Qin, Qian
A icle
Assessing he e ec i eness o Japan's ODA policy owa ds
China: Whe he Japan has ealized i s na ional in e es s
In e na ional T ade, Poli ics and De elopmen (ITPD)
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Depa men o In e na ional Comme ce, Finance, and In es men , Kyung Hee Uni e si y
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Qin, Qian (2024) : Assessing he e ec i eness o Japan's ODA policy owa ds
China: Whe he Japan has ealized i s na ional in e es s, In e na ional T ade, Poli ics and
De elopmen (ITPD), ISSN 2632-122X, Eme ald, Leeds, Vol. 8, Iss. 1, pp. 15-33,
h ps://doi.o g/10.1108/ITPD-06-2023-0015
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Assessing he e ec i eness o
Japan’s ODA policy owa ds China:
whe he Japan has ealized i s
na ional in e es s
Qian Qin
UNSW, Sydney, Aus alia
Abs ac
Pu pose –This esea ch explo es he in ica e dynamics o na ional in e es s ealised h ough Japan’s o icial
de elopmen assis ance (ODA) o China. I aims o deepen he unde s anding o hese mechanisms, de ailing
he ex en o which Japan has accomplished i s na ional in e es s.
Design/me hodology/app oach –The pape applies he ole heo y and na a i e analysis o elucida e
Japan’s na ional ole concep ion and i s ca ego ies o na ional in e es s wi h ega ds o i s ODA policy. I u ilises
bo h quali a i e and quan i a i e me hods o examine he success a e in achie ing Japan’s diploma ic
objec i es and how hose in e es s ha e mani es ed o e ime.
Findings –The indings sugges a mixed ou come. Whils Japan’s ODA o China has helped in expanding
ade and os e ing mu ual unde s anding and coope a ion, i has been less success ul in p omo ing democ a ic
go e nance in China o e ec i ely coun e balancing China’s egional powe . Hence, he ealisa ion o na ional
in e es s h ough ODA is a complex p ocess con ingen upon nume ous ac o s.
O iginali y/ alue –This s udy s ands ou o i s mul i ace ed app oach in examining Japan’s ODA policy
owa ds China, in eg a ing bo h quan i a i e and quali a i e me hodologies and applying he ole heo y in he
con ex o in e na ional de elopmen aid. I ills a signi ican gap in he li e a u e by analysing he in e play
be ween na ional in e es s and o eign aid, p o iding nuanced insigh s in o he successes and challenges o
Japan’s pu sui o i s diploma ic objec i es. The s udy’s indings ha e impo an implica ions o
unde s anding he complexi y o in e na ional aid dynamics and can in o m u u e policy decisions in he
ealm o in e na ional ela ions and o eign aid.
Keywo ds Fo eign aid, Na ional in e es s, Role heo y, Sino–Japanese ela ions
Pape ype Resea ch pape
1. In oduc ion
E en hough he De elopmen Assis ance Commi ee (DAC) o he O ganisa ion o
Economic Coope a ion and De elopmen (OECD) adop ed o icial de elopmen assis ance
(ODA) as he “gold s anda d”o o eign aid in he 1960s, o eign aid is no a new wo d o he
in e na ional poli ics. Fo ins ance, he o eign aid p o ided by F ance suppo ed he Uni ed
S a es o Ame ica in he Re olu iona y Wa agains he G ea B i ain in he 18 h cen u y, and
Japan’s ODA
policy owa ds
China
15
© Qian Qin. Published in In e na ional T ade, Poli ics and De elopmen . Published by Eme ald Publishing
Limi ed.This a icle is published unde he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion (CC BY4.0) license. Anyone may
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comme cial pu poses), subjec o ull a ibu ion o he o iginal publica ion and au ho s. The ull e ms o
his license may be seen a h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licences/by/4.0/ legalcode
The au ho ex ends his g a i ude o P o . Yamada Mi su u om Waseda Uni e si y who p o ided
aluable sugges ions on he a icle. The au ho ’s app ecia ion also goes o Anzhi Jiang, Qiming Wu, Ruixi
Wang, P o . Bacon Paul Ma yn, P o . Okusako Hajime, P o . Ches e P oshan and he acul y o G adua e
School o Social Sciences, Waseda Uni e si y. Special hanks go o Chao Qin and Qin Rong, who p o ided
inancial suppo du ing he esea ch p ocess. Addi ionally, he au ho is g a e ul o o he indi iduals and
o ganiza ions ha o e ed suppo o his esea ch, including he jou nal edi o and he wo anonymous
e iewe s who p o ided aluable eedback.
