Espinoza, A mando; Piña-Ga cía, Ca los Adol o
A icle
(Coun e )ma ke ing and misin o ma ion: a c oss-pla o m
s udy
Cogen Business & Managemen
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Taylo & F ancis G oup
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Espinoza, A mando; Piña-Ga cía, Ca los Adol o (2024) : (Coun e )ma ke ing and
misin o ma ion: a c oss-pla o m s udy, Cogen Business & Managemen , ISSN 2331-1975, Taylo &
F ancis, Abingdon, Vol. 11, Iss. 1, pp. 1-23,
h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/23311975.2024.2398713
This Ve sion is a ailable a :
h ps://hdl.handle.ne /10419/326543
S anda d-Nu zungsbedingungen:
Die Dokumen e au EconS o dü en zu eigenen wissenscha lichen
Zwecken und zum P i a geb auch gespeiche und kopie we den.
Sie dü en die Dokumen e nich ü ö en liche ode komme zielle
Zwecke e iel äl igen, ö en lich auss ellen, ö en lich zugänglich
machen, e eiben ode ande wei ig nu zen.
So e n die Ve asse die Dokumen e un e Open-Con en -Lizenzen
(insbesonde e CC-Lizenzen) zu Ve ügung ges ell haben soll en,
gel en abweichend on diesen Nu zungsbedingungen die in de do
genann en Lizenz gewäh en Nu zungs ech e.
Te ms o use:
Documen s in EconS o may be sa ed and copied o you pe sonal
and schola ly pu poses.
You a e no o copy documen s o public o comme cial pu poses, o
exhibi he documen s publicly, o make hem publicly a ailable on he
in e ne , o o dis ibu e o o he wise use he documen s in public.
I he documen s ha e been made a ailable unde an Open Con en
Licence (especially C ea i e Commons Licences), you may exe cise
u he usage igh s as speci ied in he indica ed licence.
h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/
Cogen Business & Managemen
ISSN: 2331-1975 (Online) Jou nal homepage: www. and online.com/jou nals/oabm20
(Coun e )ma ke ing and misin o ma ion: a c oss-
pla o m s udy
A mando Espinoza & Ca los Adol o Piña-Ga cía
To ci e his a icle: A mando Espinoza & Ca los Adol o Piña-Ga cía (2024) (Coun e )ma ke ing
and misin o ma ion: a c oss-pla o m s udy, Cogen Business & Managemen , 11:1, 2398713,
DOI: 10.1080/23311975.2024.2398713
To link o his a icle: h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/23311975.2024.2398713
© 2024 The Au ho (s). Published by In o ma
UK Limi ed, ading as Taylo & F ancis
G oup
Published online: 04 Sep 2024.
Submi you a icle o his jou nal
A icle iews: 1282
View ela ed a icles
View C ossma k da a
Ci ing a icles: 1 View ci ing a icles
Full Te ms & Condi ions o access and use can be ound a
h ps://www. and online.com/ac ion/jou nalIn o ma ion?jou nalCode=oabm20
Ma ke ing | esea ch a icle
Cogen Business & ManageMen
2024, VoL. 11, no. 1, 2398713
(Coun e )ma ke ing and misin o ma ion: a c oss-pla o m s udy
a mando espinoza and ca los adol o Piña-ga cía
uni e sidad Ve ac uzana, Mexico
ABSTRACT
Ma ke ing aces challenges in he communica ion p ocess while a emp ing o pe suade
he consume , as ex e nal s imuli may in luence he a ge consume ’s esponse, and in
he digi al age, audiences choose how o ecei e messages, e en i hey op o do so.
coun e -ma ke ing, he ‘da k side’, in ol es social enginee ing and should be seen as a
new kind o massi e manipula ion, as ake e iews, on digi al media, y o in luence
he pe cep ion o a p oduc du ing he pu chasing p ocess, as consume s ely on hese
opinions. his s udy aims o unde s and he e ec s o coun e -ma ke ing s a egies in
he o m o ake e iews (misin o ma ion) and how hey al e consume beha io . We
conduc ed a c oss-pla o m s udy o unde s and i digi al coun e -ma ke ing ac ions
could a ec a p oduc ’s pe cep ion. al hough con e sa ions a ound he main sea ch
que y we e nega i e and he pe cep ion o sma phone 15 line-up may ha e been
a ec ed, we disco e ed ha bo h sales and loyal y we e no a ec ed as a e lec ion o
consume beha io .
In oduc ion
On sep embe 12, 2023, a he s e e Jobs cen e in cupe ino, cali o nia, he sma phone 15 lineup was
p esen ed, a ailabili y began on sep embe 22, 2023 (apple, 2023b). e en ually, a ew days la e , se e al
( adi ional) media epo ed an o e hea ing issue on he b and-new sma phone 15 lineup. a i s ,
allegedly, he p oblem was p esen in he p o- e sions o he de ice, hen i ‘sp ead’ o o he models. a
‘ adi ional’ media claimed ha he issue was due o a ‘bug’ in he so wa e e sion 17 (knu sson, 2023).
