Milan, S e ania
A icle
Resis ance in he da a-d i en socie y
In e ne Policy Re iew
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Alexande on Humbold Ins i u e o In e ne and Socie y (HIIG), Be lin
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Milan, S e ania (2024) : Resis ance in he da a-d i en socie y, In e ne Policy
Re iew, ISSN 2197-6775, Alexande on Humbold Ins i u e o In e ne and Socie y, Be lin, Vol. 13,
Iss. 4, pp. 1-17,
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Volume 13 |
Resis ance in he da a-d i en socie y
S e ania Milan Uni e si y o Ams e dam [email p o ec ed]
DOI: h ps://doi.o g/10.14763/2024.4.1811
Published: 30 Oc obe 2024
Recei ed: 23 Augus 2023 Accep ed: 22 Decembe 2023
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Ci a ion: Milan, S. (2024). Resis ance in he da a-d i en socie y. In e ne Policy Re iew,
13(4). h ps://doi.o g/10.14763/2024.4.1811
Keywo ds: In as uc u e, Agency, Da a ica ion, Resis ance, Tac ics
Abs ac : Indi iduals and g oups inc easingly seek o esis he ha ms and isks o a da a-d i en
socie y. This essay explo es he possibili y o indi idual and collec i e esis ance is-à- is
da a ica ion, d awing on examples om ac oss he globe. I shows how in as uc u e, poli ical
agency, and ac ics ha e changed in esponse o da a ica ion. I e iews six esis ance ac ics,
dis inguishing be ween “de ensi e esis ance” and “p oduc i e esis ance”: sel -de ence, sub e sion,
a oidance, li e acy, coun e -imagina ion, and ad ocacy campaigning. In es iga ing hem o e s
insigh s on he abili y o social ac o s o con ibu e o inno a ion in mobilising p ac ices amids
in usi e su eillance.
Issue 4
In oduc ion
In he 1930s, Maha ma Gandhi led non iolen esis ance in India, e using o coop-
e a e wi h he colonial sys em. Be ween 1943 and 1945, he I alian esis ance
mo emen ca ied ou dis up i e ac ions agains he ascis egime in he coun y.
In 1955, A ican Ame ican ac i is Rosa Pa ks de ied bus seg ega ion in he US by
e using o gi e up he sea o a whi e passenge . In he 1980s, Sou h A ican ac-
i is s and hacke s buil an au onomous enc yp ed communica ion ne wo k o co-
o dina e esis ance agains he apa heid sys em. Since he mid-1990s, he indige-
nous Zapa is a A my o Na ional Libe a ion in
Chiapas (Mexico) has used bo h on- he-g ound and online esis ance ac ics o
comba injus ice and dispossession. These examples sha e a common h ead: indi-
iduals and g oups his o ically engaged in esis ance o challenge s uc u al con-
di ions o injus ice and inequali y, such as laws, s a e au ho i y, and o he o ms o
powe pe cei ed as unjus . Resis ance has a long-s anding adi ion, spanning di -
e en egions and pe iods, uni ed by he d i e o con on and disman le opp es-
sion. Howe e , how a e esis ance p ac ices adap ing and e ol ing in oday's in-
c easingly da a-d i en and digi alised socie y?
Resis ance e e s o in en ional ac ions aken in opposi ion o someone o some-
hing, a ising om a e usal o con o m o social no ms o accep he s a us quo (o
changes o i ). I can a y in bo h he isibili y o he ac i sel and he deg ee o
in en o consciousness behind i (Hollande & Einwohne , 2004).
The da a ica ion o ou socie ies – he p ocess by which a ious aspec s o human
li e a e con e ed in o da a, which a e hen aded and analysed o gene a e
meaning and alue (Mejias & Could y, 2019) – has in oduced new conce ns, call-
ing o esh s a egies o esis ance ha add ess he unique isks and ha ms o da-
a-d i en socie ies, such as biome ic su eillance (And eje ic & Selwyn, 2022). Ex-
posing blanke mass su eillance by he U.S. Na ional Secu i y Agency and i s sib-
lings wo ldwide, he Snowden leaks (2013-2016) ha e ma ked a poin o no e u n
in su eillance policy and i s pe cep ion by he ci izen y (Hin z & B own, 2017). In
2014, he up oa a Facebook’s s ic implemen a ion o i s eal-name policy, which
equi ed use s o indica e hei legal name when egis e ing an accoun , o ced he
company o accommoda e he eques s o ulne able communi ies in ea o using
hei legal name online, such as ansgende and gende a ian use s (Haimson &
Ho mann, 2016). In 2019, Hong Kong p o es e s mobilising agains a p oposed ex-
adi ion bill ook down he “sma lamppos s” do ing he ci y, ea ed o ha bou
acial ecogni ion so wa e iden i ying hem as ac i is s (Binde , 2019). These ex-
2 In e ne Policy Re iew 13(4) | 2024
amples expose how da a ica ion has mul iplied he occasions o esis ance – and
he easons o do so. Campaigns and awa eness- aising ini ia i es ha e mul iplied.