The cu en issue and ull ex a chi e o his jou nal is a ailable on Eme ald Insigh a :
h ps://www.eme ald.com/insigh /2586-3932.h m
Recei ed 6 June 2023
Re ised 10 Oc obe 2023
Accep ed 10 No embe 2023
In e na ional T ade, Poli ics and
De elopmen
Vol. 8 No. 1, 2024
pp. 15-33
Eme ald Publishing Limi ed
e-ISSN: 2632-122X
p-ISSN: 2586-3932
DOI 10.1108/ITPD-06-2023-0015
he Ming Dynas y’s p o ided di ec mili a y assis ance o Ko ea in he 16 h cen u y. In o he
wo ds, he his o y o o eign aid is e en longe han he his o y o he Wes phalian s a e
sys em, es ablished in 1648.
Al hough he e a e di e en de ini ions o o eign aid, i is, in gene al, a olun a y ans e
o esou ces, including bu no limi ed o ood, goods, money and expe ise, om he dono
coun y(s) o he ecipien coun y(s) (Mo gen hau, 1962;Riddell, 2008).
Acco ding o OECD, ODA is concessional inancial assis ance p o ided by o icial agencies o
p omo e economic de elopmen and wel a e in de eloping coun ies (OECD, 2020). Though
olun a y, nei he dono no ecipien go e nmen s a e unin e es ed in how and why hei
money, e en i in he name o “aid”,isspen (A ase, 1995). The e a e schola ly deba es on he
mo i a ion o dono coun ies. Fo schola s om he ealism school, o eign aid is simply “an
ins umen o poli ical powe and policy”(Liska, 1960, p. 14). The co e mo i a o s o ealis s a e
poli ical and s a egic conside a ions (Mo gen hau, 1962;Alesina and Dolla , 2000;Ko b, 2008).
Libe alism p o ides di e en pe spec i es on o eign aid, including globalisa ion,
in e dependency and in e na ional ins i u ion, whe e o eign aid is conside ed as a se o
measu es designed o enhance he socioeconomic and poli ical de elopmen o ecipien coun ies
(Chene y and S ou , 1966;Ha o i, 2001). Fo cons uc i ism, ideological o mo al conside a ions
ma e in o eign aid, and coun ies migh mimic he aid beha iou o he adi ional dono s o be a
“good”ac o in he in e na ional socie y (Lumsdaine, 1993;Opeskin, 1996;Mee nik e al., 1998;
B own and G €
a inghol , 2016). Howe e , as a gene al p oposi ion, o eign aid is highly poli icised,
and e en humani a ian aid pe o ms a poli ical unc ion (A ase, 1995).
Na ional in e es s play a c ucial ole in shaping o eign aid policies, wi h he ole heo y
o e ing insigh s in o how na ions pe cei e hei oles in in e na ional ela ions and
unde s and hei na ional in e es s. Japan’s aid policy, dis inc om o he majo dono s, is
mo e economically ocused and aids ade pa ne s o e coun ies wi h humani a ian needs.
Japan’s ODA is a key diploma ic s a egy, wi h China being a signi ican ecipien .
The objec i e o he pape is o demons a e he his o y o Japan’s ODA o China, and mo e
impo an ly, examine whe he Japan’s ODA o China is a success ul policy o in o he wo ds,
ealizes he na ional in e es s o Japan.
2. Beginning o Japan’s ODA o China
Wi h he apid eco e y o Japan’s economy, Japan became he mos de eloped coun ies in
Asia. In he 1960s, Japan achie ed an a e age eal g oss domes ic p oduc (GDP) g ow h a e
o 8% a yea . In 1970, Japan’s GDP eached he le el o 200 bn US dolla s. Th ee yea s la e ,
Japan’s GDP doubled, eaching 432 bn US dolla s.
The ini ial o m o Japan’s o eignaid was he wa epa a ions o se e al Asian coun ies, and
hen o icial de elopmen assis ance in he 1960s. In he 1970s, Japan became one o he la ges
dono coun ies, and o eign aid also became one o he mos impo an o eign policies o Japan.
Since he beginning o he 1970s, he al e a ion in he ela i e s eng h o he Uni ed o
Ame ica and he So ie Union has undoub edly a ec ed he in e na ional si ua ion,
accele a ing he mul i-pola iza ion o he wo ld. China had also become a mo e impo an
playe in he global poli ics. In addi ion, Japan, as an eme ging powe , was ying o p omo e
i s poli ical in luence h ough economic diplomacy.
Beginning in 1977, he Chinese Go e nmen explo ed he po en ial o using o eign capi al
and echnology o de elop he na ional economy. This led o ma ke e o ms ini ia ed in 1978,
o icially known as China’s Re o m and Opening Up. In Augus 1978, he T ea y o Peace and
F iendship be ween China and Japan was signed. On 3 Sep embe 1978, Deng Xiaoping, he
hen leade o China, me wi h he delega ion o he Japan–China F iendship Pa liamen a ians’
Union (Ni ch
uY
uk
o Giin Renmei), led by Hamano Seigo, he P esiden o he Union. Deng
emphasized ha Sino–Japanese ela ions we e p io o any o he bila e al ela ions, and China
ITPD
8,1
16
was willing o coope a e wi h Japan on issues such as p oduc ion echniques and ma ke
managemen (Kond
o, 1978). In Oc obe o he same yea , Deng isi ed Japan, whe e he was
in i ed o isi se e al mode nized ac o ies and he high-speed ailway. The expe ience in
Japan is belie ed o inspi e Deng ega ding he economic e o m in China, leading o he
decision in oducing Japanese in es men and ad anced echnique (MoFA o China, 2022).