O he sou ces e e o he same so wa e e o on hi d pa y apps (Babu, 2023; kelly, 2023; Mccallum,
2023). he company was limi ed o acknowledging he ma e and said ha i would launch an upda e
o ix so wa e e o s (apple, 2023c; lied ke, 2023; Phelan, 2023).
howe e , he issue was no limi ed o adi ional media such as digi al edi ions o newspape s o V.
i sp ead in o social media pla o ms and online o ums whe e use s e e ed o he ma e as dange ous
and e en deadly, publishing con en (pos s) wi h images in e e ence o an eme gency o i e. social
media pla o ms ha e c ea ed new ules (singe & B ooking, 2018) o communica ions and, pa icula ly,
o he da k side o ma ke ing: coun e -ma ke ing.
Fo many cus ome s, social media is an essen ial pa o hei social and ‘shopping’ li es. a la ge amoun
o con en is p oduced daily and pos ed as au hen ic and ake p oduc s and b and e iews in o ums,
cus ome o ums, bulle ins, online communi ies, and shopping ecommenda ions on social media pla -
o ms. cus ome s now ha e mo e esou ces, such as social media pos s, online e iews, a ings, and
o ums, o in o ma ion, e alua ion, and complain s hanks o his end. ne e heless, consume s ha e
g ea e us in hei pee s’ opinions han in hose o expe s, ma ke ing, o e en b ands hemsel es
(lo enzo- ome o e al., 2014). che alie and Mayzlin (2006) ag ee ha cus ome s ely on online e iews
no only as a sou ce o in o ma ion bu as a subs i u e o o he ‘ adi ional’ means such as ‘wo d-o -mou h’.
© 2024 he au ho (s). Published by in o ma uK Limi ed, ading as aylo & F ancis g oup
CONTACT Ca los adol o Piña-ga cía cpina@u .mx
h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/23311975.2024.2398713
his is an open access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons a ibu ion License (h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/), which
pe mi s un es ic ed use, dis ibu ion, and ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed. he e ms on which his a icle has been
published allow he pos ing o he accep ed Manusc ip in a eposi o y by he au ho (s) o wi h hei consen .
ARTICLE HISTORY
ecei ed 27 Feb ua y
2024
e ised 16 May 2024
accep ed 12 augus 2024
KEYWORDS
Digi al Ma ke ing; Public
Opinion; Misin o ma ion;
Fake e iews; a i icial
Manipula ion
JEL CLASSIFICATION
CODES
M31
SUBJECTS
in e ne /Digi al
Ma ke ing/e-Ma ke ing;
Ma ke ing; consume
Beha iou ; Ma ke ing
communica ions;
Media, in o ma ion &
communica ion indus ies
2 a. esPinOZa anD c. a. PiÑa-ga cÍa
a ma ke ing ac o is in cha ge o c ea ing a communica ion campaign, public ela ions s a egies, p oduc
design, e c. each ask is subjec o ake accoun s and/o bo a acks, which hu ma ke ing e o s, analy -
ics, and he company’s economy (D enik, 2023).
he ime ame om sep embe 12 o Oc obe 12, 2023, was chosen because any p oblems ound
du ing he e alua ion o al e na i es and in o ma ion sea ch s ages o he decision p ocess we e consid-
e ed o di ec ly a ec he buye ’s decision, such as he p esen a ion, launch, and a ailabili y o he sma -
phone 15 lineup. ini ial (bad) e iews om he i s buye s o he p oduc could pe suade he consume
beha io empe ing wi h he pe cep ion o he b and and/o alue o e . his s udy aims o unde s and
he e ec s o coun e -ma ke ing s a egies in he o m o ake e iews (misin o ma ion) and how hey
a emp o al e consume beha io .
Ma ke ing con ex
se e al companies p o ide an online o um o use s o e iew pu chased p oduc s, quali ying he p od-
uc on a s a o poin scale. howe e , only a ew ha e implemen ed aud-de ec ion echnologies o
p e en use -gene a ed ake e iews. he company does no ha e a e iew si e. ins ead, i o e s a sup-
po communi y o um o ‘lea n abou i s p oduc s, new ways o enjoy hem, and o sha e knowledge
wi h he communi y’. a space whe e membe s eel com o able asking and answe ing ques ions (apple,
n.d.c). sea ch engines ha e implemen ed ools o p o ec business e iews since 2021, when suspicious
beha io was de ec ed, and web-based and machine lea ning ools we e used o pos ake con en ,
decla ing ha e iews should e lec eal expe iences (Mccluskey, 2022).
he e is wha is conside ed he ‘da k side’ o ma ke ing. nega i e s a egies o wo k in opposi ion o
p omo ion. hadnagy (2018) s a ed ha social enginee ing wo ks o all ypes o humans. Wi h he igh
emo ional igge a he app op ia e ime, e e y consume can become a ic im.
i is common o con use he e ms ‘in luence’ and ‘manipula ion’. hadnagy (2018) de ines in luence
as ‘ge ing someone o wan o do some hing you wan hem o do’. Manipula ion is de ined as ‘ge ing
someone o do some hing you wan hem o do’. he di e ence is ha manipula ion gene ally does
no include ca ing abou a a ge ’s eelings. in his pa icula esea ch, we choose manipula ion and
pe suasion as he a iables o s udy because o he ‘agg essi eness’ o ma ke ing coun e measu e
ac ics.
in addi ion o social media pla o ms, we also e e ed o online o ums, sea ch ends, and inance
esul s o ack he company ‘no mal’ s ock p ice changes (Fama, 1965) on he s ock ma ke . his was
done wi h he in en ion o unde s anding he e ec s he sma phone as a alue o e (p oduc ) and as
a b and could endu e he o e hea ing issue ela ed o he en i e de ice lineup, pa icula ly in he ou h
qua e o 2023.