Resis ance, howe e , may appea mo e complica ed o o ganise, less e ec i e,
ha dly isible, and po en ially u ile gi en he di use na u e o he s uc u es and
p ac ices i a ge s.
This essay akes an in e disciplina y pe spec i e o explo e he possibili y o indi-
idual and collec i e esis ance in he da a-d i en socie y, d awing examples om
a ound he wo ld. I is s uc u ed in h ee pa s. The i s sec ion o e s a his o ical
o e iew o he e olu ion o esis ance. The second examines h ee key ans o -
ma ions in esis ance wi hin a da a-d i en socie y: in as uc u e, poli ical agency,
and ac ics. The hi d sec ion ocuses on six e ec i e esis ance ac ics o ad-
d essing he challenges o da a ica ion: sel -de ence, sub e sion, a oidance, li e a-
cy, coun e -imagina ion, and ad ocacy campaigning. This essay a gues ha he
p og essi e digi alisa ion and da a ica ion o socie y, coupled wi h he ise o in el-
ligen sys ems (o a i icial in elligence, hence o h AI), ha e undamen ally e-
shaped he possibili ies o esis ance. Howe e , analysing he discon en s o
da a ica ion p o ides aluable insigh s in o how social ac o s mo e b oadly can in-
no a e esis ance p ac ices.
1. F om he co on ields o he web: esis ance ac ics
in con ex
Resis ance is as old as powe abuse, o , o say i acco ding o Foucaul , “whe e
he e is powe he e is esis ance” (1976/1978, p. 95). The “ac ion epe oi e” (Tilly,
1981) o esis an ac o s is di e se, anging om sabo aging wo k ools, s aging
collec i e slowdowns, and simula ing illness o ensla ed A icans on Ame ican soil,
o con empo a y o ms o cul u al esis ance whe e he digi al is bo h ool and ob-
jec o esis ance. Resis ance ac ics can be iolen o non- iolen , o e o con-
cealed, p ac ised indi idually o collec i ely. To unde s and esis ance in con ex
wi h espec o he a ie y o ac ics a ailable o p o es e s, I d aw on examples
om he las cen u y o he p esen day.
Gandhi and his ollowe s in he Indian Independence Mo emen (1930s-1940s)
headed la ge p o es s agains he colonial ule s, bu also ough unjus laws in
cou (Gandhi was a o ney-a -law), and s aged la ge-scale boyco s o B i ish
goods, such as sal (Nojeim, 2004). The wo ld- amous Dia y o Anne F ank (1947),
published a e 15-yea -old Jew Anne died in he concen a ion camp o Be gen-
Belsen in 1945, is es imony o he silen esis ance o many Du ch ci izens agains
he Nazi ule: hey ac i ely hid, p o ec ed, and ed Jewish dwelle s a e depo a-
3 Milan
ion in ensi ied in 1942. F ench and I alian pa isans, among o he s, emb aced io-
len gue illa ac ics o oppose he occupie s, sabo aging anks, a acking and
killing Hi le ’s and Mussolini’s o ces, and blowing up in as uc u e such as
b idges o slow down he ad ance o he enemy (Cooke, 1997). Gue illa ac ics al-
so cha ac e ised he esis ance in he 20 h cen u y A ican Independence Mo e-
men s, which con ibu ed o ending colonial ule in Alge ia, Madagasca , and
Mozambique among o he s (see Chaliand, 1982). On he con a y, he Tibe an e-
sis ance mo emen , p o es ing Chinese domina ion, s ill oday emb aces ac ics as
di e se as p o es and sel -immola ion (Makley, 2015). The 2010-2012 A ab Sp ing,
a se ies o p o-democ acy up isings ha swep h ough he Middle Eas and No h
A ica led o egime change by means o la gely peace ul ac ics, suppo ed also by
social media use (Ge baudo, 2012). Today, en i onmen al ac i is s ad oca e o cli-
ma e ac ion blocking a ic and mo o ways, s aging school s ikes, damaging a -
wo ks, and delibe a ely seeking o be a es ed (So ce & Dumi ica, 2023).
