma po sys em o acili a e JIT a i al p o ocols will enable
he op imiza ion o inbound oyages o be e align essel a i al in po wi h be h
a ailabili y. When he e is no cons ain on be h a ailabili y, inbound oyages can
p oceed as pe he essel ope a o ’s own oyage plan. This oyage plan will se
he speed o he inbound oyage based on ei he he published schedule (i.e., mos
p e alen in c uise, con aine , and RoRo shipping segmen s) o in acco dance wi h he
cha e a angemen s (i.e., mos p e alen in he bulk shipping segmen ).
Howe e , in si ua ions whe e he essel would a i e p io o he be h being a ailable,
he po ’s VTMIS can au oma ically ad ise on an al e na i e ecommended ime o a i al
o enable he essel’s cap ain o educe speed on he inbound oyage o emo e o
educe p e-be h wai ing ime in he des ina ion po ancho age a ea (Figu e 17).
Figu e 17: Jus in Time A i al Requi es a Reduc ion in Speed o Reduce
o Elimina e Time Spen a Po Ancho age
No e: RTA = eques ed ime o a i al.
Sou ce: IMO (2020: 3).
The implemen a ion o a VTMIS ha acili a es JIT a i als has he po en ial o educe
emissions in wo a eas:
• emissions gene a ed on he inbound oyage due o lowe uel consump ion a
lowe essel ope a ing speeds (i.e., slow s eaming), and
• emissions gene a ed a po ancho age due o he educ ion o ime spen in
ancho age zone.
Figu e 18 p o ides a simpli ied equa ion o he calcula ion o emissions sa ings a ising
om JIT a i al p o ocols.
ADBI Wo king Pape 1479 Hadland and Elhan-Kayala
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This high-le el concen a ion o shipping on a small numbe o ou es indica es he
po en ial o he in oduc ion o g een co ido ini ia i es, whe e “ he echnological,
economic, and egula o y easibili y o he ope a ion o ze o-emissions ships is ca alyzed
h ough public and p i a e ac ions” which in u n can help accele a e deca boniza ion in
shipping. (Global Ma i ime Fo um 2021: 16)
Coope a ion be ween egional po s in Asia and he Paci ic, whe e he e is a wide ange
o echnical capabili y and capaci y, can also p o ide a means o sha e bes p ac ices,
suppo knowledge dissemina ion, and encou age echnology ans e s.
Chi agong Po cu en ly has a low up ake o sma po echnologies, and while a
JIT a i al sys em would suppo he educ ion o emissions in he ancho age a ea,
in es men in upg aded e minal ope a ing sys ems (i.e., o imp o e p oduc i i y o essel
discha ge, loading, and managemen o he ya d); s eamlined cus oms p ocesses (i.e.,
o educe dwell ime o ca go a po ); and imp o ed ga e sys ems (i.e., o educe
u na ound ime) will also be equi ed o ensu e ha supply chain bo lenecks a e ully
add essed.
Emissions-Sa ing Po en ial
As de ailed abo e, ecen s udies o he Po o Go henbu g (Sweden) indica ed ha
con aine essels a ancho gene a ed 1.43 ons o CO2eq pe hou . Applying his
es ima e o he h ee Asian po s indica es he magni ude o po en ial sa ings a ailable
(Table 8):
• Busan— educ ions o 1,599 and 4,397 ons CO2eq o 12-kno and 10-kno speed
educ ion scena ios, espec i ely;
• Colombo— educ ions o 2,615 and 5,806 ons CO2eq o 12-kno and 10-kno
speed educ ion scena ios, espec i ely; and
• Chi agong— educ ions o 16,008 and 32,461 ons CO2eq o 12-kno and 10-kno
speed educ ion scena ios, espec i ely.
Table 8: Emissions-Sa ing Po en ial
Po
2022 Baseline
Reduce A e age Inbound Voyage
Speed o 12 Kno s o Vessels
Wai ing >8 Hou s
Reduce A e age Inbound Voyage
Speed o 10 Kno s o Vessels
Wai ing >8 Hou s
To al Emissions
a Ancho age
(CO2eq ons)
Reduc ion in
Emissions a
Ancho age
(CO2eq ons)
% Reduc ion
in Emissions
Reduc ion in
Emissions a
Ancho age
(CO2eq ons)
% Reduc ion
in Emissions
Busan
39,467
1,599
4%
4,397
11%
Colombo
20,365
2,615
13%
5,806
29%
Chi agong
76,355
16,008
21%
32,461
43%
No e: CO2eq = ca bon dioxide equi alen . Es ima es assume an a e age o 1.43 ons CO2eq emissions om con aine
essels a ancho , as de ailed in Ligh house (2021).