he e is li e a u e (nys & engelen, 2023; Weinbe ge e al., 1981) based on heo y ha can help o
unde s and and explain how he consume beha es and how coun e -ma ke ing, h ough misin o ma-
ion, ake news and e iews, could a ec , modi y, o manipula e he consume ’s pe cep ion and ma ke -
ing e o s o a b and, p oduc , o e en a company, especially du ing he buye decision p ocess.
speci ically, we ied o unde s and i coun e -ma ke ing is in ended o manipula e he pe cep ion
and, ul ima ely, he consume beha io o a b and o p oduc . We posed he ollowing esea ch ques ions:
Q1: Wha echniques do coun e -ma ke e s use o manipula e consume pe cep ions?
Q2: can coun e -ma ke ing pe suade consume s o a ec hei beha io du ing he decision-making
p ocess?
Theo ical pe spec i es
in addi ion, Machado e al. (2014), apple has had an expe ien ial app oach o ma ke ing s a egies o
connec wi h i s consume s. he company aims o ampli y he essence o a p oduc in o expe iences ha
may ein o ce he alue o e ed and igge an emo ional esponse om consume s. When an expe ience
is posi i e and/o he consume ’s sa is ac ion exceeds expec a ions, i may become an ad oca e o
cOgen Business & ManageMen 3
spokespe son o he p oduc o b and (ko le e al., 2022). i a consume is conside ed an ad oca e, i
is because he expe ience has been ewa ding and loyal y has inc eased o a long ime. a ha poin ,
hey ha dly conside o he al e na i es o e en sea ch o in o ma ion du ing he pu chase p ocess. in
his case, hey de end he b and agains coun e measu es such as e iews o news ha could a ec he
p oduc /b and image and pe cep ion, as consume ad oca es a e emo ionally a ached o he b and and
possess a ce ain sense o owne ship (Machado e al., 2014).
Buye decision p ocess
ko le e al. (2022) desc ibe he buye decision p ocess o pu chases as a i e-s age model in Figu e 1.
he buye is no equi ed o go h ough each s age; hey can skip ahead, s op a any poin , o e en
‘jump’ s aigh o he choice. in addi ion o p oduc use and disposal conside a ions, i is a psychological
p ocess ha aims o comp ehend consume beha io in e ms o wha , how, when, whe e, who, o wha
in luences pu chase decisions.
ex e nal ac o s, du ing he e alua ion o al e na i es o in o ma ion sea ch s ages, may comp omise
in luencing he u u e pu chase and/o pos -pu chase beha io , which in he case o he p esen a icle
may e e o al e ing he physical pe cep ion o he p oduc .
in addi ion o cul u al mo i es, social ac o s (s a us, e e ence g oups, amily, e c.) mus be add essed
o comp ehend how ex e nal in luences di ec ly impac a pu chasing choice o al e a i udes abou a
p oduc o company. acco ding o ko le e al. (2022), e e ence g oups a ec an indi idual’s a i udes
and beha io . hose who p o ide p oduc ecommenda ions and usage ad ice a e e e ed o as ‘opinion
leade s’.
Pe suasion, manipula ion and in luence
Pe suasion is a b anch o communica ion ha in luences o he people. acco ding o Jowe and O’Donnell
(2018), i is a complex, in e ac i e and con inuous p ocess in which he pe suade a emp s o in luence
he pe suaded pe son o modi y hei opinion, a i ude o beha io , esul ing in a change in pe cep ion
o he ‘ ic im’, o audience (g oup o consume s). When pe suasi e e o s a e success ul, he pe suaded
pe son is le su p ised.
Pe suade s a emp o modi y belie s, alues, a i udes, beha io s, g oups o no ms, and esonance.
Jowe and O’Donnell (2018) s a e ha belie is a pe cei ed ela ionship be ween wo undamen al
aspec s o an indi idual. o pe suade a belie , a pe suade mus build a new one using an old belie . a
Value is a guideline o consume beha io . i is a special belie ha he modi ica ion is di icul . a i ude
is a eac ion o he assessmen o a concep , i em, o communica ion. a pe son will na u ally de elop an
a i ude abou a b and o p oduc i hey ha e a belie in i . a change in a i ude is he pe suade ’s
desi ed esponse. On he o he hand, consume beha io may p esen pa e ns used as ancho s o p e-
dic u u e beha io . F om he e, a pe suade may in oduce new in o ma ion abou how o beha e
(Bandu a, 1986).
acco ding o a al (2020), companies, p oduc s, b ands, and agencies ely on a p ocess called in e-
g a ed digi al ma ke ing (iDM) o accomplish la ge-scale beha io al changes o mass pe suasion. Digi al
ma ke ing depends on di e se channels: social, sea ch, display, and mobile ad e ising. each channel
Figu e 1. ex e nal in luence Du ing he Buye Decision P ocess (Pu chase). Sou ce: Ko le e al. (2022).