Resis ance as a mul i ace ed socio-poli ical and cul u al phenomenon has been o
conce n o se e al schola ly ields, including sociology and poli ical science, cul-
u al s udies, pos -/decolonial s udies, gende and quee s udies, and media s ud-
ies. A cu so y li e a u e e iew e eals he di e si y o a ailable ac ics and hei
cen al ea u es.
Sociologis s and poli ical scien is s see esis ance as a cen al elemen in he
epe oi e o “con en ious poli ics” (Tilly & Ta ow, 2007), ha is o say i is one o
he op ions a ailable o social ac o s o p o oke change. Because “ esis ance and
ebellion a e cos ly” (Tilly, 1991, p. 594), esou ces a ailable o mo emen s (e.g. i-
nancial suppo , social capi al, o ganisa ional ne wo ks) ma e o esis ance o be
e ec i e, as does he dynamic in e ac ion wi h he poli ical en i onmen (“poli ical
oppo uni ies”) (McAdam e al., 1996). Ac o s a e known o de elop new ac ics in
esponse o he changing poli ical en i onmen (see Wang & Soule, 2016). Bu e-
sis ance is no limi ed o o e and o ganised ac ion. Sco ’s w i ings on “e e yday
o ms o esis ance” (1985) emphasise how he ma ginalised engage in sub le, hid-
den, and c ea i e ways o esis ing opp ession – he so-called “hidden ansc ip s”
(Sco , 199o), whose pe o ma i e na u e con ibu es o he enego ia ion o powe
ela ions.
Cul u al s udies ha e examined he ole o cul u al o ms o esis ance, including
(you h) subcul u es and coun e cul u es, in igh ing back mains eam alues and
os e ing he accep ance o al e na i e iden i ies and li es yles (e.g. Hall & Je e -
son, 1976). Hall’s wo k on cul u al iden i y, hegemony, and encoding and decoding
media messages poin s o ways in which people esis dominan discou ses: he
4 In e ne Policy Re iew 13(4) | 2024
“ma gin o unde s anding” allows indi iduals o eclaim hei own in e p e a ions
(Hall, 1973). De Ce eau’s no ion o “ ac ics” (1984) exposed how o dina y people
enac c ea i e esis ance o dominan s uc u es by momen a ily seizing spaces o
au onomy in o en de ensi e and oppo unis ic ways.
Wi hin gende and quee s udies, esis ance o eg ounds he ole o he pe sonal
and he e e yday in esis ing socie al no ms and opp essi e s uc u es. Decon-
s uc ing he ole o language in pe pe ua ing ep ession, Bu le (1990) exposed
how e e yday ac ions and pe o mances o indi iduals con ibu e o challenge no -
ma i e gende iden i ies. Explo ing he in e sec ionali y o gende , ace, and capi-
alism as a lywheel o opp ession, bell hooks (1994) laid ba e how esis ance can
be embodied h ough sel -lo e, educa ion, and ans o ma i e eminis p axis. Es-
eban Muñoz’s no ion o “disiden i ica ions” (1999) explo ed how ma ginalised in-
di iduals esis dominan cul u al no ms; in he iew, esis ance consis s in he
p ac ice o en isioning al e na i e u u es.
The no ion o esis ance is cen al o bo h pos colonial and decolonial s udies,
whose schola s a e conce ned wi h unde s anding and challenging he legacy o
colonialism. The ocus is on he agency o colonised and opp essed peoples push-
ing back agains he sys ems o con ol, ideologies, and cul u al e asu e ha
s emmed om colonial ule (Bhamb a, 2007). These communi ies ac i ely seek o
decen e Wes e n p edominan iews by p ac ising “epis emic disobedience”
(Mignolo, 2009). “Subal e n knowledges” (Mignolo, 2000) eme ge and h i e wi hin
“ e i o ies o di e ence”: si es o esis ance whe e he ma ginalised challenge he
homogenising o ces o mode ni y by asse ing hei own knowledge sys ems,
iden i y, and o ms o go e nance (Escoba , 2008).
F om a communica ion and media s udies pe spec i e, schola s ha e looked a
how media con ibu e o dissemina ing esis ance na a i es and al e na i e
ames, shaping public discou se and mobilising suppo (e.g. Meikle, 2002; Hack-
e & Ca oll, 2006). The explosion o digi al esis ance – he employmen o digi-
al channels and de ices (e.g. camco de s, social media, sma phones…) o uel e-
sis ance and suppo p o es e s bu also he eme gence o digi ally-na i e esis-
an coali ions such as Anonymous – has esul ed in he bu geoning li e a u e on
hacking (e.g. Maxigas, 2012; Coleman, 2013; Toupin, 2016), hack i ism (Jo dan,
2002; Milan, 2015), and digi al esis ance and digi al ac i ism mo e in gene al
(see, among o he s, Ka a zogianni & Michaelides, 2009; Fuchs, 2014; T e é, 2019).
