Ab aha, Hale om
Wo king Pape
Na iga ing wo ke s' da a igh s in he digi al age: A
his o ical, cu en , and u u e pe spec i e on wo ke s' da a
p o ec ion
ILO Wo king Pape , No. 149
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
In e na ional Labou O ganiza ion (ILO), Gene a
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Ab aha, Hale om (2025) : Na iga ing wo ke s' da a igh s in he digi al age: A
his o ical, cu en , and u u e pe spec i e on wo ke s' da a p o ec ion, ILO Wo king Pape , No. 149,
ISBN 978-92-2-042632-6, In e na ional Labou O ganiza ion (ILO), Gene a,
h ps://doi.o g/10.54394/MLUH5441
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XNa iga ing wo ke s' da a igh s in
he digi al age
A his o ical, cu en , and u u e pe spec i e on wo ke s' da a
p o ec ion
Au ho / Hale om Ab aha
Sep embe / 2025
ILO Wo king Pape 149
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Ab aha, H. Na iga ing wo ke s' da a igh s in he digi al age: A his o ical, cu en , and u u e pe -
spec i e on wo ke s' da a p o ec ion. ILO Wo king Pape 149. Gene a: In e na ional Labou O ice,
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o g/10.54394/MLUH5441
01 ILO Wo king Pape 149
Abs ac
O e ecen decades, comp ehensi e da a p o ec ion legisla ion has p oli e a ed wo ldwide, wi h
a majo i y o ju isdic ions enac ing obus s a u o y egimes. Despi e his abundance o legal
s anda ds, pe sis en challenges emain ega ding he e icacy o hese laws in p o ec ing indi-
iduals‒pa icula ly wo ke s‒wi hin he inc easingly digi alised wo kplace. Wo ke s a e espe-
cially suscep ible o ha m due o en enched powe asymme ies and heigh ened isks o da a
exploi a ion, ye many exis ing legal amewo ks p o ide insu icien o inconsis en p o ec ion,
and some ju isdic ions explici ly exclude wo ke s om co e age.
This esea ch c i ically examines he mul idimensional isks associa ed wi h wo kplace digi ali-
sa ion and sys ema ically analyses egula o y challenges and p o ec ion gaps ac oss di e se ju-
isdic ions. By in eg a ing his o ical analysis, cu en policy ini ia i es, and compa a i e c oss-ju-
isdic ional pe spec i es, he s udy iden i ies s uc u al de iciencies in p e ailing app oaches. I
concludes by p oposing policy solu ions o ad ance wo ke -cen ic da a go e nance amewo ks,
ailo ed o add ess he dis inc i e challenges o con empo a y labou ela ions and o ensu e
mo e equi able and e ec i e p o ec ion o wo ke s in he digi al age.
Abou he au ho s
D . Hale om Ab aha is an Assis an P o esso o law and echnology a U ech Uni e si y School
o Law and a membe o he Ne he lands Ins i u e o Human Righ s (SIM). His esea ch and
eaching in e es s ocus on wo ke s’ da a igh s and he egula ion o AI and algo i hmic man-
agemen in he labou ma ke . He also esea ches c oss-bo de da a access in he con ex o law
en o cemen and digi al so e eign y.
02 ILO Wo king Pape 149
Abs ac 01
Abou he au ho s 01
XIn oduc ion 04
Aim and Scope 04
Use o Te ms 05
S uc u e 05
X1 Wo kplace moni o ing and decision-making echnologies 06
Digi al moni o ing and su eillance a wo k 07
Algo i hmic managemen 10
D i ing o ces o he boom in wo kplace echnologies 11
X2 The isks o wo ke s’ undamen al igh s and in e es s 14
P i acy and da a p o ec ion isks 15
Beyond p i acy and da a p o ec ion 18
X3 Exis ing p o ec ions 21
Global s anda ds 21
A case s udy o selec ed ju isdic ions 23
The Eu opean app oach 23
The Uni ed S a es’ app oach 30
The Aus alian App oach 34
Lessons om o he ju isdic ions 38
X4 Regula o y gaps, challenges, and unce ain ies 42
Inadequacy o gene al da a p o ec ion amewo ks 42
T ea ing wo ke s as consume s 43
Complex o e lap wi h o he legal ields 44
S uc u al legal de ici s 45
Wo kplace exemp ions 46
F agmen ed egula o y amewo ks and en o cemen challenges 46
Table o con en s
03 ILO Wo king Pape 149
X5 The u u e o wo ke s’ da a igh s: owa ds a balanced egula o y app oach 48
The necessi y o specialised da a p o ec ion legisla ion 48
Cla i ying he pe sonal scope o wo kplace da a p o ec ion ules 49
Es ablishing ai balance be ween wo ke s’ and employe s’ in e es s 50
Collec i e go e nance o wo kplace da a p ac ices 50
Eme gence o specialized egula ion o algo i hmic managemen 51
The need o c oss- egula o y coope a ion 51
Re e ences 53
Acknowledgemen s 63
04 ILO Wo king Pape 149
XIn oduc ion
Aim and Scope
The eme gence o da a p o ec ion laws in he la e 1970s ma ked he ini ial egula o y esponse
o socie al isks posed by he in o ma ion e olu ion, pa icula ly hose associa ed wi h au oma -
ed da a p ocessing. While mo e han 162 coun ies now ha e comp ehensi e da a p o ec ion
laws, a ecu ing challenge lies in hei applicabili y o he wo ld o wo k and hei adequacy in
p o ec ing indi iduals in an inc easingly digi alised wo kplace.
Thi y- i e yea s ago, Spi os Simi is ques ioned whe he omnibus da a p o ec ion amewo ks
could add ess he unique complexi ies o wo kplace dynamics, ad oca ing ins ead o employ-
men -speci ic ules. His c i ique esona es u gen ly oday, as pe asi e digi al su eillance and
algo i hmic managemen sys ems ampli y wo kplace powe dynamics, posing no el isks o
wo ke s’ undamen al igh s ha exis ing egula ions ha e ailed o adequa ely add ess.
Wo ke s — pa icula ly ulne able due o sys emic powe asymme ies and da a exploi a ion
isks — o en ecei e inadequa e p o ec ion unde exis ing laws, wi h some ju isdic ions exclud-
ing hem en i ely. His o ically, policymake s ha e acknowledged his inadequacy, as e idenced by
he Council o Eu ope’s 1989 Recommenda ion on he p o ec ion o wo ke s’ pe sonal da a, he
ILO’s 1997 Code o P ac ice on P o ec ion o Wo ke s’ Pe sonal Da a, and he Eu opean Union’s
2001 Opinion on employmen da a p ocessing, each adop ing wo kplace-speci ic ules o com-
plemen gene al egula ions. Ye ansla ing his ecogni ion in o obus legisla i e amewo ks
a na ional le els has p o en la gely unsuccess ul, e lec ing en enched egula o y gaps.
Fu he mo e, he echnological landscape has unde gone signi ican ans o ma ion since he
publica ion o hese in e na ional ins umen s. All amewo ks a e non-binding, and hey we e
adop ed be o e he widesp ead implemen a ion o elec onic moni o ing sys ems in wo kplac-
es and he dawn o he AI e a. The eme gence o da a-d i en people managemen and au o-
ma ed decision-making has in oduced new challenges ha hese ea lie amewo ks we e no
designed o ully add ess.
I is he e o e unsu p ising ha he ILO has e ocused i s a en ion on his issue. In Ma ch 2024,
he ILO Go e ning Body decided o con ene a a u u e da e a ipa i e mee ing o expe s on
he p o ec ion o wo ke s’ pe sonal da a in he digi al e a. This de elopmen unde sco es he
ecognized need o upda ed and comp ehensi e s anda ds o wo ke s’ da a p o ec ion ha
es ablish a ai balance be ween wo ke s’ undamen al igh s and employe s’ in e es s.
Agains his backg ound, his esea ch examines he mul idimensional isks o wo kplace digi-
alisa ion and analyses egula o y challenges and gaps ac oss ju isdic ions. By syn hesising his-
o ical p eceden s, cu en ini ia i es, and c oss-ju isdic ional compa isons, i p oposes policy
solu ions o ad ance wo ke -cen ic da a go e nance amewo ks capable o add essing mod-
e n labou ela ions’ unique challenges. Ul ima ely, he esea ch aims o con ibu e o he de-
elopmen o mo e obus , human-cen ed da a p o ec ion amewo ks and s anda ds ha a e
adap able o he e ol ing landscape o wo k in he digi al age, while also p omo ing inno a ion
and p o ec ing business in e es s.
The esea ch is subjec o limi a ions ega ding geog aphic and ma e ial scope. In addi ion o
in e na ional s anda ds, he s udy sys ema ically analyses egula o y amewo ks o selec ed
05 ILO Wo king Pape 149
ju isdic ions, wi h pa icula ocus on he Eu opean Union, he Uni ed S a es, and Aus alia ‒ e-
gions cha ac e ised by mul iple egula o y ini ia i es and dis inc i e app oaches. The esea ch
also examines amewo ks and ecen de elopmen s in India, China, B azil, and se e al A ican
coun ies. While he selec ion aims o be ep esen a i e o majo ju isdic ions, i does no mean o
sugges ha he esea ch p o ides comp ehensi e co e age o all global egions. Subs an i ely,
he esea ch add esses exis ing egula o y amewo ks, including da a p o ec ion and p i acy
laws, labou laws, algo i hmic managemen and AI egula ions, non-legisla i e guidelines, and
ecen policy ini ia i es. Al hough he esea ch seeks o highligh key egula o y amewo ks
wi hin each ju isdic ion, i does no claim o be exhaus i e. Nuanced local in e p e a ions and
sec o -speci ic egula ions may all ou side he scope o his analysis.
Use o Te ms
Unless o he wise explici ly indica ed, his esea ch uses he e m ‘wo ke ’ o include any cu en
o o me wo ke o applican o employmen and independen con ac o s. The objec i e is o
ensu e ha ha wo kplace da a p o ec ion ules p o ide consis en p o ec ions a all s ages o
he employmen ela ionship, ega dless o i s legal na u e o s a us. This app oach is u he
explained in Sec ion 6.2. in some ins ances, he e m ‘employee’ may be used when i appea s in
speci ic egula ions o is di ec ly quo ed om o he sou ces.
S uc u e
The esea ch is o ganized in six pa s. The nex sec ion examines he p e alence o ad anced
wo kplace echnologies, ocusing on digi al moni o ing and au oma ed decision-making sys-
ems. Sec ion 3 analyses he isks hese echnologies and p ac ices pose o wo ke s’ da a igh s,
including p i acy as well as b oade social and labou igh s. Sec ion 4 maps exis ing legal p o-
ec ions a he in e na ional le el and ac oss selec ed ju isdic ions. Sec ion 5 iden i ies he gaps,
challenges, and unce ain ies wi hin hese egula o y amewo ks. Finally, Sec ion 6 p oposes
po en ial pa hways o u u e egula ions o e ec i ely add ess hese issues e ec i ely.
12 ILO Wo king Pape 149
eel. Recen echnological b eak h oughs in machine-lea ning, big da a analy ics, and biome ics
ha e signi ican ly expanded capaci ies o wo ke su eillance bo h on and o he job. Acco ding
o he Eu opean Commission’s epo , a wide ange o new echnologies ha e enabled wo kplace
moni o ing and su eillance ha ‘ex end beyond he ealm o pe o mance managemen and
in o he hough s, eelings and beha iou s, loca ion and mo emen , and p o essional p o ile and
epu a ion o he employee’.39 These echnologies make mo e aspec s o wo ke s’ li es isible o
manage s h ough da a and p o ide employe s wi h no el da a sou ces, insigh s, and con ol
mechanisms, enabling wo ke moni o ing a unp eceden ed le els o de ail, speed, and scale.
Concu en wi h hese echnological ad ancemen s is he dec ease in p ocu emen , implemen-
a ion, and main enance cos s, making e en he mos ad anced wo kplace moni o ing and de-
cision-making echnologies a o dable o employe s. In he pas , pu chasing, main aining, and
using wo kplace moni o ing and su eillance sys ems o en in ol ed conside able expense.40
Tha is no he case anymo e; ‘big da a, algo i hms and a i icial in elligence now allow employ-
e s o p ocess in o ma ion on hei wo ke s and po en ial wo ke s in a a mo e e icien man-
ne and a a much lowe cos han in he pas .’41 The dec easing cos o pu chasing sophis ica -
ed echnologies, coupled wi h he ease wi h which a as amoun o da a is being collec ed and
p ocessed, u he encou ages employe s o eso o mo e in usi e moni o ing p ac ices be-
yond a clea ly de ined legi ima e pu pose.
In addi ion o he dec easing economic cons ain s and inc easing sophis ica ion o echnology,
he ise o emo e and hyb id wo k, accele a ed by he COVID-19 pandemic, has u he uelled
he demand o wo kplace moni o ing and au oma ed decision-making echnologies.42 Indus y
and media epo s show ha he global demand o wo ke s moni o ing echnologies g ew o
new heigh s du ing he pandemic and con inues o g ow wi h no sign o slowing.43 The end o-
wa ds emo e wo k, which makes he wo k-p i a e li e bounda y a con es ed e ain, has led o
mo e pe asi e and in usi e su eillance p ac ices. As emo e wo k becomes mo e p e alen ,
wo ke s a e inc easingly accep ing moni o ing as a ade-o o lexibili y.44
Las ly, he eme gence o a new o m o o ganizing wo k ‒ pla o m wo k‒ has added new di-
mensions o wo kplace moni o ing and su eillance. Pla o m wo k, which inhe en ly in ol es
algo i hmic managemen and is cha ac e ized by an ‘end- o-end employee su eillance’, allows
he collec ion o as amoun s o da a on pe o mance, beha iou s and loca ion and combined
wi h cus ome eedback o de e mine algo i hmically wha wo k and ewa d a e o e ed o he
pla o m wo ke in he u u e.45
The con e gence o hese ac o s ‒ he inc easing sophis ica ion and a o dabili y o echnolo-
gy, he ise o emo e and hyb id wo k, and he pla o misa ion o wo k ‒ is eshaping he land-
scape o wo kplace su eillance p ac ices and decision-making. Howe e , hese de elopmen s
ha e no been accompanied by he c ea ion o app op ia e egula o y esponses. As his end
39 Ball (n 13).
40 ‘The Elec onic Supe iso : New Technology, New Tensions’ (n 9).
41 Ad ián Todolí-Signes, ‘Algo i hms, A i icial In elligence and Au oma ed Decisions Conce ning Wo ke s and he Risks o Disc imina ion:
The Necessa y Collec i e Go e nance o Da a P o ec ion’ (2019) 25 T ans e : Eu opean Re iew o Labou and Resea ch 465.
42 Polly Mosendz and Ande s Melin, ‘Bosses A e Panic-Buying Spy So wa e o Keep Tabs on Remo e Wo ke s’ (Los Angeles Times, 27
Ma ch 2020) <h ps://www.la imes.com/business/ echnology/s o y/2020-03-27/co ona i us-wo k- om-home-p i acy> accessed 23
Oc obe 2024; Eu o ound (n 5).
43 Ball (n 13).
44 Riso (n 10).
45 Fe nandez Macias, E., U zi B anca i, M.C., W igh , S. and Pesole, A., The pla o misa ion o wo k, EUR 31469 EN, Publica ions O ice o
he Eu opean Union, Luxembou g, 2023, ISBN 978-92-68-01661-9, doi:10.2760/801282, JRC133016. Rani, U., Pesole, A. and Gonzalez
Vazquez, I., Algo i hmic Managemen p ac ices in egula wo kplaces: case s udies in logis ics and heal hca e, Publica ions O ice o he
Eu opean Union, Luxembou g, 2024, h ps://da a.eu opa.eu/doi/10.2760/712475, JRC136063.
13 ILO Wo king Pape 149
con inues, i will be c ucial o add ess he implica ions o wo ke s’ undamen al igh s, including
p i acy and da a p o ec ion igh s, digni y, au onomy, and heal h and sa e y.
14 ILO Wo king Pape 149
X2 The isks o wo ke s’ undamen al igh s and
in e es s
When p ope ly implemen ed and well- egula ed, wo kplace echnologies can o e subs an ial
bene i s o wo ke s, employe s, and socie y in gene al. They can acili a e skills de elopmen
and on- he-job lea ning, ‘enhance wo ke s’ sa e y (pa icula ly in haza dous o eme gency si u-
a ions) and imp o e p oduc i i y and o e all wo king condi ions.46 Howe e , i le un egula ed
o poo ly managed, he digi aliza ion o he wo ld o wo k can pose signi ican isks o wo ke s’
igh s and well-being.