4 a. esPinOZa anD c. a. PiÑa-ga cÍa
belongs o a di e en objec i e, a ge audience, and momen . sea ch ad e ising, o pu poses o he
p esen esea ch, should be o consume s who a e in he sea ch o in o ma ion and e alua ion o al e -
na i es, as he o he channels (mobile, social, and display) a e designed o c ea e awa eness and/o sup-
po he message. he iDM p ocess is used wi h he in en ion o manipula ing he low o massi e
ma ke ing communica ion o agenda. as in he ea ly s ages o in o ma ion sea ching and e alua ion o
al e na i es du ing he buye decision p ocess, noise and coun e communica ions ( ake e iews) can
pe suade consume beha io and, ul ima ely, pu chase decisions.
Mass pe suasion is no a new concep ; i exis s because o he w i en p ess, adio, o ele ision. i
has e ol ed as he con empo a y media has. howe e , wi h he in en ion o he in e ne and he su ge
o social media, he mass pe sonaliza ion, o a ge ing, is possible o ‘ ailo ’ a message as ma ke ee s can
ge o ‘pe sonally’ know he a ge audience. la ge-scale ma ke ing s a egies u ilize p edic i e modeling
which uses ‘indi idual-le el da a’ o p edic con e ible consume s based on hei demog aphics, beha -
io s, p e e ences, social ne wo ks and loca ion (a al, 2020). howe e , his may o may no be employed
in ake e iews, as consume s sea ch o in o ma ion o ‘consume’ con en on social media pla o ms o
online o ums. his could depend on he coun e -ma ke ing s a egies analyzed in he p esen s udy.
Mo eo e , manipula ion di ec ly in luences he p e e ences, belie s, desi es, and/o emo ions o an
indi idual, as de ined by Ba nhill (2014). acco ding o amo y (2013), psychological manipula ion is a ype
o social in luence ha aims o change he pe cep ion o beha io o o he s h ough unde handed,
decep i e, o e en abusi e ac ics such as coun e -ma ke ing. a key elemen o manipula ion is ha he
‘ ic im’ is unawa e ha hey a e being manipula ed.
in addi ion, amo y (2013) decla es ha he e a e h ee key elemen s in ol ed in a success ul manip-
ula ion s a egy: i s , disguising iolen in en ions and ac ions; second, unde s anding he ic im’s (con-
sume ) psychological ulne abili ies in o de o decide wha s a egies a e mos likely o wo k; and inally,
possessing enough e oci y ha , i necessa y, i would no be a p oblem o ha m he ic im (consume ,
p oduc , o b and).
Manipula ion does no emain wi hin he bounda ies o ‘posi i eness’ as i does no conside he ic-
im’s eelings and consequences. acco ding o a al (2020) ‘happy’ and ‘sad’ eelings dispose people o
ga he , in wha is called hipe socializa ion o emo ions. he e o e, ‘ ea ’ h ough ‘emo ional’ con agion can
in luence a g oup o people eeling he same manne . in his pa icula case, he ea o ge ing bu ned
by an o e hea ed sma phone o he de ice i sel ge ing on i e.
Pe cep ion is he p ocess by which a pe son selec s, a anges, and analyzes he s imuli (in o ma ion)
o which hey a e exposed in o de o c ea e an image o he ou side wo ld (ko le e al., 2022). acco ding
o Be elson and s eine (1964), consume s end o mispe cei e pe suasi e messages acco ding o hei
p edisposi ions. i is also in luenced by he ela ionships be ween he en i onmen and in e nal ac o s.
On he o he hand, hawkins e al. (2004) de ine pe cep ion as a se ies o ac i i ies by which s imuli a e
pe cei ed, in e p e ed and memo ized. his is pa o he in o ma ion p ocess o consume
Decision Making.
On he o he hand, in luence has been ex ensi ely esea ched. i in ol es people using di e en o ms
o ‘powe ’ based on a a ie y o ac o s, including he ci cums ance, he goal, he alues o he ‘ ic im’,
he in luence ’s mo i e, and socie al no ms. in addi ion o he a o emen ioned bene i s o he p oduc ,
cialdini (1984) asse s ha consis ency is wha ein o ces he in luence ’s goal because i o ces him o
‘ igh ’ agains o he s imuli in o de o s ay (o no ) ele an in he ma ke . cus ome iewpoin .
Finally, ko le e al. (2022) s a e ha in addi ion o ex e nal a iables and o he s imuli ha may cause
noise in message deli e y, he app oach will be de e mined by he alue o e ed, i s bene i s, he ma ke ,
and he b and and consume pe sonali y. Ma ke ing communica ion is used o deli e messages acco d-
ing o he main objec i e.
Ma ke ing communica ions
i is impo an o s a e se e al key elemen s o he ma ke ing communica ion, de ined by Be elson and
s eine (1964): Fi s ly, communica ion is de ined by as he p ocess o ansmission o ideas, in o ma ion,
emo ions, e c. by he use o symbols h ough media; Mass media, hen, is he ansmission using media
wi h he abili y o massi ely communica e om a sou ce o a la ge audience; audience is he (gene ic)
cOgen Business & ManageMen 5
e m o indi iduals who ead, iew and lis en he con en ; con en is wha is said in he communica ion,
he message. Finally, he e ec o he communica ion can ha e any change in he consume ’s beha io
as a esul o he exposu e o (mass) media, such as al e ing he indi idual pe cep ion and ul ima ely a
selec ion o pu chase. howe e , any indi idual can esis pe suasi e communica ion.
h ough ma ke ing communica ions, companies aim o in o m, pe suade, and emembe consume s
di ec ly o indi ec ly abou he p oduc s and b ands hey sell (ko le e al., 2022). hey also show con-
sume s how and why a p oduc is used, as well as who uses i , and whe e and when hey do so.