On he o he hand, he Go e nmen o Japan s a ed o in es iga e he u he coope a ing
po en ial wi h China. The e we e p oposals in he Libe al Democ a ic Pa y e en in he ea ly
1970s ha Japan migh ake he use o he OECF’s unds o expo s o China, bypassing he
limi a ion due o he Yoshida Le e (yosida syokan) (Jin, 2000). Since he no maliza ion o he
Sino–Japanese ela ions in 1972, he ade be ween wo coun ies had been con inuously
inc eased. In gene al, MoFA, MITI and MoF a e he h ee impo an go e nmen al bodies
ha wield signi ican in luence in a ious aspec s o Japan’s economy and in e na ional
ela ions. These agencies o en ind hemsel es in compe i ion wi h each o he as hey pu sue
di e en p io i ies and goals. The bu eauc a ic complexi ies also esul in compe ing
de ini ions o he na ional in e es in he con ex o Japan (Rix, 2010). The MITI, as he main
agency esponsible o p omo ing Japan’s in e na ional ade, ep esen ed he in e es s o he
comme cial and indus ial communi y; he MoFA ocused on p omo ing Japan’s diploma ic
ela ions wi h o he coun ies and ensu ing i s na ional secu i y, which o en in ol es
nego ia ions and ag eemen s on ade and economic coope a ion, po en ially clashing wi h
he objec i es o MOF and MITI; and he MoF is esponsible o managing he coun y’s iscal
and mone a y policies, seeking o main ain a balanced budge and s able cu ency.
The p i a e sec o , especially he la ge-scale companies, we e e y in e es ed in
p omo ing he ade wi h China, and he e o e became he mos ac i e ac o s ying o
in luence he go e nmen ’s decisions on ODA o China. Amongs a numbe o associa ions
and economic g oups, he Japan–China Economic Associa ion and he Japan Business
Fede a ion (Keidan en) a e he mos impo an and in luen ial o ganiza ions. Thei hen
p esiden s, Inayama Yosihi o and Dok
o Tosio, isi ed China and me wi h P emie Zhou
Enlai, Vice P emie Li Xianian, Gu Mu and o he high-le el o icials se e al imes, becoming a
b idge be ween he leade ship o wo coun ies (Japan-China Economic Associa ion, 2020).
In he Sep embe o 1978,
Ohi a Masayosi success ully comple ed his cabine . He had o
make he poli ical decision on Japan’s ODA o China wi h a a ie y o opinions om his pa ne s
and opponen s. Compa ed o his p edecesso , he held a mo e posi i e a i ude o China. On 1
Ma ch 1979, e en du ing he pe iod o Sino–Vie namese Wa ,
Ohi a con i med wi h K
omo o
Tosio as he Chai man o Policy Resea ch Council o he LDP ha Japan migh p o ide yen loan
h ough OECF i China eques s (Takaha a and Ha o i, 2012). By hee o s on nego ia ion and
coope a ion made by
Ohi a, he cabine achie ed consensus on he p inciples o ODA o China.
I is belie ed ha he loan- ela ed issues was discussed in di e en go e nmen al and
diploma ic mee ings be o e he end o 1978, when Li Qiang, he Minis e o Fo eign T ade o
China, con i med a a p ess con e ence in Hong Kong ha China may conside accep ing loan
be ween go e nmen (Wang, 1978, pp. 864–865). On 5 Decembe 1979,
Ohi a isi ed China,
o icially in o ming China he inal decision made by he Go e nmen o Japan, ma king he
o icial s a o he Japan’s ODA o China.
3. F om de elopmen o ecession
Japan’s ODA o China mainly includes he h ee ypes o assis ance: (i) loan aid (yen loan o
ensyakkan); (ii) g an aid and (iii) echnical coope a ion. Amongs hese h ee ypes o
assis ance, loan aid is he la ges and mos in luen ial one. The las loan aid was p o ided in
2007, bu Japan decided o con inue p o iding g an aid and echnical coope a ion. Anyhow,
because he ma u i y o he yen loan o China was usually se be ween 20 and 40 yea s, a la ge
amoun o he loan has no been epaid ye . The au ho di ides he ODA o China his o y in o
Japan’s ODA
policy owa ds
China
17
ou pe iods: (1) S a ing pe iod (1979–1983); (2) De elopmen pe iod (1984–1988); (3)
Con e sion pe iod (1989–2000) and (4) Recession pe iod (2001–p esen ).