The po en ial dange s o un egula ed wo kplace echnologies a e mul i ace ed and he e is no
simple e m o analysis. The isks a y ac oss indus ies and depend on a wide ange o ac o s.
As no ed in he 1987 US O ice o Technology Assessmen epo , ‘whe he he e ec o moni o -
ing is pe cei ed as in usi e, un ai , dehumanizing, o unheal hy o en depends on how manage-
men s uc u es he wo k-moni o ing p og am, wha i does wi h he da a i collec s, and how
hose ac ions a e pe cei ed by employees.’47 Following along hese lines, Daniel M. Ra id and
o he s de eloped a amewo k o unde s and he e ec s and implica ions o new moni o ing
and su eillance echnologies.48 Acco ding o he au ho s, he isks o wo kplace moni o ing and
su eillance echnologies could be a ec ed by ou ac o s, which can be summa ised as ollows.
1. The Pu pose o which he echnology is used: Ra id and o he s a gue ha di e en wo k-
place moni o ing, and su eillance pu poses communica e di e en o ganisa ional alues.49
Fo ins ance, ‘i used cons uc i ely, pe o mance moni o ing may inc ease mo i a ion, ask
sa is ac ion, dedica ion and pe cep ions o p ocedu al jus ice; i used puni i ely he opposi e
happens’. Simila ly, ‘whe e he e is no explici pu pose, and in o ma ion is collec ed o i s
own sake, moni o ing can esul in nega i e a i udes, including pe cep ions o dec eased
ai ness and jus ice pe cep ions, dec eased sa is ac ion and inc eased s ess wi h negligible
impac on pe o mance’.50
2.
The ela i e in usi eness o he echnology used: The in usi eness o a wo kplace echnolo-
gy depends on he scope, a ge , and cons ain s o he echnology used and he ex en a ec -
ed wo ke s ha e con ol o e he echnology and p ac ice. The scope o moni o ing implica es
how much o a wo ke ’s ask is moni o ed and he numbe o ways he wo ke is moni o ed
o he deg ee o which he da a collec ion is indi idualized. Fo ins ance, he speci ic o m o
elec onic moni o ing could be conside ed less in usi e i i is limi ed o he smalles numbe
o wo ke s and collec s he leas amoun o da a necessa y o accomplish a clea ly de ined
legi ima e pu pose. Simila ly, he a ge e e s o he in imacy o pe sonal na u e o he mon-
i o ing, which depends on he ocus and kinds o in o ma ion collec ed.51 The hi d elemen
ha can a ec in usi eness is he deg ee o which he e a e explici cons ain s on when
and how he moni o ing akes place and how will ha e access o he da a collec ed. Las ly,
46 Sa a Riso, ‘Moni o ing and Su eillance o Wo ke s in he Digi al Age’ (Eu o ound) <h ps://www.eu o ound.eu opa.eu/en/moni o -
ing-and-su eillance-wo ke s-digi al-age> accessed 3 Oc obe 2024.
47 ‘The Elec onic Supe iso : New Technology, New Tensions’ (n 9).
48 Ra id and o he s (n 16).
49 ibid.
50 ibid.
51 ibid.
15 ILO Wo king Pape 149
he ex en o which he wo ke s a ec ed by he moni o ing ha e con ol o e when and how
he moni o ing akes place signi ican ly a ec s he in usi eness o wo kplace echnology.
3. The synch onici y o moni o ing: This ac o e e s o he empo al cha ac e is ics o wo k-
place moni o ing, including equency and egula i y o moni o ing. Fo ins ance, con inu-
ous, eal- ime o co e moni o ing sys ems could ha e mo e nega i e ou comes compa ed
o in e mi en and a ge ed moni o ing.
4. The anspa ency o moni o ing: The ex en o which wo ke s a e p o ided wi h in o ma-
ion abou he cha ac e is ics o moni o ing a ec s legi imacy o wo kplace moni o ing and
decision-making echnologies. In his ega d, Ra id and o he s a gue ha he e a e ela i e-
ly s ong posi i e ela ionships be ween anspa ency and wo ke s’ a i udes, including pe -
cep ions o ai ness and jus ice in he wo kplace.
This amewo k unde sco es ha he egula ion o wo kplace echnologies inhe en ly equi es
he balancing o compe ing alues: he legi ima e in e es s o he employe and he undamen-
al igh s and eedoms o wo ke s.
P i acy and da a p o ec ion isks
As highligh ed abo e, employe s collec pe sonal da a on job applican s and wo ke s and he e
a e se e al legi ima e g ounds o do so. Some o hese legi ima e g ounds include o comply
wi h law; o assis in selec ion o employmen , aining and p omo ion; o o ganize wo k; and
o ensu e pe sonal sa e y, pe sonal secu i y, quali y con ol, cus ome se ice and he p o ec-
ion o p ope y.
While employe s ha e a ange o legi ima e in e es s o moni o hei wo k o ce and u ilise new
echnologies o do so, such p ac ices canno educe he p i acy and da a p o ec ion igh s o
wo ke s o ze o.52 As he A icle 29 Wo king Pa y pu i ‘[Wo ke s] do no abandon hei igh o
p i acy and da a p o ec ion e e y mo ning a he doo s o he wo kplace.’53 In o he wo ds, hey
expec ha hei wo kplace p i acy and da a p o ec ion igh s a e balanced wi h he employe ’s
legi ima e in e es s.
The e o e, as in any o he con ex ha in ol es he p ocessing o pe sonal da a, he co e chal-
lenge in egula ing wo kplace echnologies lies in c ea ing his ai balance. While pe sonal da a
p ocessing in any con ex o en in ol es inhe en ension be ween compe ing legi ima e in e -
es s, and s iking he igh balance is he p ima y objec i e o da a p o ec ion and p i acy laws,
he employmen con ex is dis inc om o he da a p ocessing ac i i ies in he digi al wo ld. This
dis inc ion gi es ise o unique challenges and equi es a undamen al e hinking o exis ing ules.
The e a e se e al ea u es ha make he p ocessing o pe sonal da a in employmen se ings dis-
inc o m o he con ex s, lea ing wo ke s mo e exposed. Some o he dis inc ea u es include:
The na u e o da a p ocessed: Employe s collec as amoun o sensi i e da a abou hei wo k-
e s, o en moni o ing e e y aspec o hei li es and mo emen s ac oss di e en de ices. This
ex ensi e and in ima e da a collec ion c ea es signi ican p i acy ha ms ha go a beyond iola-
ions o exis ing legal igh s o p i acy and da a p o ec ion. Beyond pe o mance, he moni o ing
can ocus on wo ke s’ hough s, eelings, physiology, body and beha iou . Algo i hmic manage-
men sys ems exace ba e his issue as hey ely on as amoun o da a o lea n pa e ns and
make in e ences, p edic ions, ecommenda ions, and decisions abou wo ke s. These sys ems
52 Bă bulescu Romania [2017] EC HR 61496/08 [80].
53 A icle 29, ‘Wo king Documen on he Su eillance o Elec onic Communica ions in he Wo kplace, 5401/01/EN/Final’ (2002).
16 ILO Wo king Pape 149
equi e cons an da a inpu om wo ke s o unc ion e ec i ely. This comp ehensi e da a col-
lec ion and he sensi i e na u e o he da a collec ed aise legal ques ions ha may no ha e an
explici answe in gene al da a p o ec ion egimes.
The ou ine na u e o da a collec ion: While a ious aspec o ou p i a e and public li es in he
digi al age a e ou inely acked, i would be a misconcep ion o iew wo kplace moni o ing and
su eillance as me ely an ex ension o his ubiqui ous da a collec ion.54 The moni o ing and su -
eillance p ac ices in employmen se ings is undamen ally di e en , cha ac e ised by a pe -
sis en and in usi e app oach o da a ga he ing. Unlike he spo adic and ansac ional na u e
o da a collec ion in o he con ex s, many ac i i ies pe o med ou inely in he wo kplace o en
en ail con inuous obse a ions o wo ke s’ ac i i ies and beha iou h ough da a.55 The ongoing
na u e o his da a collec ion and p ocessing is inhe en o he employmen se ing, whe e a -
ious aspec s o wo ke s’ li es a e egula ly moni o ed and analysed o e an ex ended pe iod.56
The ex ensi e na u e o da a collec ion is an essen ial consequence o he employmen ela ion-
ship om which wo ke s canno escape. I begins e en be o e he employmen ela ionship is
es ablished, pe sis s h oughou he employmen pe iod, and can con inue e en a e he ela-
ionship has ended. This con inuous da a low c ea es a comp ehensi e p o ile o he wo ke ,
aising signi ican p i acy conce ns and necessi a ing ca e ul conside a ion o da a p o ec ion
and p i acy measu es in he wo kplace.
Blu ed bounda ies: P i acy in he wo kplace aises complex legal issues, pa icula ly when busi-
ness- ela ed in o ma ion and he pe sonal da a o wo ke s a e deeply in e wined, which is o -
en he case. In e p e ing b oadly A icle 8 o he Eu opean Con en ion on Human Righ s ( igh
o espec o p i a e li e), he Eu opean Cou o Human Righ s (EC HR) explo ed he di icul-
y in clea ly sepa a ing an indi idual’s p o essional and pe sonal li e. In Niemi z . Ge many, he
Cou held ha :
Respec o p i a e li e mus also comp ise o a ce ain deg ee he igh o es ablish and
de elop ela ionships wi h o he human beings. The e appea s, u he mo e, o be no
eason o p inciple why his unde s anding o he no ion o ‘p i a e li e’ should be aken
o exclude ac i i ies o a p o essional o business na u e since i is, a e all, in he cou se
o hei wo king li es ha he majo i y o people ha e a signi ican , i no he g ea es ,
oppo uni y o de eloping ela ionships wi h he ou side wo ld. This iew is suppo ed
by he ac ha (…) i is no always possible o dis inguish clea ly which o an indi idual’s
ac i i ies o m pa o his p o essional o business li e and which do no . Thus, especial-
ly in he case o a pe son exe cising a libe al p o ession, his wo k in ha con ex may
o m pa and pa cel o his li e o such a deg ee ha i becomes impossible o know in
wha capaci y he is ac ing a a gi en momen o ime. To deny he p o ec ion o A icle
8 on he g ound ha he measu e complained o ela ed only o p o essional ac i i ies
(…) could mo eo e lead o an inequali y o ea men , in ha such p o ec ion would
emain a ailable o a pe son whose p o essional and non-p o essional ac i i ies we e
so in e mingled ha he e was no means o dis inguishing be ween hem.57
54 Clai e EM Je is, ‘Ba bulescu Romania: Why The e Is No Room o Complacency When I Comes o P i acy Righ s in he Wo kplace’
(EJIL: Talk!, 26 Sep embe 2017) <h ps://www.ejil alk.o g/ba bulescu- - omania-why- he e-is-no- oom- o -complacency-when-i -comes-
o-p i acy- igh s-in- he-wo kplace/> accessed 22 Ma ch 2025.
55 A icle 29 Da a P o ec ion Wo king Pa y, Opinion 8/2001 on he p ocessing o pe sonal da a in he employmen con ex (WP 48) 13
Sep 2001.
56 EM Je is (n 57).
57 EC HR, Niemie z Ge many (1992) Pa a 29.
17 ILO Wo king Pape 149
Fu he mo e, employe s’ use o new echnologies may no only a ec p i acy in he wo kplace,
bu also has he po en ial o blu he dis inc ion be ween a wo ke s’ ac i i ies a wo k and hei
p i a e li es. This is pa icula ly e iden in he con ex o emo e and hyb id wo k, in which mon-
i o ing and su eillance echnologies can each beyond he wo k en i onmen in o wo ke s’ pe -
sonal li es c ea ing an e en g ea e impac on wo ke s’ p i acy.58
Na u e o he ela ionship: The na u e o he employmen ela ionship is dis inc om o he
comme cial ela ionships, in a leas in wo aspec s. Fi s , he employmen ela ionship inhe -
en ly in ol es a powe dynamic no p esen in many o he da a p ocessing con ex s. This ela-
ionship o powe and o con ol goes beyond he adi ional con olle –da a subjec ela ionship
unde pinning mode n da a p o ec ion laws. Compa ed o he ela i e eedom- howe e limi -
ed- ha consume s may ha e o choose he ype o se ice o echnology hey use, wo ke s do
no decide wha echnologies should be deployed in he wo kplace and how hese echnologies
should be used. The powe o do so is he employe ’s p e oga i e. Consequen ly, wo ke s may be
conside ed as a so o ‘cap i e popula ion’ in ega d o he use o da a p ocessing echniques.59
This powe ela ion di ec ly challenges some o he key unde lying p inciples o da a p o ec-
ion law, such as consen . The inhe en inequali y o powe allows employe s o con ol no only
he wo k bu also he physical and men al well-being o hei wo ke s.60 As he Eu opean Da a
P o ec ion Boa d (EDPB), ecen ly no ed, he employmen ela ionship equi es an assessmen
ha is di e en om he one conce ning a se ice p o ide -cus ome ela ionship because o
he s a us o he employe is-à- is he wo ke s.61
The second aspec is he pe sonal na u e o he ela ionship, which is p esumed o be buil on
mu ual us and con idence. This na u e was succinc ly summa ised by he UK Lo d Jus ice o
Appeal, Lo d Jus ice Mumme y, in Keen Comme zbank AG: ‘Employmen is a pe sonal ela ion-
ship. I s dynamics di e signi ican ly om hose o business deals and o s a e ea men o i s
ci izens. In gene al, he e is an implied mu ual du y o us and con idence be ween employe
and wo ke s. Thus, i is he du y on he pa o an employe o p ese e he us and con idence
which an employee should ha e in him.’62
The elemen o us in employmen ela ions inhe en ly en ails he isk ha he employe could
abuse such us . This isk becomes pa icula ly salien in he con ex o au oma ed decision-mak-
ing sys ems. Re lec ing on how hese echnologies can a ec he pe sonal na u e o he employ-
men ela ionship and impac he human digni y o wo ke s, Robin Allen and Dee Mas e s a -
gue ha ‘ he inc eased eliance on echnology o make managemen decisions isks p o oundly
unde mining he pe sonal na u e o he employmen ela ionship’.63 They u he con end ha
‘whe e human in ol emen is lacking and he expec a ions o employees by hei employe s be-
come mo e and mo e a ma e o digi ised a ge s, he ole o he employee is inc easingly di-
minished’. The e o e, he inc easing eliance on algo i hmic decision-making sys ems aises im-
po an ques ions abou he p ese a ion o us , espec , and human digni y in he wo kplace.
As employe s inc easingly ely on AI sys ems o decision-making, he e is a isk o depe sonal-
izing he employmen ela ionship (da a ica ion o wo ke s), po en ially e oding he mu ual us
58 A icle 29 Wo king Pa y Opinion 2/2017 on da a p ocessing a wo k (WP 249) 8 June 2017.
59 Council o Eu ope Explana o y Memo andum o Recommenda ion No. R (89) 2 o he Commi ee o Minis e s o membe s a es on
he p o ec ion o pe sonal da a used o employmen pu poses (Adop ed by he Commi ee o Minis e s on 18 Janua y 1989).
60
Hale om H Ab aha, ‘A P agma ic Comp omise? The Role o A icle 88 GDPR in Upholding P i acy in he Wo kplace’ (2022) 12 In e na ional
Da a P i acy Law 276.
61 Guidelines 1/2024 on p ocessing o pe sonal da a based on A icle 6(1)( ) GDPR (Ve sion 1.0 Adop ed on 8 Oc obe 2024).
62 Keen Comme zbank AG [2006] EWCA Ci 1536 h ps://www.icl .co.uk/documen /2016062679/2006ewcaci 1536_TNA/h ml.
63 Robin Allen and Dee Mas e s, ‘Technology Managing People—The Legal Implica ions’ (T ades Union Cong ess 2021).
18 ILO Wo king Pape 149
and con idence ha labou law seeks o p ese e. Fu he mo e, in usi e and unjus i ied mon-
i o ing and su eillance o wo ke s iola es his implied us and con idence as such p ac ices
could come om p esump ion o he wo ke s’ misbeha iou .64
The na u e o in e es s a s ake: In con as o wha mode n p i acy and da a p o ec ion laws
en isage, he p i acy and da a p o ec ion issues ha a ise wi hin he employmen con ex a e
bo h indi idual and collec i e. Wo kplace moni o ing and su eillance can a ec no jus an in-
di idual wo ke bu he wo k o ce as a whole wi hin he en e p ise. P i acy ha ms in he wo k-
place a ise no jus om he p ocessing o an indi idual’s pe sonal da a in isola ion, bu om he
analysis o ela ionships, pa e ns, and co ela ions ac oss la ge da ase s. Fo ins ance, o p edic
unionisa ion ac i i ies, employe s do no need o moni o he beha iou o an indi idual wo ke
as hey can in e his om da a abou o he s.65 P i acy ha ms in he wo kplace a e caused collec-
i ely and el collec i ely and canno be adequa ely add essed by indi idualis ic da a p o ec ion
laws. Mos exis ing da a p o ec ion laws a e indi idualis ic in na u e, making hem inadequa e
o deal wi h he inhe en ly collec i e igh s and in e es s o wo ke s.