howe e , hey can also a ec he pe cep ion o a b and o p oduc by ela ing bad expe iences wi h he
b and. Public sou ces o in o ma ion, such as social media and consume a ing o ums, a e equen ly
used by consume s du ing he in o ma ion sea ch and e alua ion o al e na i e s ages, such as (social)
media and consume a ing o ums.
ko le e al. (2022) and Van Os (2018) ag ee ha consume s begin he ‘pu chase p ocess’ wi h a
esea ch and e alua ion o al e na i es, e en i hey a e awa e o amilia wi h he p oduc . none heless,
his may c ea e a social heu is ic, as consume s e e o social and digi al media o ‘ esea ch’ and ‘e alu-
a e’ elying on he opinion and e iews w i en by bo h s ange s and in luence s. in addi ion, acco ding
o Van Os (2018), ‘con en ma ke ing’ is used o publish a icles, news, e iews, and pos s wi h a p oduc
bias, in an ob ious a emp o manipula e he consume , di ec ly in luencing he decision-making p o-
cess. howe e , i also decla es ha consume s a e becoming mo e awa e o he bias and ake con en ,
and hus, may be losing e ec i eness.
ano he ma ke ing communica ion s a egy ha is commonly used o al e consume pe cep ions is
ad e ising. calkins (1915) claimed ha i is di icul o ind a sa is ac o y de ini ion o ad e ising. i onizes
ha can be in e p e ed as a ‘business imagina ion’ ha appeals o he consume o c ea e a desi e o
he p oduc ha did no exis be o e. ad e ising is conside ed a o m o media manipula ion because
i uses echniques o manipula e he pe cep ions o he audience wi h he b oadcas message, acco ding
o Ba nhill (2014). i is based on epe i ion, as i weakens any esis ance i may encoun e , ein o cing
associa ions, and he memo y o he message.
Bagwell (2007) s a es ha ad e ising eaches consume s h ough media and de ines i as pe suasion,
as a emp s o al e consume s’ knowledge, alues, and pe cep ion; in addi ion, ad e ising may be in o -
ma i e in o de o ‘smoo h’ he impe ec in o ma ion a consume could ha e. his can also be applied
in ‘ e e se’ as a pa o ma ke ing coun e measu es o i al (hos ile) companies in o de o main ain and
expand he ma ke and o su i e in he new compe i i e wo ld economy o he ‘su i al o he i es ’
(Deng & lu, 2011; ing ing, 2015).
On he o he hand, ho acke and Belanche (2016) decla e ha consume s con inuously and inc eas-
ingly use digi al and social media o se e al consump ion opics as o sha e hei expe ience and o
in e ac wi h he p oduc , bu also o complain and ‘bad’ e iewing p oduc s. as s a ed be o e, ake
e iews, such as coun e -ma ke ing communica ion, a e a ype o misin o ma ion sp ead h ough social
media, o he pla o ms, and online o ums. howe e , indi iduals ac agains communica ions pe cei ed
as agg essi e ‘opinion change s’, blocking hem wi h consis en esis ance allowing only communica ion
ha ein o ces he exis ing p edisposi ion o change (Be elson & s eine , 1964). Digi al consume s ha e
he powe o con as communica ions in eal- ime.
Finally, ma ke ing communica ion aims o al e consume s’ pe cep ion o a p oduc , bo h in posi i e
and nega i e ways. Mccluskey (2022) s a es ha con en in he o m o ake e iews aims o damage he
pe cep ion, us , o in e es a cus ome may ha e on a pa icula p oduc o b and. a communica ion
s a egy, in ol ing disin o ma ion h ough ake e iews and news, can be mo i a ed by se e al mo i es;
howe e , o he pu poses o he cu en esea ch, he ollowing wo a e accoun ed o : 1) he need o
ad ance i s own pu poses and pe sonal gain a i ually any cos , and 2) a desi e o gain a eeling o
powe o e o he b ands/p oduc s o al e he cus ome ’s pe cep ion.
Misin o ma ion
he speci ic e m, nowadays, ac s as an ‘umb ella e m’ and also i is e ol ing and includes all
‘non-in en ional’ alsehoods and i is a p oblem ha occu s a ound he wo ld and ac oss di e se
pla o ms, and each one o hem de ines misin o ma ion acco ding o he ype and con en o hem
6 a. esPinOZa anD c. a. PiÑa-ga cÍa
(ecke e al., 2022; oge s, 2023.2022a). in addi ion, he de ini ion in ol es he jou nalis ic o edi o ial
p ocess, which is conside ed o be he sou ce and no he s o y ( an de linden, 2022).