Sou ce: Au ho s’ calcula ions.
In addi ion o he educ ion in GHG emissions, each po would also bene i om a
educ ion in pollu an emissions, which ha e an ad e se impac on ai quali y and heal h
in a eas close o po s.
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7. CONCLUSIONS
Vessels wai ing a po ancho ages a e a highly isible sign o po ine iciency.
Addi ionally, hese essels gene a e bo h GHG and pollu an emissions.
AIS da a can be used o quickly iden i y po s wi h he g ea es po en ial o achie e la ge-
scale emissions sa ings ia educ ions o essel wai ing imes a po ancho ages, since
he e is a di ec co ela ion be ween ime a ancho and olume
o emissions o essels a ancho . Fu he mo e, JIT a i al sys ems can be used o
op imize he inbound oyage speed so ha essel a i als a e aligned o be h
a ailabili y, which educes he ime spen wai ing a ancho . Dec easing speed on he
inbound oyage educes uel consump ion and, he e o e, GHG emissions, and educed
wai ing ime dec eases GHG emissions while a ancho .
In his pape , de ailed analyses we e pe o med o h ee Asian po s o simula e he
po en ial ime and emissions sa ings ha could be gene a ed by he in oduc ion o JIT
a i al sys ems. The h ee po s selec ed ep esen h ee dis inc le els o echnology
adop ion and use in ope a ions:
• Busan (Republic o Ko ea), which has a high le el o echnology up ake and is
o en leading he way o ial he la es a ailable echnology;
• Colombo (S i Lanka), which has a medium le el o echnology up ake, using
p o en echnologies o manage po and e minal ope a ions; and
• Chi agong (Bangladesh), which has a low le el o echnology up ake, wi h limi ed
use o echnology o manage po and e minal ope a ions and a hea y eliance
on manual sys ems.
Modeling he impac o speed educ ion measu es ( o 12 kno s and 10 kno s) on inbound
oyages o simula e he impac o a JIT a i al sys em indica ed ha he g ea es po en ial
ime sa ings could be achie ed a Chi agong, wi h es ima ed ime sa ings in he ange
o 466 days (abou 1.5 yea s) o 21% (12-kno scena io) o
946 days (abou 2.5 yea s) o 46% (10-kno scena io). The po en ial o ime sa ings a
Busan, whe e sma po sys ems ha e al eady been implemen ed, was much mo e
limi ed— anging om 47 days o 4% (12-kno scena io) o 128 days o 11% (10-kno
scena io) pe yea .
Es ima ing he emissions sa ings is mo e echnically complex, as he e is a wide
a ia ion in he echnical cha ac e is ics o he essels calling a each po . The e
is a cubic ela ionship be ween ship speed and main engine uel consump ion, whe eby
a 10% educ ion in engine speed esul s in a 19% educ ion in ene gy pe uni
o dis ance.
Simila ly, echnical a ia ion ac oss he ship lee means ha es ima ing emissions
om essels a ancho is also complex. Howe e , s udies o he Po o Go henbu g
(Sweden) indica e an a e age o 1.43 ons CO2eq pe hou o wai ing. Applying his
es ima e o he h ee Asian sample po s, we ound he po en ial magni ude o GHG
sa ings would be he ollowing:
• Busan— educ ions o 1,599 and 4,397 ons CO2eq o 12-kno and 10-kno speed
educ ion scena ios, espec i ely;
• Colombo— educ ions o 2,615 and 5,806 ons CO2eq o 12-kno and 10-kno
speed educ ion scena ios, espec i ely; and
• Chi agong— educ ions o 16,008 and 32,461 ons CO2eq o 12-kno and
10-kno speed educ ion scena ios, espec i ely.
ADBI Wo king Pape 1479 Hadland and Elhan-Kayala
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JIT a i al sys ems equi e sma po echnology o ack and p edic essel mo emen
so only essels ha a e assessed as likely o incu a wai ing ime a he nex po (e.g.,
due o a lack o be h a ailabili y) a e equi ed o adjus speed, while hose ha can be h
on a i al can p oceed as pe hei o iginal oyage plan. JIT a i al unc ionali y can
suppo po au ho i ies in educing emissions in ancho age zones and essel ope a o s
wi h a pla o m o op imize speed and gene a e emissions sa ings on indi idual oyages.