Resis ance h ough he digi al includes bo h (sub)cul u al elemen s and ech-
based ways o e ading con ol; he li e a u e s esses he ole o he in as uc u e
in shaping ac ics, possibili ies, and ou comes.
5 Milan
2. The e olu ion o esis ance p ac ices in a da a-
d i en socie y
How ha e esis ance p ac ices e ol ed in esponse o da a ica ion? Th ee key
changes de ine he e olu ion o esis ance amids da a ica ion, ocusing on in a-
s uc u e, poli ical agency, and ac ics. The h ee dimensions pe ain o he a eas
whe e he e ec s o da a ica ion a e mos s ongly el . The in as uc u al dimen-
sion ela es o he shi ing s uc u al condi ions o powe and inequali y, which
ha e been eshaped by he ad en o he da a-d i en socie y. Meanwhile, he
changes in poli ical agency and ac ics highligh he e ol ing oles and s a egies
o social ac o s in his new landscape.
In as uc u e conce ns he o e all s uc u al condi ions unde which esis ance
un olds oday. These include, e.g. a digi alised and da a ied public sphe e, whe eby
public discou se un olds in coun less pla o ms and suppo s whe e algo i hms ai-
lo con en acco ding o indi idual p e e ences and beha iou s. In as uc u e has
an impac on how esis an ac o s each ou o like-minded indi iduals and he
public. On he one hand, occasions o connec o bys ande s ha e mul iplied, ha -
ing emo ed he bo leneck o adi ional media ou le s (Ryan, 1991). On he o he
hand, messages p oli e a e, audiences a e mo e di used han e e , and digi al
commi men does no always ansla e in o embodied ac ion, unde mining he
sus ainabili y o esis ance i sel (Dencik & Leis e , 2015). Mo eo e , as he exam-
ple om Hong Kong demons a es, in usi e su eillance echnologies in public
spaces, such as acial ecogni ion came as, pose addi ional isks o indi iduals pa -
icipa ing in ac s o esis ance.
Poli ical agency e e s o he abili y o social ac o s o engage wi h, and eac o,
he con ex in which hey a e embedded so ha hey a e able o change hei ela-
ion o i (Milan, 2018, p. 512). I is oo ed in he p ocess o “making sense o he
wo ld so as o ac wi hin i ” (Could y, 2014, p. 891). These in e p e a i e p ocesses
allow people, indi idually and in in e ac ion wi h one ano he , o ake ac ion en-
gaging in esis ance. Bu oday in e p e a i e p ocesses a e deeply a ec ed by he
algo i hmic ecosys em ha media es in e pe sonal in e ac ions and wo ld iews
and o ms o “biopowe ” (Foucaul , 2004/2008) ha hinde iden i ies (Cheney-Lip-
pold, 2011) – wi h a a iably de imen al e ec on people’s au onomy, exposu e o
di e se pe spec i es, and decision-making abili ies (Susse e al., 2019).
Finally, ac ics ha e e ol ed oo, om he oo d agging echniques o ensla ed
A icans o he a emp o escue om dele ion o p ecious en i onmen al da a
h ea ened by he T ump adminis a ion (Ve a e al., 2018). The main inno a ion
6 In e ne Policy Re iew 13(4) | 2024
conce ns he inco po a ion o digi al and da a ied elemen s. Fo ins ance, ac i is s
engaging in eminis a ec i e esis ance exploi pla o m ea u es o make hei
social media eed “wo k o hem” (Schoe le , 2023). As social mo emen s udies
li e a u e illus a es, he epe oi e o con en ion con inuously expands o adap o
he cu en socio- echnical con ex , while including cons an elemen s, oo. Tac i-
cal inno a ion is lexible, c ea i e, and inc emen al (see Taylo & Van Dyke, 2004).
The changes in in as uc u al condi ions, poli ical agency, and ac ics e iewed
abo e expose how oday esis an ac o s ha e become “da a ied”. In o he wo ds,
any ype o con en ious ac ion, ega dless o he a ea o conce n, e ol es is-à- is
he o alising e ec s o da a ica ion (Milan & Be aldo, 2024). As a esul , o unde -
s and esis ance in he da a-d i en socie y we ough o conside he socio- echni-
cal, sys emic e ec s o da a and da a in as uc u e on ac ion dynamics, and how
people esis da a ica ion i sel , in he assump ion ha his less isible ye c oss-
cu ing epe oi e helps o cha he u u e o esis ance mo e in gene al. Fo his
eason, wha ollows ocuses on esis ance o da a ica ion, al hough i is s ill la ge-
ly he domain o expe communi ies (Dencik e al., 2016).