3.1 S a ing pe iod (1979–1983)
When Gu Mu isi ed Japan and me wi h
Ohi a in 1979, he b ough eigh p oposed loan
p ojec s as a o mal eques , wo o which, ela ed o he cons uc ion o he hyd oelec ic
powe s a ion we e ejec ed by he Go e nmen o Japan, making he o al amoun o he
p ojec s dec ease om 5.5 bn US dolla s o app oxima ely 3 bn US dolla s (House o
Councillo s, 1979).The six loan p ojec s decided by he Go e nmen o Japan is shown as
ollows. Table 1 also shows he h ee g an aid p ojec s p o ided in 1979.
In he July o 1980, Suzuki Zenk
o became he 70 h P ime Minis e o Japan. He did no
change he policy o China du ing his e m o o ice. F om 1979 o 1983, Japan has p o ided
300 bn o yen loan o China, as he i s ound o yen loan. Besides, Japan also p o ided 17.461-
billion-yen g an aid o China du ing his pe iod.
3.2 De elopmen pe iod (1984–1988)
F om 1984 o 1990, he o al amoun o he yen loan o China was 693.424 billion JPY, as shown
in Figu e 1. In addi ion, Japan also p o ide 63.109 bn JPY o g an aid o 64 p ojec s, mainly
ocused on ag icul u e, medicine, na u al disas e and educa ion ins i u ion such as Chinese
Academy o SocialSciences, China Fo eign A ai s Uni e si y and Dalian Uni e si y o Fo eign
Languages (MoFA o Japan, no da e). Due o he apid de elopmen o Japan’s ODA o China,
China had become one o he la ges ecipien s o Japan’s bila e al aid since he ea ly 1980s.
Howe e , because o se e al nega i e diploma ic inciden s, including he “Inciden o
K
oka Do mi o y”[1], Nakasone’s o mal isi o he Yasukuni Sh ine [2], and especially he
Yanagiya Kensuke’s c i icism agains Deng Xiaoping [3], he Sino–Japanese ela ions
p obably had no been p omo ed as expec ed.
The P ime Minis e , Takesi a Nobu u, ook he o ice in he No embe o 1987. To imp o e
he bila e al ela ions, Takesi a isi ed China wi h he hi d ound o yen loan as a “omiyage”
(gi ) in he Augus o 1988. Two go e nmen s soon eached a consensus, and he size o he
yen loan was nea ly doubled. The package included 810 bn o yen loan o 42 cons uc ion
p ojec s, including e ilize ac o y and he a ia ion con ol sys em, which a e no included in
he i s and second ound o yen loan. Besides, g an aid and echnical coope a ion we e also
No. P ojec Amoun (JPY, 1979)
1 Shijiusuo Po Cons uc ion 7,085 million
2 Yanzhou–Shijiusuo Railway Cons uc ion 10,100 million
3 Beijing–Qinghuangdao Railway Expansion 2,500 million
4 Qinghuangdao Po Expansion 4,915 million
5 Hengyang–Guangzhoou Railway Expansion 3,320 million
6 Wuqiangxi Hydo elec ic Powe S a ion Cons uc ion 140 million
To al amoun o loan aid 28,060 million
7 China–Japan F iendship Hospi al Cons uc ion 430 million
8 Machines o Mic o Lab o Na ional Beijing Lib a y 50 million
9 Eme gency Aid o Na u al Disas e ( ia Red C oss) 200 million
To al amoun o g an aid 680 million
No e(s): The no.5 and no.6 p ojec s a e suspended and ans e ed o commodi y loan p ojec s p o ided in
1979∼1980, acco ding o MoFA’s websi e as ci ed
Sou ce(s): Table cou esy o MoFA o Japan, no da e
Table 1.
P ojec s o he i s
ound o yen loan and
g an aid o China
in 1979
ITPD
8,1
18
included in he package. The Chinese leade ship exp essed hei hank ulness o Takesi a,
and Deng e en commen ed ha a “new e a”o Sino–Japanese ela ions was coming [4].
3.3 Con e sion pe iod (1989–2000)
Al hough bo h China and Japan had s ong willingness o make he bila e al ela ions be e ,
he ela ions we e suddenly ozen because o he Tiananmen Squa e Inciden happened in
1989. The Uni ed S a es o Ame ica and he Eu opean coun ies soon decided o impose
sanc ions agains China o iola ing human igh s.