Rela ional na u e o isks: As he Eu opean Da a P o ec ion Wo king Pa y obse ed, no all
p oblems ha a ise in he employmen con ex and in ol e he p ocessing o pe sonal da a a e
exclusi ely da a p o ec ion ones.66 As discussed below, he isks posed by new wo kplace ech-
nologies a e no con ined wi hin he p i acy and da a p o ec ion igh s alone. These isks a e
mul i ace ed a ec ing mul iple in e es s and alues simul aneously. In June 2020, he Eu opean
Social Pa ne s eleased a F amewo k Ag eemen on digi aliza ion in which hey ound a com-
mon g ound on he ac ha he use o digi al echnologies and AI su eillance sys ems in he
wo kplace aise new isks o comp omising human digni y and con ibu ing o a de e io a ion
o wo king condi ions.67
Beyond p i acy and da a p o ec ion
P i acy and da a p o ec ion a e he o en-ci ed conce ns o pe asi e wo kplace echnologies.
Howe e , he impac o hese echnologies canno be amed in e ms o p i acy and da a p o-
ec ion alone. Moni o ing and algo i hmic managemen echnologies engage no jus wi h p i-
acy and da a p o ec ion issues bu also a ec b oade social and labou igh s ensh ined in in-
e na ional and na ional laws.
Fo ins ance, he in eg a ion o wo kplace moni o ing, su eillance echnologies and algo i hmic
managemen sys ems poses signi ican isks o wo ke ’s au onomy, digni y, heal h and wellbe-
ing. Ex ensi e esea ch highligh s how p oduc i i y- acking ools and machine-paced wo k lows
con ibu e o physical and men al s ain, wi h s udies showing 74% o wa ehouse wo ke s o a
speci ic company a oiding ba h oom b eaks due o pe o mance a ge s and 55% epo ing
dep ession.68 These sys ems in ensi y wo kloads h ough algo i hmically de e mined a ge s,
eal- ime pe o mance e alua ions, and unp edic able scheduling, c ea ing ch onic s ess and
64 B een C eigh on and And ew S ewa , Labou Law: An In oduc ion (3 d ed) (2000)
65 Ha mon Leon, ‘Whole Foods Sec e ly Upg ades Tech o Ta ge and Squash Unionizing E o s’ (Obse e , 24 Ap il 2020) <h ps://ob-
se e .com/2020/04/amazon-whole- oods-an i-union- echnology-hea -map/> accessed 1 Augus 2024.
66 A icle 29 Da a P o ec ion Wo king Pa y, Opinion 8/2001 on he p ocessing o pe sonal da a in he employmen con ex , 5062/01/
EN/Final WP 48.
67 ‘Eu opean F amewo k Ag eemen on Digi alisa ion’ (BusinessEu ope, SMEuni ed, CEEP and he ETUC 2020).
68 Da ell M Wes , ‘How Employe s Use Technology o Su eil Employees’ (B ookings, 5 Janua y 2021) <h ps://www.b ookings.edu/a i-
cles/how-employe s-use- echnology- o-su eil-employees/> accessed 30 Ma ch 2025.
19 ILO Wo king Pape 149
sa e y haza ds.
69
One s udy shows ha 87% o call cen e wo ke s su eyed epo ed high o e y
high s ess le els a hei wo k, wi h 50% o hem epo ing ha ing been p esc ibed medica ion
o s ess o anxie y.70 Da a-d i en echnologies enable unp eceden ed mic omanagemen , e-
ducing wo ke s o dehumanized da a poin s.71 The Council o Eu ope wa ns ha cons an su -
eillance ans o ms wo ke s in o a ‘cap i e popula ion’,72 e oding digni y h ough s a is ical p o-
iling and au oma ed decision-making. This deg ada ion o agency is compounded by in asi e
moni o ing in p i a e wo kspaces, which wo ke s o en pe cei e as demeaning. Pa adoxically,
excessi e su eillance can back i e, os e ing dis us , educing job sa is ac ion, inc easing u n-
o e , and encou aging ule b eaking.73
Algo i hmic bias in hi ing and managemen sys ems pe pe ua es sys emic disc imina ion.
Amazon’s abandoned AI ec ui men ool, which penalised esumes con aining he wo d ‘wom-
en’, exempli ies how his o ical biases embedded in aining da a disad an age p o ec ed g oups.
74
Facial ecogni ion and speech analysis ools show acial and gende biases, while au oma ed as-
sessmen s misin e p e physical o beha iou al di e ences in disabled applican s.75 Ma ginalised
g oups ace compounded ha ms in low-wage sec o s like wa ehousing, whe e in asi e moni o -
ing disp opo iona ely a ec s women and people o colou . These echnologies isk en enching
inequali y by c ea ing opaque ba ie s o employmen oppo uni ies.
Unionisa ion e o s ace new h ea s om p edic i e su eillance sys ems and algo i hmic man-
agemen , po en ially dis up ing he delica e balance be ween labou igh s and business in e -
es s ha many legal sys ems ha e s i ed o main ain.76 The e ha e been epo s o some US
companies using machine lea ning o assign ‘ isk sco es’ o loca ions based on unionisa ion
likelihood, analysing anonymised da a o p e-emp labou o ganising, and e en censo e ms
like ‘unionise’ in in e nal communica ions.77 Pla o m wo ke s a e pa icula ly ulne able due o
algo i hmic managemen models ha isola e hem, os e compe i ion, and elimina e physical
ga he ing spaces. Some employe s epo edly sc een job candida es o union sympa hies, e -
ec i ely blacklis ing labou igh s ad oca es be o e hi ing.
69 Michael Saina o, ‘“You Feel like You’Re in P ison”: Wo ke s Claim Amazon’s Su eillance Viola es Labo Law’ The Gua dian (21 May
2024) <h ps://www. hegua dian.com/us-news/a icle/2024/may/21/amazon-su eillance-lawsui -union> accessed 12 No embe
2024; A iel Bogle, ‘“S op All Time Was ing”: Woolwo hs Wo ke s T acked and Timed unde New E iciency C ackdown’ The Gua dian
(22 Oc obe 2024) <h ps://www. hegua dian.com/business/2024/oc /23/woolwo hs-s a -e iciency-p oduc i i y-c ackdown- imed>
accessed 12 No embe 2024; Feng (n 39); Uni ed Wo ke s Union, ‘Technology and Powe : Unde s anding Issues o Insecu e Wo k
and Technological Change in Aus alian Wo kplaces’ (2020); Vi ginia Doellgas and Sean O’B ady, ‘Making Call Cen e Jobs Be e : The
Rela ionship be ween Managemen P ac ices and Wo ke S ess’ [2020] Co nell Uni e si y, ILR School.
70 Doellgas and O’B ady (n 72).
71 Feng (n 39).
72
Recommenda ion No. R (89) 2 o he Commi ee o Minis e s o Membe S a es on he P o ec ion o Pe sonal Da a Used o Employmen
Pu poses 1989.
73 Melissa A Wheele , ‘Does T acking You Employees Ac ually Make Them Mo e P oduc i e?’ (The Con e sa ion, 24 Oc obe 2024) <h p://
hecon e sa ion.com/does- acking-you -employees-ac ually-make- hem-mo e-p oduc i e-242027> accessed 12 No embe 2024;
Magan Nicole O’Neal, ‘The E ec s o P oduc i i y T acking on Employees’ (Indeed Ca ee Guide) <h ps://www.indeed.com/ca ee -ad-
ice/ca ee -de elopmen /e ec s-p oduc i i y- acking-employees> accessed 12 No embe 2024.
74 Je ey Das in, ‘Amazon Sc aps Sec e AI Rec ui ing Tool Tha Showed Bias agains Women’ Reu e s (11 Oc obe 2018) <h ps://www.
eu e s.com/a icle/wo ld/insigh -amazon-sc aps-sec e -ai- ec ui ing- ool- ha -showed-bias-agains -women-idUSKCN1MK0AG/> ac-
cessed 23 Oc obe 2024.
75 Mi anda Bogen, ‘All he Ways Hi ing Algo i hms Can In oduce Bias’ Ha a d Business Re iew (6 May 2019) <h ps://hb .o g/2019/05/
all- he-ways-hi ing-algo i hms-can-in oduce-bias>; Me edi h Whi ake and o he s, ‘Disabili y, Bias, and AI - Repo ’ (AI Now Ins i u e
2019) <h ps://ainowins i u e.o g/publica ion/disabili ybiasai-2019> accessed 9 No embe 2024.
76 Jamie Susskind, The Digi al Republic: On F eedom and Democ acy in he 21s Cen u y (Pegasus Books 2022) 139; G ace Sco , ‘Labo
O ganizing and AI Su eillance in he Wo kplace’ (Geo ge Town Jou nal on Po e y Law & Policy, 14 Janua y 2024) <h ps://www.law.
geo ge own.edu/po e y-jou nal/blog/labo -o ganizing-and-ai-su eillance-in- he-wo kplace/> accessed 12 No embe 2024.
77 Ha mon Leon, ‘Whole Foods Sec e ly Upg ades Tech o Ta ge and Squash Unionizing E o s’ (Obse e , 24 Ap il 2020) <h ps://
obse e .com/2020/04/amazon-whole- oods-an i-union- echnology-hea -map/> accessed 10 No embe 2024; Shi in Gha a y, ‘The
Real Cos o Amazon’ (Vox, 29 June 2020) <h ps://www. ox.com/ ecode/2020/6/29/21303643/amazon-co ona i us-wa ehouse-wo k-
e s-p o es -je -bezos-ch is-smalls-boyco -pandemic> accessed 10 No embe 2024.
20 ILO Wo king Pape 149
The au oma ion o consequen ial decisions, such as e mina ion, emo es human accoun abili y
om employmen ela ionships. In one case, an e-comme ce company claimed local manage s
had no unde s anding o con ol o e an algo i hmic sys em ha i ed wo ke s allegedly o un-
ion ac i i ies. This e osion o human agency lea es wo ke s wi hou ecou se, as decisions equi -
ing empa hy o con ex ual unde s anding can be delega ed o opaque algo i hms. Legisla i e
e o s o manda e ‘human in he loop’ in signi ican decisions e lec g owing ecogni ion ha
algo i hmic judgmen s lack he nuance need o ai employmen p ac ices.
Lack o algo i hmic anspa ency is ano he challenge. The opaque na u e o many algo i h-
mic sys ems, combined wi h co po a e ade sec ecy laws, exace ba es powe imbalances be-
ween employe s and wo ke s.78 Many wo ke s a e unawa e o wha da a is collec ed, how i ’s
p ocessed, o e en he exis ence moni o ing ools.79 Wi hou meaning ul anspa ency, wo ke s
canno exe cise hei igh s o explana ion, con es a ion, o ed ess ensh ined in some ju isdic-
ions. Thi d-pa y endo s o en con ol hese sys ems, lea ing employe s hemsel es unable o
ully explain o audi algo i hmic ou comes. Jamie Susskind obse es, ‘some imes he powe o
echnology de i es om he e y ac ha i s wo kings a e hidden’,80 unde sco ing how opaci y
en enches employe dominance.
These issues collec i ely h ea en labou igh s amewo ks designed o balance wo ke p o-
ec ions wi h business in e es s. The in ensi ica ion o su eillance-d i en p oduc i i y acking
me ics, opaque and biased au oma ed decisions, supp ession o collec i e ac ion, and he lack
o accoun abili y mechanisms c ea e a wo kplace en i onmen whe e wo ke s’ au onomy and
digni y a e sys ema ically unde mined.
78
Alex Rosenbla and Luke S a k, ‘Ube ’s D i e s: In o ma ion Asymme ies and Con ol in Dynamic Wo k’ [2015] SSRN Elec onic Jou nal
<h p://www.ss n.com/abs ac =2686227> accessed 22 No embe 2024.
79 WP 249, Opinion 2/2017; Je emias Adams-P assl and o he s, ‘Regula ing Algo i hmic Managemen : A Bluep in ’ (2023) 14 Eu opean
Labou Law Jou nal 124.
80 Jamie Susskind, The Digi al Republic: On F eedom and Democ acy in he 21s Cen u y (Bloomsbu y Publishing 2022) 219.
21 ILO Wo king Pape 149
X3 Exis ing p o ec ions
Global s anda ds
The ILO and he Council o Eu ope ha e been pionee s in se ing in e na ional s anda ds on
wo ke s’ da a p o ec ion igh s since he ea ly 1990s. In 1991 and 1993, he ILO published wo
comp ehensi e epo s on wo ke s’ p i acy and moni o ing and su eillance in he wo kplace.81
A e e iewing he hen-exis ing egula ions ac oss se e al ju isdic ions, ILO’s 1991 epo con-
cluded ha while hey con ained a se ies o gene al ules applicable o he employmen con ex ,
mos o he laws e iewed did no explici ly deal wi h he p ocessing o wo ke s’ da a.82 The epo
ound ha consis en and comp ehensi e egula ion on wo ke s’ da a p o ec ion was missing a
bo h in e na ional and na ional le els, and ha in e na ional ins umen s we e needed o b idge
he gap. Speci ically, since he 1990s, i appea s ha he ILO has main ained a clea s ance ha
he gene al and abs ac p o isions o omnibus da a p o ec ion laws a e insu icien o deal wi h
wo ke s’ da a p o ec ion igh s.83
The Council o Eu ope began he deba e e en ea lie . A e he adop ion o Con en ion o he
P o ec ion o Indi iduals wi h ega d o Au oma ic P ocessing o Pe sonal Da a (Con en ion 108)
in 1981, he Council o Eu ope ecognised ha nei he he b oad p inciples o he Con en ion
no omnibus na ional da a p o ec ion egula ions could adequa ely egula e da a p ocessing in
he employmen con ex . Consequen ly, he Council hen s a ed explo ing a sec o al egula ion
o wo ke s’ da a p o ec ion igh s in he ea ly 1990s.
Unlike ypical in e na ional ules ha o en aim o es ablish common s anda ds based on exis ing
na ional p o isions, he ILO and he Council o Eu ope ook a p oac i e app oach in he absence o
widesp ead na ional egula ions in his ield.84 In 1989, he Council o Eu ope a Recommenda ion
on he ‘P o ec ion o pe sonal da a used o employmen pu poses ( e ised in 2015), while he
ILO adop ed i s Code o P ac ice wel e yea s la e . Bo h o ganisa ions ecognized he p ac i-
cal impo ance o ules on wo ke s’ da a p ocessing and iewed in e na ional ins umen s as a
means o add ess he egula o y gaps. Howe e , hey chose less in usi e o ms o egula ion:
he Council o Eu ope op ed o a Recommenda ion, while he ILO selec ed a Code o P ac ice.
This app oach, while no legally binding, p o ided a amewo k o e lec ion and se expec a-
ions.85 While he Recommenda ion appeals o Membe S a es o inco po a e i s p inciples in o
domes ic legisla ion on da a p o ec ion in he employmen sec o , he Code o P ac ice aspi es
o se e as a guidance in he de elopmen o legisla ion, egula ions, collec i e ag eemen s,
wo k ules, policies and p ac ical measu es a en e p ise le el. Consequen ly, hese guidelines
placed he discussion on a b oad, solid basis, delinea ing he scope and essen ial elemen s o
egula ion. By choosing hese o ms o e con en ions, which o en in ol e leng hy nego ia ions
81 ‘Wo ke s’ P i acy Pa I-P o ec ion o Pe sonal Da a’ (n 2); ‘Wo ke s’ P i acy Pa II: Moni o ing and Su eillance in he Wo kplace’ (n
17).
82 ‘Wo ke s’ P i acy Pa I-P o ec ion o Pe sonal Da a’ (n 2) 16.