3. De ensi e and p oduc i e esis ance o a da a-d i en
socie y
Wha ac ics empowe indi iduals and collec i es o esis he opp essi e dynam-
ics o da a ica ion? This sec ion e iews six ac ics ha ha e eme ged as a e-
sponse o da a-d i en su eillance, da a exploi a ion, and p i acy e osion, namely
sel -de ence, sub e sion, a oidance, li e acy, coun e -imagina ion, and ad ocacy
campaigning. These ac ics a e no mu ually exclusi e, and o en a e implemen ed
in combina ion. They include ins ances o bo h mundane, e e yday esis ance –
non-coo dina ed, appa en ly in isible, and o en no spec acula a all – and “ ull
blown” esis ance, when esis an ac s a e he esul o coo dina ion and designed
o become isible; bo h app oaches ha bou poli ical in en . In b oad s okes, he
six ac ics can be g ouped in wo mac o-ca ego ies, accoun ing espec i ely o de-
ensi e esis ance and “p oduc i e esis ance” (E linge , 2018).
The i s g oup, ha accoun s o de ensi e esis ance, enac s esis ance by add ess-
ing he socio- echnical in as uc u e o da a ica ion, ha is hey ake he echno-
logical dimension as main poin o e e ence, including u ning i in o a ool o e-
sis ance i sel .
7 Milan
#1 Sel -de ence
Sel -de ence e e s o he adop ion o so wa e ools o bypass su eillance, s a e
snooping, and he da a exploi a ion pe pe a ed by ech companies, bu includes
also a a ie y o beha iou al echniques o neu alising su eillance such as mask-
ing o blocking (Ma x, 2003). Fo example, o sides ep go e nmen censo ship o
ep ession in coun ies whe e eedom o exp ession is unde h ea , such as Rus-
sia, human igh s de ende s use enc yp ed messaging apps o communica e sa ely
and i ual p i a e ne wo ks (VPNs) o ind and sha e in o ma ion (E moshina &
Musiani, 2022). The ope a ing sys em Qubes empowe s use s o imp o e he secu-
i y o hei da a by “compa men alizing” one’s digi al li e (Kazansky & Milan,
2021). Sel -de ence can be asc ibed o he ub ic o “ eac i e da a ac i ism” (Milan
& an de Velden, 2016), whe eby indi iduals and g oups eac o he h ea s o
ci il and human igh s ha de i e om co po a ions and go e nmen s by means o
echnical solu ions. I is also associa ed wi h he no ion o “an icipa o y da a p ac-
ices”, which highligh he u u e-o ien ed na u e o ac ics o e ing “a heu is ic o
ac ion amids he pe sis en unce ain ies o li e wi h da a” (Kazansky, 2021): ac-
i is s seek o “play ahead”, p e-emp ing ha ms. The ub ic also includes “quie ”,
seemingly in isible indi idual p ac ices ha do no equi e coo dina ion wi h o h-
e s. These p ac ices a e poli ically mo i a ed, ye o en habi ual and only pa ly
conscious, such as b owsing anonymously o u ning o you phone's geoloca ion
ea u e. These e e yday p ac ices o sel -de ence a e adop ed by subjec s who
ha e li le abili y o change he sys em, bu ha wan o con ibu e o unde min-
ing powe wi hou e ealing hemsel es (Vin hagen & Johansson, 2013).
#2 Sub e sion
Sub e sion is aimed a des abilising he dynamics and s uc u es o he da a-d i-
en socie y. I emb aces a b oad spec um o ac ics ha go om gue illa me hods
like sabo age o oo -d agging echniques o dis up ion such as pollu ing da a col-
lec ion o “pu sand in he machine”, which signal e usal o comply. Examples o
he o me a e Hong Kong p o-democ acy p o es e s aking down lamppos s bu
also o ms o in en ional disobedience like whis leblowing (leaking con iden ial in-
o ma ion o expose une hical p ac ices by powe ul en i ies), o ien ed o delibe -
a ely b eaking he ules o a sys em (Di Sal o, 2019). Go Rando, a web b owse ex-
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swap loyal y ca ds o muddle he eco ds o supe ma ke pu chases. This app oach
is known as “da a ob usca ion”, a ac ic combining “in o ma ional esis ance, dis-
obedience, p o es o e en co e sabo age” and “a o m o ed ess in he absence
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