Misin o ma ion is de ined as some hing un ue is sp ead unwi ingly and any in o ma ion ha u ns
ou o be alse ha can be ampli ied h ough digi al media and pla o ms and has he in en ion o o m
a ‘ alse’ belie in he audience also he ampli ica ion and engagemen o he misin o ma ion a ies
be ween pla o ms (ecke e al., 2022; søe, 2018). he e m misin o ma ion mus be sepa a ed om a
simila e m, disin o ma ion, whe e he sp ead is also done, bu wi h malicious in en . F om he poin o
iew o oge s (2023.2018b) misin o ma ion also may be associa ed wi h he e m ‘ ake news’, de ined as
impos e , conspi acy news and ‘ideological web ope a ions’.
howe e , sp eading misin o ma ion may ha e he in en ion o manipula e (nega i e app oach) he
indi idual’s pe cep ion on di e en scales acco ding o he ‘weigh ’ o he p oblem, he social pla o m,
and he a ge audience. a ‘misin o ma i e pos ’ may ge mo e in e ac ion as i a emp s o balance and
con ex ualize he con en pos ed by misin o ma o s (g oen & geboe s, 2023; oge s, 2023.2023b).
he co id-19 pandemic accele a ed online comme ce, making cus ome s lean digi ally on e iews
mo e in ensely. consume s lea ned new ways and indica o s o make online pu chases easie (Ma ciano,
2021; Mccluskey, 2022).
Online cus ome suppo communi ies ha e he in en ion o help cus ome s by c ea ing and sp ead-
ing a posi i e ‘wo d-o -mou h’, he i s o m o ad e ising, a ound he p oduc , acco ding o Van Os
(2018) his is a e y powe ul ma ke ing communica ion ool. howe e , cus ome s no only join o pa -
icipa e in hese online o ums. consume s end o ob ain in o ma ion and e alua e hei pu chases by
sea ching o e iews because hey hink ha an online ( eal o ake) e iew is mo e impo an han any
o he o m, ype, o a ing. howe e , 85% o consume s belie e ha online e iews a e ake o audu-
len ; hey do no hink hey a e genuine, bu he scope is he same; ake e iews aim o cause a loss o
con idence (Vignolo, 2019).
ne e heless, when a ake e iew ‘hi s’ he sa e y issue a heal h isk may be in ol ed. Mccluskey
(2022) s a es ha consume s end o a oid p oduc s o b ands pe cei ed as dange ous o poo ly
e iewed. i a de ice a consume holds agains i s o head ge s oo ho , i canno be pe cei ed as sa e,
damaging he b and’s pe cep ion. Fake e iewing could be a ype o as o u ing campaign. he ‘ac o ’
aims o pos ake e iews in o ‘o ganic’ e iews and o p o i om hem, depending on he s a egy o
desi ed ou come, e en a e he ake e iew is de ec ed and/o dele ed (Ma ciano, 2021).
a c owd wi h an in e dependen opinion in a homogenous communi y connec s use s in o a mass
opinion ha can ou pe o m an expe opinion and e en co po a e o o icial s a emen s; his is called
he ‘madness o c owds’ (a al, 2020). in addi ion, in social media, i has been e e ed o as pee in luence
e iews, whe e i can modi y judgemen s, opinions, and beha io i he e iews a e mos ly posi i e
because a sa is ied cus ome can posi i ely e iew and in luence ano he cus ome o buy he same
p oduc o b and.
howe e , acco ding o che alie and Mayzlin (2006), he e is no li e a u e ha suppo s he idea ha
online e iews (o ganic o no ) and communi y o ums ha e any e ec on consume decision-making.
consume s, howe e , will igno e posi i e e iews and y o sea ch o nega i e e iews. hese ‘bad
ac o s’ a e widely mo i a ed o a ack o coun e a ack ma ke ing e o s om any company. hey may
hu dle a cus ome o um and ill i wi h nega i e e iews in an a emp o damage cus ome expe ience
o pe cep ion. Fo hese a acks o be e icien mus be done on a la ge scale (D enik, 2023; esnick &
Zeckhause , 2002; omano e al., 2017).
One simple solu ion would be o de ec (using Machine lea ning, as is he case o eddi ) and emo e
any ake e iews om social media pla o ms and o ums; howe e , his does no add ess di ec ly o
sol e he p oblem; hus, i does no cancel he in luence a ake e iew can ha e, c ea ing a cascade o
ake e iews ha would ollow, sha ed om pe son o pe son. acco ding o a al (2020), he damage in
his scena io could be ep esen a i e o he pe cep ion o a ce ain p oduc , b and, o company.
Me hodology
Fo he pu pose o his esea ch, a mixed-me hod explo a o y design was chosen. his me hod makes
use o an app oach o iden i y keywo ds in o m o he esea ch que y ‘iPhone® 15 o e hea ing’ ha he
cOgen Business & ManageMen 7
company’s cu en , and po en ial, consume s used o pos , commen , eply and, especially, o e alua e
and o sea ch o in o ma ion ega ding an alleged p oblem soon a e he sma phone 15 lineup launch
and sale on 2023 Q3 (la e sep embe , 2023).
We ga he in o ma ion acco ding o he sou ce: i s , social media; second, online o ums, and inally,
in e ne sea ch engines; analyzed he da ase s h ough con en and sen imen analysis, equency, co- ag,
in e es , and s ock and sales beha io .
ini ially, we ga he ed he da ase om ik ok®1 (social media pla o m) using he 4ca (Pee e s &
hagen, 2022) ool o he esea ch que y. he pos ed con en is pa o a global con e sa ion a ound he
issue objec o he p esen a icle. able 1 shows in o ma ion ela ed o he da ase : numbe o i ems
and da e o collec ion. i mus be highligh ed ha he numbe o collec ed i ems co esponds o he
social media pla o m using he men ioned que y in body, hash ag, commen s, eplies, and s icke s, as
4ca (Pee e s & hagen, 2022) ecognizes he ags as wo ds in any ex elemen .