While he cos s o VTMIS and JIT a i al sys ems a e ela i ely low (especially when
compa ed o he cos s o po cons uc ion), he o ganiza ional challenges o
implemen ing hese sys ems a e high. Also, i is expec ed ha po s wi h he highes
po en ial o bene i a e he leas p epa ed and/o able o implemen such a sys em.
Implemen a ion cos s and ime will likely be highe in po s wi h lowe base le els o
echnology implemen a ion. An e ec i e VTMIS equi es in e aces wi h mul iple
s akeholde s; he e o e, in e ope abili y wi h exis ing sys ems will be key o he success
o he p ojec .
Addi ionally, while he in oduc ion o JIT p ocesses has he po en ial o unde pin
signi ican emissions educ ions, i does no add ess he unde lying causes o he wai ing
ime (e.g., low be h p oduc i i y). Ins ead, i jus educes GHG emissions om hese
ine iciencies. Such sys ems should he e o e no be implemen ed in isola ion, bu
ins ead as pa o a comp ehensi e package o echnological, ins i u ional, and egula o y
measu es ha add ess he unde lying causes o essel queueing (Figu e 22).
Figu e 22: Di e en Pa ne s in ol ed in a JIT Ope a ion
Sou ce: Ame ican Bu eau o Shipping (2020).
The in e connec ed na u e o po p ocesses and he echnology sys ems ha suppo
deli e y o hese p ocesses equi es collabo a ion among supply chain s akeholde s
o imp o e he o e all e iciency o po -cen e ed supply chains. Complemen a y
wo ks eams can include po communi y sys ems, e minal ope a ing sys ems,
au oma ed ga e sys ems, and uck appoin men and ehicle booking sys ems.
Po s a e gene ally ope a ed on a comme cial basis, and he business- o-business
na u e o he indus y ends o be a s ong d i e o he inno a ions ha ushe in
sma sys ems o ealize ime and cos e iciency a po s. A speci ic ea u e o JIT a i al
p o ocols is ha end use s (i.e., essel owne s, ope a o s) will bene i om
he implemen a ion h ough educed uel consump ion and GHG emissions. Po
au ho i ies can conside in oducing ie ed a i s o g een shipping ini ia i es, including
he use o JIT sys ems, while go e nmen s can examine he impac o ax incen i es and
access incen i es.
ADBI Wo king Pape 1479 Hadland and Elhan-Kayala
30
JIT a i al sys ems a e a good i o eme ging g een shipping co ido ini ia i es,
and he po en ial o mo e echnologically ad anced egional hub po s o p o ide
knowledge and echnology ans e s o less-de eloped po s should be explo ed. In he
con ex o Asia and he Paci ic, egional collabo a ion among po s wi h espec o oyage
op imiza ion has he po en ial o bene i he la ge hub po s as well as he
less echnically ad anced ou po s ia imp o ed schedule in eg i y and new echnology
ha acili a es da a sha ing. Regional hub po s a e also be e placed o le e age
ela ionships wi h shipping lines o ob ain buy-in o emissions educ ions ini ia i es.
Go e nmen agencies, including po au ho i ies and cus oms bu eaus, a e esponsible
o o e seeing po sa e y, secu i y, axa ion, and he use o public asse s. P elimina y
indings indica e he e is scope o in e na ional de elopmen agencies o suppo
go e nmen s in c ea ing egula o y amewo ks ha os e p i a e sec o pa icipa ion
while p o ec ing economic, social, and en i onmen al esou ces a po s in de eloping
Asia and he Paci ic coun ies. In addi ion, by b inging oge he po au ho i ies,
go e nmen bodies, ma i ime and echnology indus y pa ne s, and o he s akeholde s,
hese agencies can p omo e egional po collabo a ion gi en he in e connec ed na u e
o shipping. Going o wa d, add essing capaci y and knowledge gaps, pa icula ly in he
Asia and he Paci ic egion, which accoun s o o e 64% o global con aine ized ca go,
will be c ucial o obus p og ess owa ds ma i ime deca boniza ion.
Add essing he gaps in adop ing sma sys ems, which a e essen ial o enhancing global
alue chains, ade, and economic g ow h, is an essen ial and complex unde aking.
Achie ing his will equi e a conce ed e o om in e na ional de elopmen agencies,
as well as ac i e collabo a ion be ween public and p i a e sec o s akeholde s. This
collec i e engagemen is i al o o e coming exis ing challenges and mo ing close o
ma i ime deca boniza ion by deploying sma sys ems and inno a i e echnologies.
ADBI Wo king Pape 1479 Hadland and Elhan-Kayala
31
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