On 3 June 1989, Uno S
osuke, a e he sudden esigna ion o Takesi a, was placed as he
P ime Minis e . He was no an ideal candida e and had limi ed ime and powe o make any
majo change o policies. A he House o Rep esen a i es, acing he ques ions om he
pa liamen a y membe s, Uno only desc ibed he inciden in China as “a eg e ul si ua ion”
(ikanna zy
osei), exp essing his “conce n”(y
u yo) on he si ua ion and willingness o p o ide
medical assis ance (House o Rep esen a i es, 1989).
On 8 June 1989, he In e na ional Coope a ion Bu eau o he MoFA o Japan announced
ha all he ODA p ojec s we e o cedly suspended (suik
o hun
o) due o he chaos in China, and
o e 300 Japanese expe s wo king in China we e equi ed o e u n [5]. A he G7 Submi held
in July, Japan announced ha he hi d ound o yen loan would be suspended, and Japan
would impose mig a ion es ic ion o China o he sa e y o Japanese ci izens. Howe e ,
compa ed o o he G7 membe s, Japan’s a i ude owa ds China was ambiguous. While he
Uni ed S a es o Ame ica had imposed sanc ions agains China, Japan seldom c i icised he
Go e nmen o China di ec ly. No wi hs anding he ambiguous a i ude o Japan, Zheng
Tuobin, he Minis e o Fo eign Economic Rela ions and T ade o China c i icised ha e en
hough Japan disag eed wi h he sanc ions agains China openly, Japan ac ually imposed
hea ie de ac o sanc ions agains China (Zhang, 2016, p. 175).
In 1992, he Japanese cabine issued he Japan’s ODA Cha e , o icially con i ming he
ou p inciples o Japan’s ODA, including en i onmen -o ien ed, mili a y-a oided and
democ a iza ion p omo ion (MoFA o Japan, 1992). The 1992 ODA cha e is a symbol o he
con e sion o Japan’s ODA policy. Japan in ended o connec o eign aid o human igh s and
domes ic poli ics o he ecipien coun ies, making he o eign aid policy mo e s a egy
o ien ed.
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
1984 1985 1986 1987 1988
yen loan g an aid
Sou ce(s): Figu e by au ho
Figu e 1.
Japan’s ODA o China,
1984–1988
(100,000,000 JPY)
Japan’s ODA
policy owa ds
China
19
In addi ion, Japan had o econside he amoun and e iciency o i s ODA p ojec s due o
economic ecession and inancial di icul ies. Thus, he nego ia ion ega ding he ou h
ound o Japan’s yen loan o China mo ed slowly wi h di icul ies. Domes ically, some
poli icians and schola s p oposed o dec ease, suspend o end he ODA o China, especially
when China con inued i s nuclea es ing in he mid-1990s.
As a esul o he con inuous nego ia ion, wo pa ies decided o di ide he ou h ound o
yen loan in o wo pe iods, and 580 bn JPY would be p o ided du ing he i s pe iod (1997–
1999). In 1998, a e coo dina ing wi h China, Japan decided o p o ide ano he 390 bn JPY
du ing he second pe iod (1999–2000). The ou h ound o yen loan is he las yen loan
p o ided by he Japanese Go e nmen aking he o m o “ ound”.
3.4 Recession pe iod (2001–p esen )
Since 2001, Japan decided o p o ide yen loan wi h he o m o “single-yea e iew”ins ead o
“ i e-yea ound e iew”(JICA, 2002). The amoun o ODA was also dec eased by 25%.
In he Augus o 2001, Yamasaki Taku, he hen Sec e a y-Gene al o LDP, publicly s a ed
ha “people om he Sou h Eas Asian coun ies a e hank ul o Japan’s ODA, which is
di e en wi h he Chinese people who know li le abou he assis ance o China”, and
p oposed o econside he ODA o China policy [6]. Howe e , he Japanese poli icians had no
eached a consensus on whe he Japan’s ODA o China should be ended. As a con a y iew,
Kawagu i Yo iko, he Minis e o Fo eign A ai s, hen s a ed ha “ODA o China is s ill
necessa y”(mada hi uy
oda) [7].
The majo di ision o he loan p ojec s has also changed g ea ly om in as uc u e o
en i onmen p o ec ion. Fo ins ance, six o he eigh yen loan p ojec s s a ed in 2002 was
di ec ly ela ed o en i onmen , while o he wo p ojec s we e also somehow connec ed o
en i onmen al p o ec ion (MoFA o Japan, 2003a). As shown in Table 2, none o he p ojec s
we e loca ed in eas e n China.
Due o se e al diploma ic inciden s including he Koizumi’s isi o Yasukuni Sh ine, he
Sino–Japanese ela ions became wo se du ing PM Koizumi Zyun’i i
o’s e m o o ice. In 2004,
Koizumi openly s a ed ha i was he ime when Japan’s ODA o China should be ended
(so ugy
o) [8]. On he o he hand, Li Zhaoxing, he Minis e o Fo eign A ai s o China, hen
esponded ha China would be ine wi hou Japan’s assis ance and he Chinese people had he
abili y o de elop hei own coun ies wi h hei own powe , wise, de e mina ion and con idence.