F om he da ase , we ob ained he humbnails om all he ideos using he sea ch que y ‘iphone 15
o e hea ing’, he 4ca (Pee e s & hagen, 2022) ool allowed us o ob ain an image wall a anged by a
colo heme. in addi ion, a e a il e ing p ocess, we ob ained a co- ag ne wo k, izualized wi h gephi™2,
wi h he ags associa ed wi h he main que y o se a ela ion be ween hem in e ms o equency.
Fu he mo e, ollowing a il e ing p ocess, he op en keywo ds we e selec ed om he sample o
de e mine he main con ex o he social media pla o m con e sa ion a ound he p oduc . in addi ion,
we analyzed he mos used icons in he da ase and he sen imen analysis c ea ed wi h he ee cha gP
3.5 ool (aWs, n.d.; saini, 2023; Openai, n.d.) o he da ase om he main que y on he social media
pla o m.
O cou se, he con en pos ed on he social media pla o m and ga he ed in he da ase included
o ganic o eal e iews, commen s, eplies, and legi ime ques ions. he 4ca (Pee e s & hagen, 2022) ool
ga he s all o he in o ma ion using he sea ch que y. he sen imen analysis by he cha gP 3.5 (Openai,
n.d.) ool was done in gene al e ms, equilizing eal wi h ake e iews.
a e analyzing he da ase ga he ed om he social media, we analyzed he in o ma ion om he
apple suppo communi y3, an online o um o lea n abou he company’s p oduc s, new ways o enjoy
hem, and o sha e knowledge wi h he communi y, whe e membe s eel com o able asking and answe -
ing ques ions (apple, n.d.a). in his pa icula o um, he company’s de ice use s.
Fu he mo e, esea ch on he online o um was conduc ed lis ed in able 2. he objec i e was o
analyze he pos s, use s, and con en e e ing o he o e hea ing issue in he i s mon h a e he
launch o he sma phone 15.
a o al o 82 pos s we e ound and he da a o each pos was copied including: da e, use name,
‘ iews’, ‘me oo’, ‘ eplies’, pa icipa ion, achie emen s (le el and poin s awa ded) and Os e sion anda
de ice (when decla ed). a e a il e ing p ocess on a sp eadshee , he sample was educed o 43 o iginal
pos s con aining he e ms o he main esea ch que y in he i le and body ex . 25 pos s we e c ea ed
om all sma phone lineups. Only se en pos s ega ded ques ions (Qs) abou o e hea ing. One use
pos ed a c opped sc eensho , including a wa ning ha cha ging was on hold and esumed when he
de ice e u ned o no mal empe a u e.
no pos s be o e sep embe 22, 2023, ega ding sma phone 15, we e ound because he company
s a ed he sale and shipping on ha day (goh & Malik, 2023), suppo ing he idea ha no use was
able o pos a message e iewing he de ice p io o ac ually ha ing i on hand. howe e , we disco e ed
some pos s om use s complaining abou he o e hea hu ing hem, om de ices ha we e no he
Table 1. summa y in o ma ion ob ained om he Resea ch Que y on he social Media Pla o m.
numbe o i ems cap u ed Da e o collec ion
343 oc obe 12, 2023
Da a sou ce: 4Ca (Pee e s, s. & Hagen, s., 2022) & ik ok (n.d.).
Table 2. summa y in o ma ion ob ained om he suppo Communi y o he Resea ch Que y.
Fil e s Da e Resul s o iginal Replies Complains sma phone 15 Qs
Las mon h oc 12, 2023 82 43 36 35 25 7
Da a sou ce: apple, n.d.a.
14 a. esPinOZa anD c. a. PiÑa-ga cÍa
o icial accoun ( e i ied) o he company (@apple). i has no published any ideos (wi h mo e han
7.4 M likes and 3.2 ollowe s) wha soe e .
Apple suppo communi y
Figu e 10 shows he esul s a e an in-dep h analysis o he use (kcue89,89, 2023) pos e e ed om
he gua dian’s Digi al edi ion a icle.
Fi s , he use seems o be an accoun o ecen c ea ion (le el 1 and does no p o ide a da e o
c ea ion), wi h his being he i s and only pos o in e ac ion in he communi y (pa icipa ion and
achie emen s). las ly, he pos published on sep embe 25, 2023, 13 days a e he public elease o he
sma phone 15 on sep embe 12 (apple, 2023), eached an engagemen o 125 ‘Me oo’, 921 iews and
2 eplies. One o hem om he use ‘ heli les’ (le el 10, 185,781 poin s) inqui ing ha is no he i s
one o epo ha ma e and gi ing ou a possible solu ion o he issue. he second eply om he use
‘un ensan’ (le el 1) wonde ed i he case had o do any hing wi h he o e hea ing p oblem. none o he
esponses go a ‘help ul’ coun no a eply om he pos ’s au ho o o he use s. i is belie ed o be
insu icien ly ep esen a i e and/o in luen ial.
i is impo an o no e ha use s ge poin s o upscale le els by pos ing and in e ac ing on he o um
in o de o ob ain me e (anonymous) ecogni ion. his can be ‘ ansla ed’ in o us in he e iewe and
in luence o e he consume (in he sea ch/e alua ion phase). Milmo (2023) also e e s o ano he pos
om he use ‘ nu_pan’ (474 iews, 7 eplies, 21 ‘me oo’, da a om Oc obe 3, 2023), claiming ha he
empe a u e om he de ice hu s i s skin. howe e , while he online o um allows he use s o include
he de ice om whe e he publica ion is being pos ed he use ‘ nu_pan’ men ions o pos i om an se
de ice wi h ope a i e sys em 17.
conduc ing a wo d coun om he online o um da ase , we ound ha ‘sma phone 15’ was men-
ioned 54 imes, ‘o e hea ing’ 32 imes and ‘ho ’ 22 imes. in addi ion, Figu e 11 shows he op en mos
ecu en wo ds in he da ase .