83 See P e ace, ILO code o p ac ice on he P o ec ion o wo ke s’ pe sonal da a 1997 [no ing 'While a ious na ional laws and in e na-
ional s anda ds ha e es ablished binding p ocedu es o he p ocessing o pe sonal da a, he e is a need o de elop da a p o ec-
ion p o isions which speci ically add ess he use o wo ke s’ pe sonal da a’].
84 Simi is (n 3).
85 ibid; Paul De He and Hans Lamme an , ‘P o ec ion o Pe sonal Da a in Wo k-Rela ed Rela ions’ (Eu opean Pa liamen ’s Commi ee
on Ci il Libe ies, Jus ice and Home A ai s, 2013).
28 ILO Wo king Pape 149
a wide ange o issues wi h p i acy and da a p o ec ion implica ion118 and he powe o moni o
compliance wi h legal p o isions and collec i e ag eemen s a ec ing wo ke s.119 Wo ks councils
in Aus ia also ha e e o powe s o e he in oduc ion o new moni o ing echnologies ha a -
ec he human digni y o he wo ke . In con as , F ench law p o ides wo ke s’ ep esen a i es
a mo e limi ed, consul a i e ole. While he Labou Code allows o he es ablishmen o wo ke s’
ep esen a i e bodies, hey do no enjoy co-de e mina ion igh s like hei Ge man and Aus ian
coun e pa s. Employe s mus in o m and consul hese bodies p io o making a signi ican
decision a ec ing wo ke s, bu hey a e no legally bound o accep hei ecommenda ions.120
C. Regula ing Algo i hmic managemen
The EU has ecen ly in oduced wo landma k laws, he AI Ac and he Pla o m Di ec i e, which
will ha e a signi ican impac in shaping he design, deploymen and use o algo i hmic man-
agemen sys ems in he wo kplace. While he AI Ac has aced c i icism o inadequa ely p o ec -
ing human igh s in gene al and wo ke s’ igh s in pa icula , i ’s impo an o acknowledge he
p o ec ions i does p o ide, albei limi ed, in sa egua ding wo ke s om some isks posed by
algo i hmic managemen and au oma ed decision-making sys ems. The isk-based egula o y
app oach and speci ic p o isions o he AI Ac o e a leas i e key employmen -speci ic p o-
ec ions, which collec i ely aim o sa egua d wo ke s’ igh s and in e es s in he ace o inc eas-
ing AI implemen a ion in employmen con ex s. Fi s , he AI Ac does no p eclude he Union o
Membe S a es om main aining o in oducing laws, egula ions o adminis a i e p o isions
which a e mo e a ou able o wo ke s in e ms o p o ec ing hei igh s in espec o he use o
AI sys ems by employe s, o om encou aging o allowing he applica ion o collec i e ag ee-
men s which a e mo e a ou able o wo ke s.
121
Second, i equi es wo ke s’ igh s o be included
in undamen al igh s and isk assessmen s o AI sys ems.122 Thi d, he AI Ac manda es employ-
e s in o m and consul wo ke s o hei ep esen a i es abou he planned deploymen o high-
isk AI sys ems in he wo kplace.123 Fou h, i bans he use o emo ion ecogni ion AI sys ems in
he wo kplace.124 Finally, he AI Ac classi ies all AI sys ems used in he wo kplace as ‘high- isk’,
imposing s ic equi emen s be o e hey can be pu in he ma ke .125
The Pla o m Wo k Di ec i e is ano he piece o legisla ion ha p o ides obus p o ec ions agains
AI-d i en ha ms. One o i s objec i es is o imp o e he p o ec ion o pe sonal da a in he pla -
o m wo k by p omo ing anspa ency, ai ness, human o e sigh , sa e y and accoun abili y in
algo i hmic managemen in pla o m wo k.126 In his ega d, i p o ides ela i ely obus da a
p o ec ion, o example, by se ing ed lines ega ding p ocessing o pe sonal da a ela ed o
emo ional o psychological s a e, p i a e con e sa ions, biome ic da a, o he p edic ion o he
exe cise o undamen al igh s, and p ocessing o da a o in e sensi i e in o ma ion such as
ade union membe ship. Unlike he GDPR, hese p ohibi ions a e no subjec o excep ions.127
118 Labou Cons i u ion Ac 1974 ss 89, 90, 91,92, 96.
119 ibid 89.
120 Code du a ail, A . L. 2312-38. A . L2323-2
121 Regula ion (EU) 2024/1689 o he Eu opean Pa liamen and o he Council o 13 June 2024 laying down ha monised ules on a i icial
in elligence and amending Regula ions (EC) No 300/2008, (EU) No 167/2013, (EU) No 168/2013, (EU) 2018/858, (EU) 2018/1139 and
(EU) 2019/2144 and Di ec i es 2014/90/EU, (EU) 2016/797 and (EU) 2020/1828 (A i icial In elligence Ac ) (Tex wi h EEA ele ance),
A 2(11), Rec. 9.
122 ibid, Rec. 48.
123 ibid, A . 26, Rec. 92.
124 ibid, A 5(1)( ), Rec. 44.
125 ibid, A . 6(2), Annex III(4), Rec. 57.
126 P oposal o he DIRECTIVE OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL on imp o ing wo king condi ions in pla o m
wo k 7212/24 ADD 1, A . 1(1)(b).
127 ibid, A . 7.
29 ILO Wo king Pape 149
The Pla o m Di ec i e also s eng hens he da a p o ec ion impac assessmen (DPIA) equi e-
men s s ipula ed unde A icle 35 o he GDPR by classi ying he p ocessing o pe sonal da a o
pla o m wo ke s by means o au oma ed decision-making sys ems as high- isk wi hin he mean-
ing o A icle 35(1). This classi ica ion igge s manda o y DPIA which equi es employe s o seek
he iews o wo ke s and hei ep esen a i es and o disclose he esul o DPIA o wo ke s’ ep-
esen a i es, a equi emen non-exis en in he GDPR.128 Fu he mo e, he Di ec i e cla i ies and
expands algo i hmic anspa ency equi emen s. Unlike he GDPR, he in o ma ion obliga ions
unde he Pla o m Wo k Di ec i e a e no limi ed o ‘solely au oma ed decision-making’ bu in-
clude all ypes o decisions suppo ed o aken by au oma ed decision-making sys ems. I se s
ou anspa ency equi emen s bo h a indi idual and collec i e le els. I empowe s na ional
compe en au ho i ies o eques ‘comp ehensi e and de ailed in o ma ion’ a any ime. Las ly,
he Di ec i e manda es sys emic o e sigh o he design and use o AI algo i hms and human
e iew o indi idual decisions suppo ed o aken by hese AI algo i hms.129
Al hough i s scope o applica ion is limi ed o ‘Pla o m Wo k’,
130
he Di ec i e has signi ican ly im-
p o ed he sa egua ds p o ided unde he GDPR and he AI Ac and can be used as a bluep in
o u u e legisla ion wi h b oade scope co e ing adi ional employmen se ings.
Se e al Membe S a es ha e also in oduced o a e conside ing algo i hmic managemen egu-
la ion, al hough he con en and scope o hese egula ions a y ac oss coun ies. The Eu opean
Res uc u ing da abase shows ha 12 Membe S a es ha e ules equi ing anspa ency o al-
go i hms, manda ing human in e en ion in ce ain cases, and p o iding indi idual wo ke s ac-
cess o pe sonal da a p ocessed.131
D. Non-legisla i e egula ions and guidelines
The i s EU policy in e en ion on he issue o wo kplace da a p o ec ion was he A icle 29
Wo king Pa y’s Opinion 8/2001, complemen ed by a ‘wo king documen ’ on su eillance and
moni o ing o elec onic communica ions in he wo kplace.132 This Opinion was subsequen ly
amended in 2017 o align wi h he new equi emen s o he GDPR. The WP29’s Opinion 2/2017
p o ides comp ehensi e guidelines o he legi ima e use o new echnologies in a ious wo k-
place scena ios. I de ails sui able and speci ic measu es o sa egua d he human digni y, legi i-
ma e in e es and undamen al igh s o wo ke s.133 The Opinion es ablishes a se o p inciples,
ou lines a lis o isks posed by new echnologies, and p o ides a amewo k o p opo ionali y
assessmen s in se e al wo kplace si ua ions. While he Opinion aims o ha monise he applica-
ion o da a p o ec ion ules in he wo kplace ac oss he EU, i is impo an o no e ha i is no
legally binding and canno be di ec ly en o ced agains employe s. I only se es as a guidance
documen , o e ing in e p e a ions and ecommenda ions o bes p ac ices in wo kplace da a
p o ec ion. In e es ingly, he Eu opean Da a P o ec ion Boa d (EDPB), which eplaced he Wo king
128 ibid, A . 8.
129 ibid, A . 10, A .11.
130 A . 2(2) o he Di ec i e de ines ‘Pla o m Wo k’ as any wo k o ganised h ough a digi al labou pla o m and pe o med in he Union
by an indi idual on he basis o a con ac ual ela ionship be ween he digi al labou pla o m o an in e media y and he indi idual,
i espec i e o whe he a con ac ual ela ionship exis s be ween he indi idual o an in e media y and he ecipien o he se ice.
131 ‘Eu opean Res uc u ing: Moni o Algo i hmic Managemen ’ (Eu o ound) <h ps://apps.eu o ound.eu opa.eu/legisla iondb/algo i h-
mic-managemen > accessed 18 No embe 2024.
132 A icle 29 Da a P o ec ion Wo king Pa y, Opinion 8/2001 on he p ocessing o pe sonal da a in he employmen con ex , 5062/01/
EN/Final WP 48. A icle 29 Wo king Pa y Wo king documen on su eillance and moni o ing o elec onic communica ions in he
wo kplace (WP55) 29 May 2002.
133 A icle 29 Wo king Pa y Opinion 2/2017 on da a p ocessing a wo k (WP 249) 8 June 2017 9 [emphasis added].
30 ILO Wo king Pape 149
Pa y when he GDPR ook e ec in 2018, has no ye o icially endo sed Opinion 2/2017.134 No
has he EDPB issued any speci ic guidelines ega ding wo kplace da a p o ec ion.
In i s ecen Guidelines on p ocessing o pe sonal da a based on A icle 6(1)( ) GDPR (legi ima e
in e es ), he EDPB ecognises ha he ‘employe -employee ela ionship will likely equi e an as-
sessmen ha is di e en om he one conce ning a se ice p o ide -cus ome ela ionship’.135
While i is commendable ha he EDPB acknowledges he dis inc na u e o he legi ima e in e -
es balancing es in he employmen con ex , he guidelines all sho in p o iding cla i ica ion
o applica ion in his con ex and hus o e s li le p ac ical help o employe s and wo ke s.
The Uni ed S a es’ app oach
A. P i acy and da a p o ec ion legisla ion
The Uni ed S a es’ app oach o p i acy and da a p o ec ion has a guably been shaped by he
1977 P i acy P o ec ion S udy Commission’s ecommenda ions. The Commission ad ised agains
an omnibus app oach, ins ead a ou ing sec o -speci ic egula ion. In he con ex o wo ke s’
p i acy, he Commission ecommended olun a y sel - egula ion.136 This decision has led o a
agmen ed egula o y landscape, wi h no comp ehensi e ede al p i acy and da a p o ec ion
amewo k. Ins ead, he US elies on a pa chwo k o ede al and s a e legisla ion and sel - egu-
la ion guidelines, o en a ge ing speci ic indus ies o issues. This agmen a ion is pa icula ly
p onounced when i comes o wo kplace p i acy law, as shall be discussed below.
Se e al e o s o in oduce comp ehensi e ede al da a p o ec ion law and employmen -speci -
ic laws ailed. In 1987, he O ice o Technology Assessmen published a comp ehensi e epo ,
‘The Elec onic Supe iso ’, a icula ing he isks ha wo kplace elec onic moni o ing posed o
wo ke s’ p i acy and o he igh s and eedoms.137 The s udy ecommended ha lawmake s in-
oduce speci ic ede al legisla ion o add ess hese conce ns, which led o he in oduc ion o
he P i acy o Consume s and Wo ke s Ac in 1991 be o e he House o Rep esen a i es.138 This
ambi ious legisla i e p oposal would ha e been he i s comp ehensi e wo kplace- ocused p i-
acy law had i been adop ed. I aimed o impose subs an i e limi a ions on employe moni o -
ing p ac ices ha could no be ci cum en ed e en wi h wo ke ’s consen , while o e ing wo ke s
p ocedu al p o ec ions, including p io no i ica ion and access igh s. The bill and subsequen
e o s we e unsuccess ul.
In ecen yea s, howe e , he p i acy and da a p o ec ion legal landscape in he US has begun o
change apidly wi h se e al legisla i e ini ia i es a bo h he ede al and s a e le els. F om 2023
o 2024 alone, mo e han six dozen ede al p i acy bills we e in oduced, mos o which a e sec-
o al.139 The la es ede al legisla i e e o is he ‘Ame ican P i acy Righ s Ac ’ o 2024, a comp e-
hensi e bill which aims o a o d Ame icans undamen al and en o ceable da a p i acy igh s,
la gely p e-emp ing he pa chwo k o s a e laws.140 Howe e , e en i he bill we e adop ed in o
law, which emains unlikely, he e is one signi ican omission‒ he bill explici ly excludes wo k-
e s’ da a om i s scope o applica ion.
134 ‘Endo sed WP29 Guidelines’ (Eu opean Da a P o ec ion Boa d) <h ps://www.edpb.eu opa.eu/ou -wo k- ools/gene al-guidance/en-
do sed-wp29-guidelines_en> accessed 29 Ma ch 2025.
135 Guidelines 1/2024 on p ocessing o pe sonal da a based on A icle 6(1)( ) GDPR (Ve sion 1.0, Adop ed on 8 Oc obe 2024).
136 ‘Pe sonal P i acy in an In o ma ion Socie y’ (n 9).
137 ‘The Elec onic Supe iso : New Technology, New Tensions’ (n 9).
138 S.3238 - P i acy o Consume s and Wo ke s Ac 102nd Cong ess (1991-1992).
139
iapp, ‘US S a e P i acy Legisla ion T acke : In oduced in he 118 h Cong ess (2023-2024)’ <h ps://iapp.o g/ esou ces/a icle/us-s a e-p i-
acy-legisla ion- acke /> accessed 12 No embe 2024.
140 H.R.8818 - Ame ican P i acy Righ s Ac o 2024, 118 h Cong ess (2023-2024).
31 ILO Wo king Pape 149
The e a e also wo kplace p i acy- ocused legisla i e bills, al hough i emains unce ain whe he
hese bills will become law. The ou bills in ended o egula e some aspec s o wo kplace p i acy
include he S op Spying Bosses Ac , No Robo Bosses Ac , P o ec ing Heal hca e Employee P i acy Ac ,
and Exploi a i e Wo kplace Su eillance and Technologies Task Fo ce Ac .141 Fo ins ance, he ‘S op
Spying Bosses Ac ’ o 2024 aims o p ohibi , o equi e disclosu e o , he su eillance, moni o -
ing, and collec ion o ce ain wo ke da a by employe s.142 This bill would manda e employe s
disclose comp ehensi e in o ma ion abou wo kplace su eillance p ac ices o hei wo ke s, in-
cluding job applican s. The disclosu e mus de ail wha da a a e collec ed, how, when and whe e
i ’s collec ed, he s o age loca ion, pu pose o use, as well as how such wo kplace su eillance
a ec s any employmen - ela ed decisions. The bill also s ipula es he iming, manne and p o-
cedu es o disclosu e. Addi ionally, he Exploi a i e Wo kplace Su eillance and Technologies
Task Fo ce Ac aims o es ablish an in e agency ask o ce on employe su eillance and wo k-
place echnologies.143
The US s a e p i acy law landscape has been equally apidly e ol ing. Be ween 2018 and 2024
alone, nine een US s a es ha e adop ed comp ehensi e da a p i acy laws, wi h mo e likely o
ollow.144 Wi h he excep ion o Cali o nia, howe e , hese US s a e laws explici ly exclude he
p ocessing o wo ke s’ pe sonal da a om hei scope o applica ion including wo ke s, employ-
ees, job applican s, independen con ac o s. Cali o nia became he i s s a e in 2023 o ex end
consume -like p i acy igh s o job applican s, employees, and independen con ac o s. The
Cali o nia Consume P i acy Ac (CCPA), enac ed in 2018, ini ially exemp ed wo ke s’ da a om i s
co e p i acy p o ec ion due o conce ns abou ope a ional complexi y o employe s and ex en-
si e lobbying by business. This exemp ion e lec ed he law’s o iginal ocus on consume ans-
ac ions a he han employmen ela ionships. Howe e , he Cali o nia P i acy Righ s Ac , which
amended he CCPA in 2020, allowed hese exemp ions o expi e on Janua y 1, 2023, ex ending
ull p i acy igh s o wo ke s. P io o 2023, employe s we e no equi ed o g an wo ke s igh s
such as da a access, dele ion, o op -ou om da a sales. The exemp ion’s sunse a ose om leg-
isla i e inac ion, as e o s o ex end i ailed in 2022, as well as he g owing ecogni ion o wo k-
place p i acy isk amid digi al moni o ing and algo i hmic managemen .