In he opinion o Japanese Go e nmen , i is unde s andable o one coun y o ecei e o eign
aid while p o iding o eign aid o o he de eloping coun ies, as Japan did be o e. Howe e ,
hos ing he Olympics migh be a symbol o one coun y being mo e de eloped, and 2008 Beijing
Olympics was conside ed as an app op ia e e en o end he yen loan o China, ag eed by bo h
Name o p ojec Region
Amoun (100
million JPY)
A mosphe ic En i onmen al Imp o emen Henan 192.95
A mosphe ic En i onmen al Imp o emen Anhui 185.58
Yichang Wa e En i onmen al Imp o emen Hubei 84.60
Nanning Wa e En i onmen al Imp o emen Guangxi 121.15
A o es a ion and Vege a ion Co e Gansu 124.00
A o es a ion and Vege a ion Co e Inne -
Mongolia
150.00
Highe Educa ion P ojec (Regional Vi aliza ion, Ma ke Economy
Re o m Suppo , and En i onmen al Conse a ion)
Inland 275.04
En i onmen al and Li ing Condi ions Imp o emen Human 78.82
Sou ce(s): Table by he au ho
Table 2.
Yen loan p ojec s
in 2002
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China and Japan. On 1 Sep embe 2007, Yang Jiechi, he Minis e o Fo eign A ai s o China,
hen comple ed he inal exchange o no es wi h K
omu a Masahiko, he Minis e o Fo eign
A ai s o Japan o he las six loan yen p ojec s (MoFA o Japan, 2007). The o al amoun o he
yen loan is 46.3 bn JPY, app oxima ely 22% o he amoun o yen loan in iscal yea 2000.
E en hough no mo e yen loan p ojec s ha e been p oposed since 2008, he assis ance o
g ass- oo (kusa no ne enzyo), which aims o p o ide g an aid o no mo e han 10 m JPY o
local and small-scale p og ammes, is s ill unde ope a ion. E en in 2016, a new echnical
coope a ion p ojec named P ojec o En i onmen F iendly Socie y Building was
de eloped, which will be comple ed in 2021 as planned. On 28 Janua y 2020, he Japanese
Go e nmen p o ided eme gency assis ance o China o he pandemic o COVID-19, which is
coun ed as g an aid (MoFA o Japan, 2020b). The e o e, e en hough he amoun and numbe
o ODA p ojec s o China is limi ed, China con inues o bene i om Japan’s ODA indeed.
Howe e , hese p ojec s a e basically socie y-o ien ed coope a ion a he han economic
coope a ion. Figu e 2 shows he amoun o Japan’ODA o China in 2000–2018 (MoFA o
Japan, 2020a).
4. Japan’s ole and na ional in e es s
The diplomacy o any coun y is always aimed o ealise he na ional in e es s, hough in
a ious ways. E en hough o eign aid is somehow conside ed as he money gi en by ich
coun ies ou o cha i y, he go e nmen s he eo always ha e o in o m hei axpaye s how
and why hei money is used. I is he e o e no su p ising ha he name o he ODA Re iew
Final Repo o Japan, published in June 2010, is “Enhancing Enligh ened Na ional In e es ”.
Howe e , na ional in e es s e e o oo many concep ions. Acco ding o Mo gen hau
(1952), na ional in e es has wo ac o s: a ionally demanded and changeable, and o pu sue
he na ional in e es is a necessi y. The au ho ag ees wi h he s a emen ha “na ional
in e es has p o en o be a e y elas ic concep wi h mul iple meanings ac oss ime and
space”(Hook, 1995, p. 5). The e i o y is ob iously highly connec ed o he na ional in e es s;
he economic bene i is also appa en . Howe e , he epu a ion o one coun y, o he so-called
so powe , sma powe o sha p powe , is mo e di icul o analyse, especially when some
in e es s migh be con o e sial.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
G an Aid Technical Coope a ion
Sou ce(s): Figu e cou esy o MoFA o Japan (2020a)
Figu e 2.
Japan’s ODA o China,
2000–2018 (loan aid
excluded;
100,000,000 JPY)
Japan’s ODA
policy owa ds
China
21
Since Hols i (1970) sys ema ically ex ending he concep o ole in sociology o o eign policy
analysis, many schola s ha e con ibu ed o he de elopmen o he ole heo y. Walke
(1987) sugges s ha he ole heo y has a desc ip i e, analy ical and o ganiza ional alue, and
Wish (1980) comes up wi h he na ional a ibu e- ole concep ion model, and conduc s con en
analyses o speeches by 29 decision-make s om 17 na ions. She concludes ha he
policymake s, who belie e ha hei na ions ha e la ge in luence domains a e mo e ac i e in
he in e na ional sys em. Recen ly, Wehne (2020) in oduces how in e p e i e na a i e
analysis allows he esea che o unde s and he change o ole wi hin a uling na a i e
domes ically and in e na ionally, p o iding p ac ical esea ch me hods o unde s anding
he na ional oles.
Th ough na a i e analysis, we may ealise how he Go e nmen o Japan and he leade s
he eo unde s ands hei ole and he in e es s o hei coun y. Based on he ole concep ion
o Japan, he au ho examines he na ional in e es s and he ealisa ion he eo .
Japan is undoub edly an economic powe , and is some imes desc ibed as “Ci ilian Powe ”.
Maull (1990) sugges ed ha a ci ilian powe , o example Japan, would p e e o coope a e
wi h o he coun ies o p omo e he collec i e in e na ional goals; and ealise he na ional
goals and in e es s wi h economical me hod a he han he mili a y me hod. Besides, some
schola s also poin ed ou ha g oup-o ien a ion was a ypical cha ac e is ic o he cul u al
no ms as well as he na ional ole o Japan.
Na a i e analysis is widely used in he ield o o eign policy analysis. Na a i e, as a
e minology, e e s o spoken o w i en ex ha desc ibes and in e p e s an e en o a se ies
o ac ions ha a e connec ed wi hin some so o sequence (Cza niawska, 2004). The na a ion
o he Japanese go e nmen ega ding he ODA o China was no always consis en , bu
ela ed o he change o domes ic poli ics and in e na ional si ua ion.
In he 1970 and 1980s, ade, ene gy and iendship we e he h ee p io i ies o Japan’s
China policy. Fi s ly, as we discussed, he la ge-scale companies we e e y in e es ed in
p omo ing ade wi h China, which elied on a s able bila e al ela ionship. Mos o he isi s
and mee ing be ween wo coun ies in he 1970s we e also ela ed o he ade. Secondly,
ene gy secu i y was a signi ican pa o Japan’s comp ehensi e secu i y policy, and Japan’s
a en ion on mining and in as uc u e du ing he nego ia ion o ODA p ojec s p o ed he
signi icance on Japan’s posi ion. Thi dly, iendship wi h China, and impo an ly, Chinese
people, was also impo an o he egional secu i y. I China, as he bigges and high po en ial
coun y in Eas Asia, could become a iend o Japan a he han an enemy, i would be a g ea
success o Japan’s diplomacy. Fo be e iendship, bo h pa ies ied o a oid discussing he
dispu ed issues, e.g. he e i o y dispu e ega ding he Diaoyu Islands (o Senkaku Islands in
Japanese), o no unde mining he “ iendship”, which is di e en wi h he si ua ion in he
la e pe iod ha he e i o y dispu e became a “weapon”o diploma s.
In addi ion, conside ing ha Japan’s aid o Sou heas Asian coun ies s a ed om wa
epa a ion, many Japanese in he 1970s migh also eel guil y o he so ow Japanese a my
b ough o Chinese people, and Asian people, du ing he Wo ld Wa II. As Lou i (1973)
sugges ed, he Japanese Go e nmen migh also hold he opinions ha he p oblem o
de elopmen in hese coun ies is no me ely an economic o social ques ion, bu a p oblem o
building peace in Asia. P o iding aid is no only a way o educe he mo al bu den o Japanese
ci izens bu also a way o heal he pain o he ci izens o o he coun ies, making a be e
na ional image in he ecipien coun ies.
The e o e, he ole concep ion o Japan, du ing he s a ing and de elopmen pe iod o he
ODA o China, could be summa ised as: (1) a ade p omo e ; (2) a egional powe and secu i y
main aine and (3) a no malising na ion wi h he esponsibili y o suppo i s neighbou s
in Asia.
The ole concep ion g adually adjus ed in he 1980s, when Japan had become an economic
gian and ied o ex end i s in luence on in e na ional poli ics. In 1992, Nakasone was elec ed
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imp o ing bila e al ela ions, (4) winning kudos and in e na ional s a us; (5) di e si ying
diploma ic me hods. As a conclusion, Japan has success ully p omo ed he ade and
business be ween wo coun ies, and somehow ensu ed he ene gy secu i y as pa o he
comp ehensi e secu i y agenda. Japan has also pa ly achie ed he objec i es o imp o ing
bila e al ela ions and di e si ying diploma ic me hods, hough he ic ions be ween wo
coun ies happened om ime o ime. Howe e , Japan has ailed o win kudos and
in e na ional s a us h ough i s ODA p ojec s in China.
In addi ion, he Go e nmen o Japan migh hold he concep ha aid p oduces economic
g ow h, which in u n encou ages poli ical s abili y and he bene i s o dono in e es s.
Howe e , as some schola s sugges ed, he p emise i sel is doub ul (Rix, 2010, pp. 17–19).