B. Labou law and o he sec o -speci ic legisla i e ules
The Na ional Labo Rela ions Ac (NLRA) p o ec s wo ke s’ igh s o o ganise and engage in col-
lec i e ac i i ies, p ohibi ing employe s om using su eillance ools o in e e e wi h unioniza-
ion e o s, while also manda ing anspa ency in epo ing su eillance cos s ela ed o labo
dispu es. As highligh ed below, he Na ional Labo Rela ions Boa d wa ned ha he use o wo k-
place su eillance and au oma ed decision making may un a oul o wo ke s’ exe cise o hei
igh s unde NLRA.
Addi ionally, he e a e speci ic p o isions and issue-speci ic laws ha egula e wo ke s’ p i acy and
da a p o ec ions. Fo example, se e al s a es ha e laws p ohibi ing audio o ideo eco ding in
wo ke s’ locke ooms, es ooms, o changing a eas.145 The Illinois Biome ic In o ma ion P i acy
Ac (BIPA) equi es employe s o p o ide no ice and ob ain consen when collec ing biome ic
141 Ibid.
142 H.R.7690 - S op Spying Bosses Ac , 118 h Cong ess (2023-2024).
143 S.2440 - Exploi a i e Wo kplace Su eillance and Technologies Task Fo ce Ac o 2023, 118 h Cong ess (2023-2024).
144 Jo dan F ancis, ‘Ana omy o S a e Comp ehensi e P i acy Law: Su eying he S a e P i acy Law Landscape and Recen Legisla i e
T ends’ (FPF US Legisla ion Repo 2024) <h ps:// p .o g/blog/ p -un eils- epo -on- he-ana omy-o -s a e-comp ehensi e-p i acy-
law/>.
145
See o ins ance, Cali o nia Code, Labo Code - LAB § 435; Wes Vi ginia’s Elec onic su eillance Ac , Sec 21-3-20; New Yo k Consolida ed
Laws, Labo Law - LAB § 203-c.
32 ILO Wo king Pape 149
in o ma ion om wo ke s.146 Simila ly, he Colo ado P i acy o Biome ic Iden i ie s and Da a Ac
es ic s he collec ion o wo ke s’ biome ic da a by employe s, na owly limi ing pe missible ea-
sons o ob aining consen o such da a.147 Some s a es such as Connec icu , Delawa e, and New
Yo k ha e also adop ed laws limi ing wo ke s’ email and elephone communica ion moni o ing.
148
Much o he wo kplace p i acy p o ec ion in he US is de i ed no om da a p o ec ion legisla-
ion, bu om he in luence o o he sec o al laws.149 Key legisla ion such as he Heal h Insu ance
Po abili y and Accoun abili y Ac (HIPAA), Ame icans wi h Disabili y Ac (ADA), and he Gene ic
In o ma ion Non-disc imina ion Ac (GINA) play c ucial oles in sa egua ding indi idual’s med-
ical and gene ic da a in he wo kplace. HIPAA manda es con iden iali y o wo ke s’ heal h da a
om g oup plans, while he ADA and i s s a e coun e pa s equi e employe s o keep medical
eco ds and heal h- ela ed in o ma ion o wo ke s con iden ial. GINA p ohibi s employmen de-
cisions, such as hi ing and i ing, based on gene ic in o ma ion, p ohibi s disc imina ion on he
basis o gene ic in o ma ion in any aspec o employmen decisions. I es ic s employe s om
eques ing, equi ing o pu chasing gene ic in o ma ion, and s ic ly limi s he disclosu e o ge-
ne ic in o ma ion.150 S a e-le el cybe secu i y laws also ex end da a b each no i ica ion equi e-
men s o he wo kplace.
C. Regula ing Algo i hmic managemen
A i icial in elligence has ecei ed signi ican egula o y a en ion a bo h he ede al and s a e
le els, wi h a leas 45 s a es ha ing ei he enac ed o p oposed laws o egula e AI.151 Many o
hese laws and p oposals a e ei he employmen - ocused o ha e gene al implica ions o he
use o algo i hmic managemen and au oma ed decision-making in he wo kplace.
A he ede al le el, he p oposed No Robo Bosses Ac 2024 aims o p e en use o au oma -
ed decision-making sys ems by employe s o speci ic pu poses.152 The Biden Adminis a ion’s
Whi e House’s Bluep in o an AI Bill o Righ s was a ede al ini ia i e which migh ha e had sig-
ni ican implica ions o wo kplace AI use.153 The Bluep in s a ed ha au oma ed sys ems wi h
an in ended use wi hin sensi i e domains, such as employmen , should be ailo ed o he pu -
pose, p o ide meaning ul access o o e sigh , include aining o any people in e ac ing wi h
he sys em, and inco po a e human in ol emen in ad e se o high- isk decisions. The bluep in ,
howe e , is now de unc .
A he s a e le el, New Yo k Ci y has pionee ed legisla ion go e ning he use o AI in employ-
men decisions, equi ing bias audi s, manda ing ha he esul s o such audi be made public,
and obliging employe s o p o ide no ice o wo ke s abou he use o such ools. Cali o nia p o-
posed he comp ehensi e Wo kplace Technology Accoun abili y Ac (AB 1651), which p ohibi s
he use o algo i hmic managemen o make p edic ions abou a wo ke ’s beha iou un ela ed
146 Illinois Biome ic In o ma ion P i acy Ac 2008.
147 HB24-1130-Conce ning P o ec ing he P i acy o an Indi idual’s Biome ic Da a.
148 Fo de ails on his, see Pe e S ockbu ge , ‘P i acy in he US Wo kplace – a Rapidly Changing Legal Landscape’ (DENTONS, 16 Feb ua y
2023) <h ps://www.den ons.com/en/insigh s/a icles/2023/ eb ua y/16/p i acy-in- he-us-wo kplace-a- apidly-changing-landscape>
accessed 29 Ma ch 2025.
149 ‘Wo kplace P i acy in US Fede al and S a e Laws and Policies | IAPP’ (IAPP) <h ps://iapp.o g/news/a/wo kplace-p i acy-in-us-laws-
and-policies> accessed 29 Ma ch 2025.
150
‘Gene ic In o ma ion Disc imina ion’ (US EEOC) <h ps://www.eeoc.go /gene ic-in o ma ion-disc imina ion> accessed 29 Ma ch 2025.
151
‘US S a e-by-S a e AI Legisla ion Snapsho ’ (BCLP) <h ps://www.bclplaw.com/en-US/e en s-insigh s-news/us-s a e-by-s a e-a i icial-in-
elligence-legisla ion-snapsho .h ml> accessed 29 Ma ch 2025.
152 H.R.7621 - No Robo Bosses Ac , 118 h Cong ess (2023-2024).
153 Bluep in o an AI Bill o Righ s: Making Au oma ed Sys ems Wo k o he Ame ican People, Oc obe 2022.
33 ILO Wo king Pape 149
o essen ial job unc ions, wo ke ’s emo ions, pe sonali y, o he likelihood o wo ke s exe cising
hei legal igh s.154 This ambi ious bill, howe e , has no become law.
New Yo k Ci y’s Local Law 144 (au oma ed employmen decision-making law), e ec i e since
Janua y 1, 2023, es ic s AI use in employmen decisions unless employe s ake ce ain ac ions
ega ding he use o AI ools. The law a ge s any au oma ed managemen ools ha subs an-
ially assis o eplace disc e iona y decision making in sc eening job applican s o employmen
o p omo ing wo ke s.155 Illinois enac ed he A i icial In elligence Video In e iew Ac in 2020,
egula ing how employe s can use AI and au oma ed decision-making sys ems o analyse id-
eo in e iews o job applican s.156 Addi ionally, he s a e passed HB 3773 in 2024, amending he
Illinois Human Righ s Ac . E ec i e as o Janua y 2026, his law will p ohibi AI use in a manne
ha esul s in illegal disc imina ion in employmen decisions and ec ui men as de ined unde
s a e law.157
D. Non-legisla i e egula ions and guidelines
In Oc obe 2022, he Na ional Labo Rela ions Boa d (NLRB) issued a memo wa ning employe s
agains he use o wo kplace su eillance and au oma ed decision making.
158
The memo desc ibed
a ious echnologies used o moni o wo ke s, including wea able de ices, came as, and com-
pu e acking so wa e. The Gene al Counsel exp essed conce n ha hese echnologies could
in e e e wi h wo ke s’ igh s unde he Na ional Labou Rela ions Ac , pa icula ly hei abili y
o engage in p o ec ed ac i i ies con iden ially, emphasising ha cons an su eillance and au o-
ma ed managemen may se e ely limi wo ke s’ abili y o exe cise hei igh s in he wo kplace.
Simila ly, in Oc obe 2024 he US Depa men o Labo published ‘AI and wo ke well-being:
p inciples and bes p ac ices o de elope and employe s.’159 This non-binding amewo k aims
o guide esponsible AI use in he wo kplace, ocusing on wo ke well-being and mi iga ing po-
en ial ha ms. The documen ou lines se e al key p inciples, including es ablishing go e nance
and human o e sigh , ensu ing anspa ency, and p o ec ing labo igh s. Addi ionally, he Equal
Employmen Oppo uni y Commission (EEOC) published a echnical assis ance documen ad-
d essing he implemen a ion o algo i hmic decision-making sys ems in employmen decisions.160
This guidance explains how he use o such echnologies by employe s could po en ially in inge
upon he p o ec ions se o h in he Ame icans wi h Disabili ies Ac . The guidance o e s a com-
p ehensi e o e iew o he po en ial legal pi alls associa ed wi h hese echnologies, highligh -
ing scena ios whe e hei use migh con lic wi h exis ing ADA egula ions.
The la es egula o y in e en ion in his a ea is he guidance issued by he US Consume Financial
P o ec ion Bu eau (CFPB) on 24 Oc obe 2024, aimed a p o ec ing wo ke s om unchecked digi al
154 AB-1651 Wo ke igh s: Wo kplace Technology Accoun abili y Ac .(2021-2022).
155 Local Law 144 o 2021, Au oma ed Employmen Decision Tools (AEDT).
156 Illinois A i icial In elligence Video In e iew Ac 2020.
157 HB3773 -The Illinois Human Righ s Ac .
158 ‘NLRB Gene al Counsel Issues Memo on Unlaw ul Elec onic Su eillance and Au oma ed Managemen P ac ices’ (Na ional Labo
Rela ions Boa d, 31 Oc obe 2022) <h ps://www.nl b.go /news-ou each/news-s o y/nl b-gene al-counsel-issues-memo-on-unlaw-
ul-elec onic-su eillance-and> accessed 10 No embe 2024.
159 ‘Depa men o Labo Releases AI Bes P ac ices Roadmap o De elope s, Employe s, Building on AI P inciples o Wo ke Well-Being’
(DOL, 16 Oc obe 2024) <h ps://www.dol.go /news oom/ eleases/osec/osec20241016> accessed 29 Ma ch 2025.
160
U.S. Equal Employmen Oppo uni y Commission, ‘The Ame icans wi h Disabili ies Ac and he Use o So wa e, Algo i hms, and A i icial
In elligence o Assess Job Applican s and Employees’ <h ps://www.eeoc.go /laws/guidance/ame icans-disabili ies-ac -and-use-so -
wa e-algo i hms-and-a i icial-in elligence>.
34 ILO Wo king Pape 149
acking and opaque decision-making sys ems.161 While i emains unce ain whe he such eg-
ula o y ini ia i es will con inue due o he cu en adminis a ion’s new measu es, he guidance
manda es ha companies using hi d-pa y consume epo s — including backg ound dossi-
e s and su eillance-based, ‘black box’ AI o algo i hmic sco es abou hei wo ke s — mus ol-
low Fai C edi Repo ing Ac ules. This equi es employe s o ob ain wo ke consen , p o ide
anspa ency abou da a used in ad e se decisions, and allow wo ke s o dispu e inaccu a e in-
o ma ion. The guidance add esses he use o epo s ex ending beyond adi ional backg ound
checks, including apps moni o ing wo ke conduc on hei pe sonal phones.
This e ol ing landscape e lec s a g owing ecogni ion o he need o p o ec wo ke s’ da a igh s,
pa icula ly in ligh o ad ancing echnologies such as algo i hmic managemen .
The Aus alian App oach
A. P i acy and da a p o ec ion legisla ion
Aus alia’s app oach o wo ke s’ da a p o ec ion is cha ac e ised by a complex in e play o ed-
e al, S a e and Te i o y legisla ion, wi h signi ican di e ences be ween public and p i a e sec-
o wo ke s. The p incipal piece o ede al legisla ion egula ing p i acy and da a p o ec ion in
Aus alia is he P i acy Ac 1988. The P i acy Ac , ini ially applicable only o go e nmen agencies
and ex ended o he p i a e sec o in 2000, se s ou equi emen s o pe sonal da a p o ec ion,
which apply o wo ke s’ pe sonal da a in he public sec o . Public sec o wo ke s enjoy he same
igh s and p o ec ions a o ded o all ci izens unde he P i acy Ac .
Howe e , p i a e sec o wo ke s, who cons i u e he la ge majo i y o Aus alians,162 a e no a -
o ded he same igh s and p o ec ions. The p i acy Ac exemp s he p ocessing o wo ke s’ pe -
sonal da a by p i a e sec o employe s i i is di ec ly ela ed o employmen pu poses.163 This
exemp ion means ha ‘p i a e sec o employe s’ a e no obliged o g an wo ke s access o hei
pe sonal da a, can p ocess wo ke s’ da a (including sensi i e da a) wi hou consen , and a e no
accoun able unde he P i acy Ac ’s da a b each no i ica ion scheme, e en i a da a b each esul s
in se ious p i acy ha m. P i a e sec o wo ke s ha e no means o ecou se unde he P i acy
Ac i hei pe sonal da a a e mishandled in he wo kplace. Fu he mo e, hey do no ha e he
igh o access hei da a unde he P i acy Ac o ensu e ai ness, p e en disc imina ion, and
co ec inaccu acies in hei pe sonal da a. This makes Aus alia an ou lie among coun ies wi h
comp ehensi e p i acy laws o speci ically exclude wo ke s’ pe sonal da a om he ope a ion
o such law.164 The P i acy Ac has been subjec o se e al inqui ies since i s adop ion and is un-
de going comp ehensi e e o m. One o he key issues in his e o m p ocess is whe he o e-
mo e he employmen exemp ion.
The policy a ionale o his exemp ion boils down o wo ela ed ques ions: (1) whe he p i a-
cy p o ec ion o wo ke s’ da a should be loca ed in he P i acy Ac o in ano he legal domain,
and (2) whe he wo kplace p i acy should be egula ed a he ede al le el o le o S a es and
Te i o ies.
161 ‘Consume Financial P o ec ion Ci cula 2024-06: Backg ound Dossie s and Algo i hmic Sco es o Hi ing, P omo ion, and O he
Employmen Decisions’ (Consume Financial P o ec ion Bu eau, 24 Oc obe 2024) <h ps://www.consume inance.go /compliance/
ci cula s/consume - inancial-p o ec ion-ci cula -2024-06-backg ound-dossie s-and-algo i hmic-sco es- o -hi ing-p omo ion-and-o h-
e -employmen -decisions/> accessed 29 Ma ch 2025.
162 ‘Fo You In o ma ion: Aus alian P i acy Law and P ac ice’ (Aus alian Law Re o m Commission (Vol 2, Repo 108) 2008).
163 P i acy Ac 1988 ss. 7(1)(ee) and 7B(3).
164 ‘Fo You In o ma ion: Aus alian P i acy Law and P ac ice’ (n 165).
35 ILO Wo king Pape 149
The Aus alian go e nmen conside s ha wo ke s’ p i acy is be e egula ed h ough wo k-
place ela ions legisla ion, no p i acy law.165 In 2000, when he P i acy Ac was amended o co -
e he p i a e sec o , he go e nmen a gued ha ‘while (wo ke s’ pe sonal da a) is dese ing
o p i acy p o ec ion, i is he Go e nmen ’s iew ha such p o ec ion is mo e p ope ly a ma e
o wo kplace ela ions legisla ion.’166
The Aus alian go e nmen also belie es ha egula ing wo kplace p i acy a he ede al le el
could c ea e unnecessa y o e lap wi h S a e and Te i o y laws. In ejec ing he ecommenda-
ions by he 2000 House o Rep esen a i es Commi ee inqui y o emo e he p i a e-sec o em-
ployee exemp ion, he Go e nmen s a ed ha :
The egula ion o employee eco ds is an a ea ha in e sec s wi h a numbe o S a e
and Te i o y laws on wo kplace ela ions, minimum employmen condi ions, wo ke s’
compensa ion and occupa ional heal h and sa e y, some o which al eady include p o-
isions p o ec ing he p i acy o employee eco ds. The Go e nmen conside s ha o
a emp o deal wi h employee eco ds in he [P i acy Amendmen (P i a e Sec o )] Bill
migh esul in an unaccep able le el o in e e ence wi h hose S a e and Te i o y laws,
and a con using mosaic o obliga ions.167
S akeholde s a e di ided on he policy a ionale o p i a e-sec o employees’ exemp ion om he
ope a ion o he P i acy Ac . Employe s and hei ep esen a i es a gue o e aining o s eng h-
ening he exemp ion, ci ing he exis ing policy a ionale and sugges ing ha any inadequacies
should be add essed in wo kplace ela ions legisla ion.168 In con as , o he s akeholde s includ-
ing p i acy ad oca es, p i acy au ho i ies, employee ep esen a i es and o he s suppo he e-
mo al o he exemp ions. The a gumen s agains he p i a e-sec o employees’ exemp ion om
he P i acy Ac a e nume ous and can be summa ised as ollows:
1. Lack o p i acy p o ec ion o p i a e sec o employees: P i a e-sec o employe s p ocess as
amoun s o da a, including sensi i e da a, ye employees a e le wi hou p o ec ion. P i a e-
sec o -employees may be unde economic p essu e o p o ide pe sonal in o ma ion o hei
employe s, e ec i ely lea ing hem wi hou choice. As highligh ed abo e, p i a e sec o em-
ployees ha e no means o ecou se unde he P i acy Ac i hei pe sonal da a is mishan-
dled in he wo kplace.
2.
Inadequacy o exis ing wo kplace legisla ion: While he p ima y policy a ionale o he exemp ion
was ha p i a e-sec o employees’ p i acy would be be e egula ed unde wo kplace ela-
ions legisla ion, he e is li le p i acy p o ec ion unde said legisla ion (see sub-sec. B below).
3. Di e en ial ea men : The P i acy Ac p o ec s public-sec o employees bu no hose em-
ployed in he p i a e sec o . The Aus alian Go e nmen Law Re o m Commission (AGLRC)
poin s ou ha his lack o p i acy p o ec ion o he majo i y o Aus alian employees is un-
jus i iable and ep esen s a signi ican gap in p i acy egula ion. The e is no sound policy o
165 ‘Go e nmen Response o he P i acy Ac Re iew Repo ’ (A o ney-Gene al’s Depa men 2023) <h ps://www.ag.go .au/ igh s-and-p o-
ec ions/publica ions/go e nmen - esponse-p i acy-ac - e iew- epo > accessed 29 Ma ch 2025; Explana o y Memo andum, P i acy
Amendmen (P i a e Sec o ) Bill 2000.
166 Commonweal h, Pa liamen a y Deba es, House o Rep esen a i es, 12 Ap il 2000, 15749 (D Williams—A o ney-Gene al), 15752. See
also Re ised Explana o y Memo andum, P i acy Amendmen (P i a e Sec o ) Bill 2000 (C h), 4, [109].
167 ‘Fo You In o ma ion: Aus alian P i acy Law and P ac ice (ALRC Repo 108) Vol.1’ (Aus alian Law Re o m Commission 2008) <h ps://
www.al c.go .au/publica ion/ o -you -in o ma ion-aus alian-p i acy-law-and-p ac ice-al c- epo -108/> accessed 29 Ma ch 2025.
168 Fo ins ance, in hei submission o he call o Re iew o he P i acy Ac 1988, he Aus alian Chambe o Comme ce and Indus y
(ACCI) and Aus alian Indus y G oup submi ed ha he exemp ion should be e ained in i s cu en o m. See ‘Published Responses
o P i acy Ac Re iew – Discussion Pape ’ (- A o ney-Gene al’s Depa men ) <h ps://consul a ions.ag.go .au/ igh s-and-p o ec ions/
p i acy-ac - e iew-discussion-pape /consul a ion/published_selec _ esponden ?_b_index=120> accessed 29 Ma ch 2025.
36 ILO Wo king Pape 149
his di e en ial ea men o o ea ing employees’ da a di e en ly om o he pe sonal da-
a.169 The le el o isk o indi iduals’ p i acy igh s depends on he na u e, scale and ype o
da a p ocessed a he han he size o ype o he o ganisa ion handling i .
4. Regula o y inconsis ency: Re aining he exemp ion would likely lead o u he agmen a ion
o p i acy egula ion ac oss S a es and Te i o ies ha ha e enac ed legisla ion egula ing
wo kplace p i acy. While he ede al P i acy Ac excludes p i a e sec o employees’ da a, some
S a e and Te i o y laws p o ide limi ed p o ec ion (see below).
5. Lack o meaning ul ecou se: The employmen exemp ion unde he P i acy Ac means ha
he O ice o he Aus alian In o ma ion Commissione (OAPC) canno in es iga e complain s
om p i a e-sec o employees ega ding mishandled pe sonal da a. Consequen ly, he OAPC
epo ed closing a signi ican numbe o complain s due o lack o ju isdic ion (sub-sec. C be-
low). In one ins ance, he OAPC epo ed:
‘An employee’s pe sonal in o ma ion was mishandled and s olen om he esponden ’s
o ices ( he employe ). The pe sonal in o ma ion was hen used o commi iden i y aud.
The OAIC could no in es iga e whe he he pe sonal in o ma ion had been app op i-
a ely secu ed by he esponden as he in o ma ion was con ained in an employee e-
co d.’170
6. Inconsis ency wi h In e na ional s anda ds: The exemp ion has been an obs acle o he EU de-
e mining ha Aus alia’s p i acy laws a e adequa e o he pu pose o c oss-bo de da a low
unde he GDPR. The EU has long held ha his and o he exemp ions unde he P i acy Ac
could p e en an adequacy inding, s a ing ha comp ehensi e da a p o ec ion law should
apply o all da a p ocessing ac i i ies, ega dless o he o ganisa ion’s size o ype.171
Due o hese issues, se e al s akeholde s ha e ad oca ed o he emo al o he employmen
exemp ion unde he P i acy Ac o ensu e maximum co e age o agencies, i ms, and o ganisa-
ions and o p omo e consis ency. They con end ha he P i acy Ac is a mo e app op ia e eg-
ula o y amewo k o add ess p i acy isks han wo kplace ela ions laws, which p ima ily ocus
on wo king condi ions such as ensu ing co ec wages and en i lemen s.172
The e o m p ocess o Aus alia’s p i acy landscape is ongoing. In Feb ua y 2023, he A o ney-
Gene al eleased he inal P i acy Ac Re iew Repo , ecommending modi ying he exemp ion
o ex end enhanced p i acy p o ec ions o p i a e sec o employees while main aining lexibil-
i y o employe s. The Go e nmen ini ially ‘ag eed in-p inciple’ wi h his p oposal, s a ing ha
u he consul a ion should be unde aken.173 Despi e his appa en p og ess, he newly in o-
duced legisla ion e ains he exemp ion, lea ing p i a e sec o employees wi hou he p o ec ions
a o ded o hei public sec o coun e pa s.174 This would mean ha public employees would
con inue o enjoy a highe le el o p i acy p o ec ion han he majo i y o Aus alian wo ke s
employed in p i a e sec o .
Al hough Aus alia lacks comp ehensi e ede al legisla ion add essing wo kplace p i acy, S a es
and Te i o ies can enac hei own wo kplace- ocused p i acy laws. Unde Aus alian law, wo k-
place p i acy law alls unde indus ial ela ions legisla ion, wi h he p ima y law being he Fai
169 ibid.
170 ‘P i acy Ac Re iew – Discussion Pape ’ (Submission by he O ice o he Aus alian In o ma ion Commissione 2020) <h ps://www.
oaic.go .au/engage-wi h-us/submissions/p i acy-ac - e iew-issues-pape -submission/pa -4-exemp ions> accessed 29 Ma ch 2025.
171 Fo submissions by he WP29 and he Commission, see ‘Published Responses o P i acy Ac Re iew – Discussion Pape ’ (n 171).
172 Submission by he O ice o he Aus alian In o ma ion Commissione , 23 Decembe 2021
173 ‘Go e nmen Response o he P i acy Ac Re iew Repo ’ (n 168).
174 P i acy and O he Legisla ion Amendmen Ac 2024 (NO. 128, 2024).
37 ILO Wo king Pape 149
Wo k Ac 2009. Fo ins ance, Sec ion 27(2)(m) o he Fai Wo k Ac exp essly p ese es he legis-
la i e capaci y o S a es and Te i o ies o egula e ‘wo kplace su eillance’. Howe e , only h ee
ju isdic ions‒ New Sou h Wales (NSW), he Aus alian Capi al Te i o y (ACT), and Vic o ia ‒ ha e
legisla ed speci ically on wo kplace su eillance o a ying deg ees, applicable o bo h p i a e
and public en i ies.
The S a e o Vic o ia’s Su eillance De ices (Wo kplace P i acy) Ac 2006, which amends he Su eillance
De ices Ac 1999 o make i applicable in wo kplaces, p o ides limi ed physical p i acy o wo k-
e s. I p ohibi s employe s om using op ical, acking and da a su eillance de ices in sensi i e
wo kplace a eas like oile s and change ooms.175 I also p ohibi s he use o op ical su eillance
o lis ening and acking de ices in ce ain ci cums ances by employe s.176 Simila ly, he NSW
Wo kplace Su eillance Ac 2005 and ACT Wo kplace P i acy Ac 2011 bo h equi e employe s o gi e
p io no ice o employees o ce ain ypes o su eillance, including op ical su eillance (such as
CCTV, came a, and ideo moni o ing), da a su eillance such as compu e moni o ing o emails
and websi es accessed, and acking su eillance such as GPS acking and ins alling apps on mo-
bile phones. These S a e and Te i o y laws a e limi ed in scope and he ma e s hey egula e.
B. Labou law and o he legisla i e ules
While he policy a ionale o he P i acy Ac ’ exemp ion was ha wo ke s’ p i acy would be be -
e egula ed h ough wo kplace ela ions legisla ion, he Fai Wo k Ac 2009, which is he p i-
ma y ede al legisla ion go e ning his a ea, o e s only e y limi ed p i acy p o ec ions. The Fai
Wo k Ac equi es employe s o keep ce ain employee eco ds o inspec ion pu poses, bu i
does no di ec ly add ess p i acy igh s.177 I ocuses on eco d keeping and compliance wi h
wo kplace laws a he han p o ec ion o p i acy.178
In ac , he Fai Wo k Ac makes se e al e e ences s a ing ha a ious p i acy- ela ed issues
may be egula ed unde he P i acy Ac . Consequen ly, he ole o he Fai Wo k Ac e sus he
P i acy Ac in he wo kplace emains unce ain, as demons a ed in he case o Je emy Lee
Supe io Wood P y L d.179 A 2019 Fai Wo k Commission decision in Je emy Lee Supe io Wood P y
L d illus a es he egula o y unce ain y c ea ed by he P i acy Ac ’s exemp ion. The Full Bench
uled ha an employe ’s di ec ion o an employee o submi o inge p in scanning o eco d
a endance iola ed he employee’s igh o wi hhold consen o sensi i e in o ma ion collec-
ion unde he P i acy Ac . Acco ding o his decision, he P i acy Ac ’s exemp ion only applies
a e an employee’s da a ha e been collec ed; i does no apply o eco ds ha did no ye exis .
This case is signi ican due o he apid de elopmen o biome ic da a collec ion echnologies
in he wo kplace. As Pe e Holland poin ed ou , i unde sco es he lack o legisla i e cla i y and
a bi a y na u e o legal p o ec ion su ounding such da a collec ion.180
Fu he mo e, Sec ion 205 o he Fai Wo k Ac equi es all en e p ise ag eemen s o include a e m
manda ing he employe consul employees’ ep esen a i es abou a majo wo kplace change
likely o ha e a signi ican e ec on employees (such as e mina ion, al e na ion o wo king hou s,
175 Su eillance De ices Ac 1999 (as amended in 2006) s 9B.
176 The S a e o Vic o ia has launched a new inqui y in o wo kplace su eillance wi h unions p oposing new s andalone legisla ion lim-
i ing su eillance agains wo ke s. See ‘Submissions - Inqui y in o Wo kplace Su eillance’ (Pa liamen o Vic o ia) <h ps://www.pa -
liamen . ic.go .au/ge -in ol ed/inqui ies/inqui yin owo kplacesu eillance/submissions/> accessed 29 Ma ch 2025.
177 The basis o hese p o isions is o ensu e eco ds a e a ailable o inspec ion by wo kplace inspec o s and au ho ised union o icials
o ensu e compliance wi h wo kplace laws.
178 ‘P i acy Ac Re iew Repo 2022’ (Aus alian Go e nmen A o ney Gene al’s Depa men ).
179 Je emy Lee Supe io Wood P y L d [2019] FWCFB 2946 (1 May 2019).
180 Pe e Holland, ‘Wo kplace Biome ic: Majo Weaknesses in P o ec ing Employee P i acy (Submission P i acy Ac Re iew – Discussion
Pape )’ <h ps://consul a ions.ag.go .au/ igh s-and-p o ec ions/p i acy-ac - e iew-discussion-pape /consul a ion/ iew_ esponden ?_b_
index=0&uuId=457461490> accessed 29 Ma ch 2025.
44 ILO Wo king Pape 149
The e o e, a undamen al challenge in exis ing wo ke s’ da a p o ec ion lies in he applica ion
o consume -o ien ed, indi idualis ic p i acy and da a p o ec ion amewo ks o employmen
con ex s. Fo ins ance, he GDPR es ablishes gene al da a p o ec ion p inciples and legal bases
ha apply uni o mly ac oss con ex s. Howe e , hese p o isions may ope a e di e en ly in em-
ploymen se ings due o inhe en powe imbalances. Fo ins ance, while consen is a p ominen
legal basis unde he GDPR, i s alidi y in employmen con ex s is ques ionable gi en he eco-
nomic p essu e wo ke s ace. Recognising his issue, p oposals du ing he GDPR’s de elopmen
included p o isions o exclude consen as a alid legal basis o p ocessing wo ke s’ pe sonal
da a, hough hese p o isions we e ul ima ely no inco po a ed.
By applying consume -o ien ed amewo ks o employmen con ex s wi hou accoun ing o
hei unique cha ac e is ics, egula o s ail o add ess he speci ic ulne abili ies wo ke s ace
ega ding hei da a igh s. In o he wo ds, he legisla ion ha p o ec s us as consume s alls
sho in p o ec ing us as wo ke s.209
Complex o e lap wi h o he legal ields
Does he p o ec ion o wo ke s’ da a all unde da a p o ec ion legisla ion o labou law, whe e
he employmen ela ions a e go e ned? The p o ec ion o wo ke s’ da a si s a he in e sec-
ion o mul iple legal domains, including da a p o ec ion law, labou law, OSH, eme ging digi-
al egula ions (e.g., AI egula ions) and o he sec o -speci ic laws o e ing indi ec o inciden al
p o ec ions. This o e lap can esul in egula o y unce ain y, con adic ions, and en o cemen
challenges. While ecognising hese complex webs o ele an legal domains, his sec ion ocus-
es on he in e ac ion be ween labou law and da a p o ec ion and he esul ing challenges and
oppo uni ies in p o ec ing wo ke s’ da a igh s.