The esea ch has also p o ed ha some o he cogni ion o he Japanese Go e nmen on he
diplomacy o China as well as he unde s anding o Chinese leade s on Japan’s ODA migh be
inco ec , leading o some nega i e e ec s on he ealiza ion o Japan’s na ional in e es s.
Howe e , he cos o he Japan’s ODA was no ha high as imaged. Japanese people we e
used o sa ing hei money in hei pos al and banking sys em. The high sa ings a e
he e o e led o plen y o loan unds, which means he ac ual cos o he yen loan, hough
discoun ed, is no ha high. The Go e nmen o Japan conside ed loans o be a ional he
sys em by which loans a e epaid as economic bene i s acc ue o he bo owe o e a
ela i ely long ime (Akiyama and Nakao, 2005). In ac , due o he apidly inc easing o he
exchange a e o Japanese yen, China migh ha e o epay e en mo e in he 1990s.
The discussion in his pape also indica es some hing impo an . Fi s ly, he diploma ic
objec i es a e cons uc ed by he na ional ole concep ion, some ime unconsciously.
Secondly, o eign aid, whose ini ial objec i es a e usually connec ed wi h some speci ic
na ional in e es s o one coun y, does no necessa ily ealise hose na ional in e es s.
Thi dly, he misunde s anding o he na ional ole concep ion o he ecipien coun y and he
po en ial ole con lic migh nega i e a ec s he na ional in e es s o he dono coun y.
The pape has no discussed, wi h a quan i a i e me hod, o exac ly wha ex en has Japan
ealised i s na ional in e es s. The e a e mainly wo easons o his si ua ion: he pe cen age
o he na ional in e es s ealised by Japan h ough i s ODA policy is impossible o quan i y;
and he pe cen age is no he main opic o he pape . The au ho belie es ha he pape has
al eady discussed he main opics and made he conclusion based on bo h quan i a i e and
quali a i e me hods.
The au ho , he e o e, made he inal conclusion ega ding he ealisa ion o Japan’s
na ional in e es s on Japan’s ODA policy o China ha he policy in gene al has achie ed
some o he diploma ic objec i es success ully, bu ailed o achie e all.
The s udy’s esul s a e meaning ul no only o analysing Japan’s o eign policy bu also
o b oade In e na ional Poli ical Economy s udies. The esea ch links he ield o
in e na ional de elopmen wi h o eign policy analysis. The esea ch me hod employed in
his s udy could po en ially be applied o o he con ex s, such as examining China’s o eign
aid o A ica and Sou h Ko ea’s o eign aid o Sou heas Asia, he eby p o iding a amewo k
Types o na ional in e es s Realisa ion
P omo ing ade Success ul
Ensu ing ene gy secu i y Help ul
Imp o ing bila e al ela ions Pa ly success ul
Winning kudos and in e na ional s a us No success ul
Di e si ying diploma ic me hods Pa ly success ul in long- e m basis
Sou ce(s): Table by he au ho
Table 6.
Realiza ion o he
na ional in e es s
Japan’s ODA
policy owa ds
China
29
o e alua ing he e ec i eness and impac s o o eign aid policies in a ious in e na ional
con ex s. The s udy p o ides a aluable ounda ion and ool o enhancing o eign aid
policies and diploma ic s a egies.
No es
1. Loca ed in Kyo o, K
oka Do mi o y was bough by he Republic o China in he 1950s. The do mi o y
was in ol ed in a case in 1967 (Taiwan s eigh Chinese s uden s), bu he si ua ion go mo e
complica ed due o he no malisa ion o Sino–Japanese ela ions. The case had no been inally
esol ed un il 2018.
2. Yasukuni Sh ine o Yasukuni Jinja, a Shin o Sh ine es ablished o honou hose died in he wa s.
Howe e , he con ic ed wa c iminals died in he Wo ld Wa II, 14 o whom a e he highes class,
we e also lis ed o be “honou ed”.
3. Yanagiya Kensuke, he hen Vice Minis e o Fo eign A ai s, s a ed ha Deng had become a pe son
abo e he clouds (absen -minded), and he e o e canno lis en o o he s’opinions, in esponse o
Deng’s c i icism o Japan’s ac ions on K
oka Do mi o y. Yanagiya esigned
4. Asahi Shimbun, 25 Augus 1988.
5. Asahi Shimbun, 9 Sep embe 1989.
6. Asahi Shimbun, 24 Augus 2001.
7. Asahi Shimbun, 21 July 2002.
8. Asahi Shimbun, 21 No embe 2004.
9. Japanese Communis Pa y and o he le -wing pa ies equen ly c i icised his policy a he Die ,
saying ha his policy would uin he coun y and b ing unnecessa y loss o Japanese people. See he
con e ence p oceeding o he die .
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Co esponding au ho
Qian Qin can be con ac ed a : [email p o ec ed]
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