In some ju isdic ions, o ins ance Aus alia, he egula ion o wo ke s’ p i acy and da a p o ec ion
igh s alls unde labou law a he han da a p o ec ion legisla ion. As discussed abo e (Sec ion
4.2.3), one o he policy a ionales o he exemp ion o p i a e-sec o wo ke s’ da a om he
scope o he P i acy Ac is ha wo ke s’ p i acy is conside ed be e egula ed h ough wo kplace
ela ions legisla ion a he han p i acy law. Howe e , p i acy ad oca es, p i acy au ho i ies, and
wo ke s’ ep esen a i es in Aus alia a gue ha he P i acy Ac is a mo e app op ia e egula o-
y amewo k o add ess p i acy isks han wo kplace ela ions laws, which p ima ily ocus on
wo king condi ions such as ensu ing co ec wages and en i lemen s.210
The si ua ion sligh ly di e s in Eu ope. In i s Opinion 8/2001, he WP29 emphasised ha he p o-
ec ion o wo ke s’ da a alls p ima ily wi hin he scope o da a p o ec ion legisla ion a he han
labou law while acknowledging ‘ he necessa y in e ac ion be ween he wo’. The Wo king Pa y
a gued ha ‘da a p o ec ion law does no ope a e in isola ion om labou law and p ac ice, and
labou law and p ac ice does no ope a e in isola ion om da a p o ec ion law’. While he ex en
and p ecise na u e o his in e ac ion a ies be ween Membe S a es, he Wo king Pa y no ed:
1. The inc easing use o ad anced echnologies in he wo kplace ampli ies his in e ac ion be-
cause employmen p ac ices ely mo e and mo e on pe sonal da a p ocessing subjec o gen-
e al da a p o ec ion p inciples;
209 Townsend (n 210).
210 See ‘Submissions - Inqui y in o Wo kplace Su eillance’ (n 179).
45 ILO Wo king Pape 149
2. No all p oblems a ising in employmen con ex s in ol ing pe sonal da a p ocessing a e ex-
clusi ely ela ed o da a p o ec ion;
3.
This in e ac ion is necessa y and aluable, assis ing in de eloping solu ions ha p ope ly p o
-
ec wo ke s’ in e es s.
Despi e di ided opinions among s akeholde s ega ding how labou and da a p o ec ion laws
should in e ac , he e is a clea consensus ha hei o e lap is una oidable. Wo ke s’ da a p o-
ec ion alls unde bo h labou law and da a p o ec ion law, while o he ields o law also o e
di ec o inciden al p o ec ions. This c oss-cu ing na u e has become inc easingly p onounced
wi h new echnologies such as algo i hmic managemen , which blu s adi ional legal bounda-
ies and c ea es a complex egula o y landscape.
The in e sec ion c ea es aluable oppo uni ies as di e en a eas o law can complemen each
o he o o e wo ke s comp ehensi e p o ec ions. As he WP29 explici ly acknowledged, in-
eg a ing labou law and da a p o ec ion legisla ion is ‘necessa y and aluable’ o de eloping
solu ions ha p ope ly p o ec wo ke s’ in e es s. E ec i e p o ec ion o wo ke s’ da a igh s
hus equi es eimagining da a go e nance ac oss disciplines by combining legal amewo ks
and coo dina ing egula o y bodies. This in e disciplina y app oach is e iden in cases like Ube
Ams e dam, whe e pla o m wo ke s u ilised he GDPR’s da a access igh s o s eng hen hei
collec i e ba gaining posi ion. This app oach can also shed ligh on he inne wo kings o he al-
go i hmic managemen ools wi h signi ican impac on wo king condi ions.
Howe e , his o e lap also p esen s signi ican challenges due o di e ging legal adi ions, con-
cep s and objec i es. Labou law adi ionally a ou s collec i e solu ions o e indi idualis ic ap-
p oaches by ecognising wo ke s’ unequal ba gaining powe and emphasising non-wai able
minimum s anda d ac oss wo kplaces. In con as , da a p o ec ion law o en akes a mo e indi-
idualis ic app oach.
The o e lap be ween hese legal domains blu s es ablished ca ego ies, po en ially causing wo k-
e s’ da a igh s o all h ough he c acks. Da a p o ec ion law may be oo gene ic o add ess
speci ic employmen issues, while labou law may be oo speci ic o comp ehensi ely co e all
da a p o ec ion conce ns in he wo kplace. Fu he mo e, en o cemen con usion a ises when
au ho i ies lack clea ju isdic ion o expe ise o add ess hyb id issues e ec i ely. Achie ing co-
he ence ac oss o e lapping legal ins umen s emains a signi ican challenge, highligh ing he
need o sec o -speci ic, employmen - ocused da a p o ec ion egula ions o b idge gaps and
p o ide comp ehensi e p o ec ions o wo ke s.
S uc u al legal de ici s
The challenges c ea ed by he in e sec ion o labou law and exis ing da a p o ec ion egula ions
ul ima ely esul in wha Eina Albin calls ‘s uc u al legal de ici ’.211 Albin iden i ies a h ee- ie
s uc u al de ici unde mining wo ke s’ da a igh s:
1.
Labou law amewo ks ea wo kplace echnologies as employe -owned commodi ies, g an -
ing b oad p e oga i es o deploy hem wi h minimal legal cons ain s —legi imising ex ensi e
da a collec ion and analysis as pa o employe au ho i y while ampli ying powe imbalances.
211 Albin (n 106).
46 ILO Wo king Pape 149
2.
Da a p o ec ion laws such as he GDPR inadequa ely add ess labou -speci ic dynamics by ea -
ing wo ke s as consume s o da a subjec s wi hou in eg a ing labou law p inciples e ec i ely.
3. Consequen ly, wo kplace- ela ed da a go e nance emains de ached om labou law’s col-
lec i e mechanisms such as collec i e ba gaining.
Albin a gues ha his h ee old de ici ‒ oo ed in employe -cen ic echnology adop ion, indi id-
ualis ic app oaches in da a p o ec ion laws, and exclusion o collec i e ools‒ c ea es sys emic
ulne abili ies o wo ke s.
Wo kplace exemp ions
Wo kplace exemp ions ep esen one o he mos signi ican egula o y gaps ac oss ju isdic ions,
pa icula ly in coun ies like he US and Aus alia. These exemp ions c ea e subs an ial ulne a-
bili y o wo ke s by excluding employmen - ela ed da a om p o ec ions applicable elsewhe e.
In Aus alia, o ins ance, he egula o y dis inc ion be ween public and p i a e-sec o wo ke s
c ea es an inequi able sys em whe e go e nmen wo ke s ecei e p o ec ion unde he P i acy
Ac , while he p i a e sec o wo ke s a e explici ly exemp ed. This di ision has been main ained
despi e se e al e o m a emp s, pe pe ua ing a signi ican gap o mos Aus alian wo ke s. Such
exemp ions pe pe ua e a wo- ie ed sys em whe e public sec o wo ke s enjoy g ea e igh s
han hei p i a e sec o coun e pa s. Excluding wo ke s’ p i acy igh s om b oade p i acy
and da a p o ec ion laws wi hou ensu ing equi alen p o ec ions in wo kplace ela ions ules
demons a es a p io i isa ion o comme cial in e es s o e wo ke igh s.
F agmen ed egula o y amewo ks and en o cemen challenges
Wo ke s’ da a p o ec ion also aces signi ican challenges due o agmen ed, inconsis en , and
complex egula o y amewo ks ac oss ju isdic ions, compounded by en o cemen gaps and
o e lapping manda es. This sys emic inadequacy unde mines legal ce ain y and comp ehen-
si e p o ec ions as wo kplace echnologies e ol e.
The EU’s app oach combines he GDPR, labou laws, indus ial ela ions, eme ging digi al egu-
la ions (e.g. AI Ac , Pla o m Wo k Di ec i e) and o he sec o -speci ic laws o e ing indi ec p o-
ec ions, c ea ing a agmen ed sys em wi h di e gen subs an i e sa egua ds. I emains un-
ce ain how he GDPR, AI Ac , and he Pla o m Wo k Di ec i e in e ac wi h each o he as well
as wi h na ional ules. Fu he mo e, A icle 88(1) o he GDPR could inad e en ly os e legal
inconsis ency ac oss he EU unless s ic ly applied unde A icle 88(2) based on he c i e ia a ic-
ula ed by he CJEU (see Sec ion 4.2.1).
The US and Aus alia ep esen he mos pa chy egula o y landscape cha ac e ised by a com-
plex web o agmen ed and inconsis en ede al and s a e legisla ion. The US lacks a ede al
p i acy law, elying ins ead on a ious sec o -speci ic egula ions and s a e laws ha equen ly
exclude wo kplace da a. Much o he wo kplace p i acy p o ec ion in he US is de i ed no om
da a p o ec ion legisla ion, bu om he in luence o o he sec o al laws. Aus alia’s app oach o
wo ke s’ da a p o ec ion is cha ac e ised by a complex in e play o ede al, S a e and Te i o y
legisla ion, wi h signi ican di e ences be ween public and p i a e sec o wo ke s.
The piecemeal app oach o wo ke s’ da a p o ec ion exhibi ed ac oss ju isdic ions is u he
compounded by he en i onmen o mul iple egula o y au ho i ies wi h po en ially o e lap-
ping manda es and en o cemen gaps. In he EU, da a p o ec ion au ho i ies (DPAs), which a e
esponsible o en o cing wo kplace da a p o ec ion ules, lack labou law expe ise and a ely
47 ILO Wo king Pape 149
p io i ise wo kplace issue— only 1 o 11 DPAs s udied included wo ke s’ da a in hei 2023 s a-
egic plans. On he o he hand, labou o ganisa ions and collec i es do no p io i ise da a p o-
ec ion and da a go e n ance as hey mos ly con side hese issues no o be wo kplace issues
bu ins ead hose o indi idual p i acy.212 While ha ms om wo kplace echnologies o en e-
qui e in e sec ional en o cemen ac oss equali y, labou , and da a p o ec ion laws, siloed agen-
cies s uggle o coo dina e.
Simila ly, he US has mul iple egula o y agencies wi h o e lapping ju isdic ions and a ying de-
g ees o ulemaking and en o cemen powe s. A he ede al le el, agencies such as he Fede al
T ade Commission (FTC), Fede al Communica ions Commission (FCC), Na ional Labo Rela ions
Boa d (NLRB), Consume Financial P o ec ion Bu eau (CFPB), and Depa men o Heal h and
Human Se ices (HHS) all play oles in en o cing di e en aspec s o da a p o ec ion and p i acy
laws. The en o cemen powe s o hese egula o s depend on he speci ic s a u es unde e iew
as well as egula ions, o he ins umen s, and en o cemen p io i ies, leading o a pa chwo k o
ules ha can be di icul o na iga e and en o ce consis en ly. A he s a e le el, he landscape
is equally a ied. Cali o nia has aken a pionee ing s ep by es ablishing he Cali o nia P i acy
P o ec ion Agency (CPPA), he i s dedica ed p i acy egula o in he US. This mo e ep esen s
a signi ican shi owa ds mo e obus and specialised p i acy en o cemen . Howe e , o he
s a es con inue o ely on hei A o neys Gene al and o he agencies o conduc ulemaking o
en o cemen ac ions ela ed o iola ions o hei espec i e da a p o ec ion and p i acy laws.
Mo eo e , hei egula ions and en o cemen s a egies change be ween adminis a ions mak-
ing i e en mo e complex and agmen a y.
Aus alia’s egula o y amewo k c ea es pa icula challenges h ough he di ision be ween
p i a e and public sec o employee p o ec ions and he o e lapping ju isdic ions o egula o-
y au ho i ies. The e is a disag eemen among Aus alian s akeholde s on whe he wo kplace
p i acy should be egula ed by p i acy law o wo kplace ela ions laws. Al hough he Fai Wo k
Ac 2009 p o ides e y li le p o ec ion, ju isdic ion o p i a e sec o employee p i acy ma e s
is con e ed on he Fai Wo k Ombudsman a he han he OAIC.213 The P i acy Ac ’s exemp-
ion, combined wi h his egula o y unce ain y, c ea es con usion o employees abou which
au ho i y o app oach and which laws apply o hei si ua ions. The ac ha p i acy p o ec ions
o employees alls unde wo kplace ela ions laws cons ains he ole o he OAIC in ela ion o
p i acy complain s, en o cemen o p i acy obliga ions and de elopmen o p i acy codes in he
employmen con ex . This unce ain y could lead o he Fai Wo k Ombudsman and he OAIC
aking opposing iews in ela ion o he same p i acy complain . I may also c ea e con usion o
employees abou which egula o o complain o o which law applies o hei ma e , illus a ed
by he signi ican numbe o complain s he OAIC ecei es conce ning p i a e-sec o employ-
ees’ p i acy. The OAIC o en no es i s lack o s a u o y powe o in es iga e complain s i ecei es
conce ning wo kplace p i acy o p i a e-sec o employees: ‘The OAIC ecei ed a complain ha
a o me employe allegedly disclosed ha he complainan had been suspended om hei job
h ough an au o eply email ha was connec ed o hei wo k add ess. The OAIC could no in es-
iga e his ma e due o he employee eco ds exemp ion.’214
In conclusion, he p o ec ion o wo ke s’ da a igh s in he ju isdic ions examined emains inad-
equa e, pa chy, inconsis en , complex, and mul i-laye ed, making i di icul o na iga e.
212 Jus in Noga ede, Michael ‘Six’ Silbe man and Joanna B onowicka, ‘Imp o ing Wo kplace Da a P o ec ion: Achie ing Wo kplace GDPR
Compliance, Cla i ying Na ional Wo kplace Da a P o ec ion Rules, and Enhancing Wo ke Da a P o ec ion h ough Social Dialogue’
(F ied ich-Ebe -S i ung 2024).
213 ‘P i acy Ac Re iew – Discussion Pape ’ (n 173).
214 ibid.
48 ILO Wo king Pape 149
X5 The u u e o wo ke s’ da a igh s: owa ds a
balanced egula o y app oach
The egula o y amewo ks o wo ke s’ da a p o ec ion ac oss he ju isdic ions e eal signi i-
can gaps and challenges ha unde mine e ec i e p o ec ion. S uc u al ba ie s, wo kplace
exemp ions, inapp op ia e applica ion o consume -o ien ed amewo ks o employmen con-
ex s, o e lapping legal ields, and agmen ed egula o y sys ems all con ibu e o a landscape
whe e wo ke s’ da a igh s emain inadequa ely p o ec ed.
These issues a e pa icula ly conce ning gi en he apid ad ancemen o wo kplace su eillance
echnologies and algo i hmic managemen sys ems ha pose new and e ol ing isks o wo k-
e s’ p i acy, digni y and au onomy.
Fu u e egula o y app oaches mus add ess hese undamen al challenges o ensu e ha wo k-
e s ecei e app op ia e and consis en da a p o ec ion. This will equi e g ea e ha monisa ion
o s anda ds, emo al o wo kplace exemp ions, clea delinea ion o egula o y au ho i ies’ e-
sponsibili ies, and ecogni ion o he unique powe imbalance inhe en in employmen ela ions
ha is u he ein o ced by ad anced echnologies and managemen sys ems.
The necessi y o specialised da a p o ec ion legisla ion
While o he a eas o law emain ele an , da a p o ec ion law holds a cen al ole in egula ing
wo kplace echnologies due o he as amoun s o da a unde pinning hese sys ems. P ope ly
designed and en o ced wo ke s’ da a p o ec ion law could se e as a powe ul ool o mi iga e
isks posed by algo i hmic managemen , digi al moni o ing, and o he eme ging echnologies.
Mo eo e , he apid digi alisa ion o wo kplaces and adop ion o ad anced su eillance and de-
cision-making echnologies expose c i ical gaps in omnibus da a p o ec ion amewo ks like
he GDPR, unde sco ing he u gen need o specialised ules ailo ed o employmen ela ions.
While omnibus egula ions o e baseline p o ec ions, hey all sho in add essing he unique
complexi ies o labou ela ions and he no el isks associa ed wi h digi alisa ion in he wo k-
place. Exis ing da a p o ec ion laws o en lack p o isions speci ic o wo kplace con ex s o ail o
add ess he nuanced equi emen s o labou ela ions. E en laws wi h explici wo kplace-spe-
ci ic p o isions emain insu icien o ackle he complexi ies inhe en in employmen ela ion-
ships. Regula ing wo kplace da a is inhe en ly in e wined wi h egula ing labou condi ions; as
schola s ha e emphasised, da a collec ion and use in employmen se ings is mo e abou wo k-
ing condi ions han adi ional da a p o ec ion conce ns.215 Despi e his eali y, cu en egula-
ions a e a ely designed wi h labou ela ions in mind, e lec ing he endency o ea wo ke s
as consume s.216
This inadequacy highligh s he u gen need o ailo ed ules ha p io i ize wo ke s’ da a igh s
and e lec he eali ies o mode n employmen . These ules should add ess he eali ies o em-
ploymen , including wo ke s’ unequal ba gaining powe , and emphasise non-wai able minimum
215 Calacci and S ein (n 211).
216 Albin (n 106).
49 ILO Wo king Pape 149
s anda ds ac oss wo kplaces. Impo an ly, such egula ions mus be in o med by labou law
p inciples a he han consume -o ien ed app oaches, ensu ing ha p o ec ions a e meaning-
ul wi hin he employmen con ex s.217
The impe a i e o wo kplace-speci ic da a p o ec ion ules in o med by labou law p inciples is
ecognised by he ILO’s Code o P ac ice. Acknowledging he undamen al na u e o wo ke s’
igh s and he inhe en powe dynamics o employmen ela ions, he Code o P ac ice p esc ibes
ha wo ke s’ da a igh s a e non-wai able218‒ a s ance ha con as s wi h mode n consume -o i
-
en ed da a p o ec ion egimes.
In his ega d, i is p omising o obse e a enewed ocus on wo ke s’ da a igh s and eme ging
pa hways o imp o emen . Fo ins ance, Ge many’s d a Employee Da a P o ec ion Ac 2024
aims o add ess gaps in wo kplace-speci ic da a p o ec ion, esponding o legal unce ain ies
highligh ed by ecen cou ulings. Simila ly, he EU’s Pla o m Wo k Di ec i e (PWD) es ablish-
es a comp ehensi e amewo k o egula ing wo kplace digi al moni o ing and algo i hmic
managemen in pla o m wo k. While i s scope is limi ed o pla o m wo ke s, he PWD o e s
a bluep in o u u e legisla i e ad ancemen s in his a ea. Toge he , hese ini ia i es signal a
g owing ecogni ion o he need o obus legal amewo ks ailo ed o p o ec wo ke s’ igh s
in an inc easingly digi alised wo ld.
In e ms o subs an i e con en , i is ecommended ha wo kplace-speci ic egula ions add ess
he key elemen s desc ibed below.
Cla i ying he pe sonal scope o wo kplace da a p o ec ion ules
Wo kplace da a p o ec ion ules mus adop a comp ehensi e app oach, encompassing he en i e
employmen ela ionship and sa egua ding all wo ke s, ega dless o hei legal s a us o na u e
o hei employe o ganisa ion. Digi al moni o ing in he wo kplace o en unc ions as a con in-
uous eedback loop‒ beginning p e-hi e phase, pe mea ing daily wo k ac i i ies, and equen ly
ex ending in o pos -employmen . Consequen ly, wo kplace da a p o ec ion ules should apply
uni o mly o job applican s, employees, independen con ac o s, and ex-employees o ensu e
consis en p o ec ions h oughou all s ages o he employmen ela ionship.
The Pla o m Wo k Di ec i e, which seeks o egula e algo i hmic managemen on digi al la-
bou pla o ms, no ably excludes adi ional employees om i s pe sonal scope. This exclusion
c ea es an incohe en egula o y en i onmen ha places many wo ke s in legal unce ain y.219
Sa egua ding human digni y, legi ima e in e es s and undamen al igh s o wo ke s should no
depend on he legal na u e o he employmen ela ionship. Unless explici ly s a ed o he wise
(such as in cases whe e collec i e igh s a e exclusi ely ese ed o ade unions) and wi hou
p ejudice o na ional peculia i ies, wo kplace da a ules should apply o all ypes o wo ke s i -
espec i e o hei employmen s a us.
Simila ly, adop ing a wo- ie ed amewo k ha di e en ia es be ween public and p i a e-sec o
wo ke s’ da a isks agmen ed p o ec ions ha ail o uphold consis en s anda ds ac oss wo k-
places. Wo kplace da a p o ec ion ules should a oid such di e en ial ea men o ensu e ai ness
and uni o mi y in sa egua ding wo ke s’ da a igh s ac oss all sec o s and employmen con ex s.
217 Recommenda ion No. R (89) 2.
218 ILO Code o p ac ice on he p o ec ion o wo ke s’ pe sonal da a 1997 pa a 5.13.
219 Aída Ponce Del Cas illo and Diego Na anjo, ‘Regula ing Algo i hmic Managemen : An Assessmen o he EC’s D a Di ec i e on
Imp o ing Wo king Condi ions in Pla o m Wo k’ (ETUI Policy B ie 2022).
50 ILO Wo king Pape 149
Es ablishing ai balance be ween wo ke s’ and employe s’
in e es s
The mos challenging aspec o wo kplace da a p o ec ion is s iking a ai balance be ween em-
ploye s’ legi ima e in e es s and wo ke s’ speci ic igh s o digni y, p i acy, and o he undamen-
al igh s. The ques ion o p opo ionali y a ises speci ically when wo ke s’ da a p ocessing goes
beyond wha is s ic ly equi ed wi hin he con ac ual employmen ela ionship. Any p ocessing
o wo ke s’ da a ha is no s ic ly necessa y o he pe o mance o he con ac may be ca ied
ou only a e a balancing o in e es s. This includes in e p e ing he limi s o an employe ’s ‘le-
gi ima e in e es ’, which is o en used as a p ima y legal basis o deploy au oma ed moni o ing
and decision-making echnologies in he wo kplace.
Un o una ely, exis ing laws do no o e clea amewo ks o conduc ing such a balancing ex-
e cise. Wha cons i u es legi ima e in e es emains unce ain, con ex -dependen , and p one o
abuse. I changes o e ime, in di e en con ex s, and ac oss business models. Employe s can
easily a gue ha any o m o moni o ing and su eillance in he wo kplace is p opo iona e and
necessa y o he business in e es s and pu poses hey de ine hemsel es, including imp o ing
p oduc i i y, e iciency, and inno a ion. Employe s a e expec ed o conduc his balancing exe -
cise, i espec i e o he ype o da a p ac ice, echnology used, o he legal basis o p ocessing.
Howe e , i should no be solely he esponsibili y o employe s o weigh hese in e es s. While
i is no easible o legisla u es o add ess e e y possible da a p ocessing ac i i y in he employ-
men con ex , hey can es ablish clea p inciples and equi emen s o guide employe s. As he
Ge man Ad iso y Council on Employee Da a P o ec ion ap ly poin ed ou , he e mus be binding
and eliable ules enabling employe s and wo ke s o assess, wi h legal ce ain y, which decisions
and measu es a e pe missible, and which a e no .220 In o he wo ds, new wo ke s’ da a p o ec-
ion legisla ion should speci y he c i e ia and equi emen s o he p opo ionali y es . I should
also delinea e he con ex s, pu poses, p ac ices, and p ocessing ac i i ies ha a e o -limi s, in-
cluding he con inuous o pe manen moni o ing o wo ke s’ beha iou .221 Lawmake s should
also conside he ci cums ances and p ocessing ope a ions in which ‘legi ima e in e es ’ canno
be in oked as a alid legal g ound.
Collec i e go e nance o wo kplace da a p ac ices
The case o collec i e go e nance o wo kplace da a igh s eme ges om he need o add ess
sys emic powe imbalances and collec i e isks in mode n employmen . While indi idual igh s
unde exis ing da a p o ec ion egimes like he GDPR p o ide c ucial p o ec ions, hey ail o coun-
e balance he inhe en ly unequal dynamics o employmen ela ionships, which a e ampli ied
by new au oma ed decision-making and pe asi e su eillance sys ems. This necessi a es shi -
ing om an indi idual consen model o mechanisms empowe ing wo ke s’ ep esen a i es o
nego ia e da a p ac ices, pa icipa e in echnology design, and audi sys ems. This means ha
he deploymen o wo kplace digi al moni o ing and decision-making echnologies should no
be le o he p e oga i es o he employe .
The GDPR’s a icle 88 implici ly suppo s his app oach by encou aging Membe S a es o de elop
wo kplace-speci ic da a p o ec ions ules h ough social dialogue, p io i ising human digni y and
wo ke s’ undamen al igh s. Like o he labou igh s such as wages and wo king hou s, hese
220 ‘In e disciplina y Council on Employee Da a P o ec ion’ <h ps://www.denk ab ik-bmas.de/en/ opics/employee-da a-p o ec ion/in-
e disciplina y-council-on-employee-da a-p o ec ion> accessed 29 July 2023.
221 Fo de ails on his, see Adams-P assl and o he s (n 4), Policy op ions 1-2.
51 ILO Wo king Pape 149
echnologies and p ac ices should be nego ia ed h ough social dialogue. Recen legisla i e de-
elopmen s, such as Spain’s Royal Dec ee Law 9/2021 and he EU Pla o m Wo k Di ec i e, ein-
o ce his ajec o y by manda ing anspa ency abou algo i hmic pa ame e s o wo ke ep e-
sen a i es and manda ing hei in ol emen in c ucial decisions such as da a p o ec ion impac
assessmen s. A obus collec i e da a go e nance amewo k would ins i u ionalise igh s like
p io consul a ion and pa icipa ion on he adop ion o wo kplace echnologies, pa icipa ion in
impac assessmen s, and collec i e access o da a in o ming wo kplace decisions.
C i ically, collec i e go e nance coun e s he limi a ions o consume -cen ic da a p o ec ion
laws by in eg a ing labou igh s like co-de e mina ion, in o ma ion, consul a ion, and collec i e
ba gaining in o wo kplace da a p o ec ion egimes. This app oach aligns wi h e idence showing
ha wo ke pa icipa ion in echnology implemen a ion educes exploi a ion isks while os e ing
us . Fo ins ance, equi ing employe nego ia ed ag eemen s on su eillance ools p e en s uni-
la e al imposi ions o in usi e moni o ing sys ems. By embedding hese p inciples, policymak-
e s can ensu e wo kplace da a ules e lec he collec i e na u e o labou ela ions, balancing
echnological inno a ion wi h p o ec ions agains algo i hmic a bi a iness and dehumanising
manage ial p ac ices. Fu u e egula o y amewo ks should s eng hen exis ing ep esen a ion
mechanisms and es ablish new mechanisms o ensu e ha wo ke s ha e genuine agency in de-
cisions ega ding hei pe sonal da a.
Eme gence o specialized egula ion o algo i hmic
managemen
This esea ch e eals a signi ican egula o y shi owa d specialised amewo ks o add essing
algo i hmic managemen in he wo kplace, which has now anscended i s o igins in he pla -
o m economy and is in il a ing con en ional wo kplaces.222 These eme ging amewo ks sug-
ges a egula o y ajec o y mo ing away om one-size- i s-all app oaches owa d sec o -speci ic
p o ec ions ha acknowledge he unique challenges o au oma ed decision-making in employ-
men se ings. Fu u e egula o y de elopmen s should con inue in his di ec ion, expanding be-
yond pla o m wo k and add essing algo i hmic managemen ac oss all employmen con ex s
while es ablishing b igh -line ules and ein o cing anspa ency equi emen s, and meaning ul
in ol emen o wo ke ep esen a i es in all s ages o algo i hmic managemen sys ems, om
p ocu emen , con igu a ion, and deploymen o e olu ion, audi ing and impac assessmen .
The need o c oss- egula o y coope a ion
The impe a i e o c oss- egula o y coope a ion in wo kplace da a p o ec ion s ems om he
mul idimensional isks posed by ad anced moni o ing and decision-making echnologies, which
s addle mul iple legal domains and egula o y ju isdic ions. These echnologies inhe en ly in e -
sec wi h labou igh s, equali y amewo ks, and da a p o ec ion, c ea ing complex challenges
whe e siloed en o cemen mechanisms isk legal agmen a ion and inconsis en o e sigh . While
DPAs ocus on p i acy/da a p o ec ion issues, labou inspec o s add ess wo king condi ions, and
equali y bodies comba disc imina ion, wi h he esul ha hei siloed manda es could ail o ad-
d ess he compounded ha ms a ising om ad anced moni o ing and decision-making sys ems.
222 Uma Rani, Anna osa Pesole and Ignacio González Vázquez, ‘Algo i hmic Managemen P ac ices in Regula Wo kplaces: Case S udies
in Logis ics and Heal hca e’ (Luxembou g: Publica ions O ice o he Eu opean Union, 2024).
52 ILO Wo king Pape 149
This egula o y agmen a ion unde sco es he need o in eg a ed go e nance models ha ha -
monise en o cemen ac oss disciplines. Eme ging amewo ks like he EU Pla o m Wo k Di ec i e
exempli y p og ess by manda ing collabo a ion be ween DPAs and labou au ho i ies and e-
qui ing in o ma ion-sha ing abou algo i hmic sys ems impac ing pla o m wo ke s.223 B oade
ini ia i es such as he EU Digi al clea inghouse,224 he UK’s Digi al Regula ion Coope a ion Fo um
(DRCF),225 and he Du ch Digi al Regula ion Coope a ion Pla o m (STD)226 demons a e g owing
ecogni ion o his in e dependence. Howe e , hese models equi e adap ing o employmen
con ex s h ough ins i u ional e o ms ha embed pe manen coo dina ion mechanisms be-
ween ele an au ho i ies, such as da a p o ec ion, labou and equali y bodies. E ec i e imple-
men a ion demands join in es iga ions, uni ied guidance on o e lapping legal obliga ions, and
sha ed expe ise in audi ing hese sys ems. S eng hening such c oss- egula o y mechanisms
emains i al o closing en o cemen gaps and ensu ing wo ke p o ec ions e ol e in andem
wi h he inc easing in usi e digi al managemen p ac ices.
223 A . 19, P oposal o a DIRECTIVE OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL on imp o ing wo king condi ions in pla -
o m wo k COM(2021) 762 inal.
224
‘Towa ds Digi al Clea inghouse 2.0: Championing a Consis en Supe iso y App oach o he Digi al Economy’ (Eu opean Da a P o ec ion
Supe iso , 15 Janua y 2025) <h ps://www.edps.eu opa.eu/p ess-publica ions/p ess-news/blog/ owa ds-digi al-clea inghouse-20-cham-
pioning-consis en -app oach-digi al-economy> accessed 1 Ap il 2025.
225 ‘The Digi al Regula ion Coope a ion Fo um’ (GOV.UK, 10 Ma ch 202AD) <h ps://www.go .uk/go e nmen /collec ions/ he-digi al- eg-
ula ion-coope a ion- o um> accessed 8 July 2022.
226 ‘The Digi al Regula ion Coope a ion Pla o m (SDT)’ <h ps://www.acm.nl/en/abou -acm/coope a ion/na ional-coope a ion/digi al- eg-
ula ion-coope a ion-pla o m-sd > accessed 1 Ap il 2025.
53 ILO Wo king Pape 149
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62 ILO Wo king Pape 149
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2014/90/EU, (EU) 2016/797 and (EU) 2020/1828 (A i icial In elligence Ac ) (Tex wi h EEA ele ance)
S.2440 - Exploi a i e Wo kplace Su eillance and Technologies Task Fo ce Ac o 2023, 118 h
Cong ess (2023-2024)
S.3238 - P i acy o Consume s and Wo ke s Ac 102nd Cong ess (1991-1992)
Wes Vi ginia’s Elec onic su eillance Ac , Sec 21-3-20
63 ILO Wo king Pape 149
Acknowledgemen s
Special hanks o An onio Aloisi (IE Uni e si y Law School in Mad id), Je emias Adams-P assl
(Ox o d), Michael ‘six’ Silbe man (Ox o d), Elizabe h Coombs (Uni e si y o Mal a), Ke an Modh
(Deloi e India), Janine Be g (ILO), Anne Boyd (ILO) and Ca oline F ed ickson (ILO).
Resea ch Depa men (RESEARCH)
In e na ional Labou O ganiza ion
Rou e des Mo illons 4
1211 Gene a 22
Swi ze land
T +41 22 799 6530
esea [email p o ec ed]
www.ilo.o g/ esea ch
XAd ancing social jus ice, p omo ing decen wo k
The In e na ional Labou O ganiza ion is he Uni ed Na ions agency o he wo ld o wo k. We b ing oge he go e nmen s, employe s and wo ke s
o imp o e he wo king li es o all people, d i ing a human-cen ed app oach o he u u e o wo k h ough employmen c ea ion, igh s a wo k,
social p o ec ion and social dialogue.
I S B N 9789220426326
9HSTCMA*ecgdcg+
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