Reddi
We used he cha gP 3.5 ee ool (Openai, n.d.) capable o unde s anding na u al language o pe o m
a sen imen analysis o he pos s on eddi o he que y ‘iphone 15 o e hea ing’. Figu e 12 shows ha
sen imen is mos ly nega i e (41%). his was expec ed because o he in insic cha ac e is ics o he
o e hea ing issue.
Figu e 10. sc eensho om he apple suppo Communi y.
No e: Da a as oc obe 12, 2023. Da a sou ce: apple suppo Communi y (apple, n.d.a).
cOgen Business & ManageMen 15
neu al pos s a e ques ions o news headlines. howe e , nega i e pos s we e c i ics and complain s
abou how he de ices o e hea ed and bu ned, wi h no g aphical e idence o hese pa icula s a e-
men s. On he o he hand, Figu e 13 illus a es he mos ep esen a i e images o he que y. se e al
images we e epea ed in he publica ions and eplies sec ion. sc eensho s and ideo humbnails a e
used, including a pic u e o he o me company’s ceO. howe e , some use s pos ed pic u es e e ing
o he o e hea ing issue wi h i e, lames, i e ex inguishe s, and he mome e s wi h high- empe a u e
eadings. howe e , mos pos s use sma phones as humbnails.
Sea ch ends
Figu e 14 ep esen s in e es o e ime o he esea ch e m. his end peaked du ing he las week o
sep embe 2023. his is also ela ed o he esul s o online o ums. he numbe s ep esen he sea ch
in e es ela i e o he highes poin on he cha o a gi en egion and ime. a alue o 100 ep esen s
Figu e 11. Ba Cha showing he F equency o use o Wo ds in he apple suppo Communi y Da a se .
No e: Da a as oc obe 12, 2023. Da a sou ce: apple suppo Communi y (apple, n.d.).
Figu e 12. sen imen analysis o Pos s on Reddi o he sea ch Que y ‘iphone 15 o e hea ing’.
No e: Pe iod sep embe 12 – oc obe 12, 2023. Da a sou ce: Reddi (2023d).
16 a. esPinOZa anD c. a. PiÑa-ga cÍa
he e m’s peak popula i y. a alue o 50 indica es ha he e m is hal popula . a sco e o 0 means ha
he e was no enough da a o his e m ( ends help, 2023). his could indica e ha no enough use s
sea ched o he e m and/o he o e hea ing issue was no ele an enough o consume s who used a
sea ch engine o in o ma ion and/o e alua ing al e na i es du ing he pu chase p ocess.
in addi ion, cu y (2023) s a es ha , aside om china and Japan, asia anked i h in e ms o e enue
be ween 2015 and 2021. howe e , since 2019, i has been s eadily expanding, and in 2022 and 2023, i
will ank as he ou h egion globally (da a a e s ill missing). his may con ibu e o singapo e’s high
and cyp us mid-le el in e es in (popula i y o ) e m sea ches. he uni ed s a es ([Value: 32], i h place)
accoun s o 35% o he company’s yea ly sales and e enue. howe e , nei he he numbe o use s who
looked o he ph ase du ing he in o ma ion sea ch and al e na i e e alua ion s ages no he pe spec-
i e o consume s ega ding he subjec ’s in e es a e measu ed.
in addi ion, able 4 shows he ela ed que ies use s also sea ched while sea ching o he subjec
‘iPhone 15 o e hea ing’. he mos popula sea ch que ies a e p esen ed. sco ing is on a ela i e scale
whe e a alue o 100 is he mos commonly sea ched que y, 50 is a que y sea ched hal as o en as he
mos popula que y and, inally, a sco e nea o 0 means ha he que y is almos no sea ched o .
Figu e 13. image Wall om Reddi o he sea ch Que y ‘iPhone 15 o e hea ing’.
No e: Pe iod sep embe 12 – oc obe 12, 2023. Da a sou ce: Reddi (2023.d).
Figu e 14. in e es o e ime Rega ding he Que y ‘iphone 15 o e hea ing’.
No e: Pe iod om sep/12-oc /12, 2023. Resul s include all he ela ed e ms ega dless le e case.
Da a sou ce: ends n.d.
cOgen Business & ManageMen 17
Company’s s ock, e enue and sales
in he las i e yea s (2019-2023) he dynamic o s ock (aaPl) ma ke p ices had wha may be desc ibed
as consis en and s eady expansion, eaching i s peak p ice ($196.45) on July 31, 2023 while he lowes
$37.68 on Decembe 21, 2018, as shown in Figu e 15 (Finance, 2023; nasdaq, n.d.).
addi ionally, he i e mos ecen sma phone lineup launches a e p esen ed. While no o he de ice issues
a e discussed, he company’s s ock beha io shows no supe icial e ec s a e he las i e p oduc launches
o media phenomenon, ega ding he same issues desc ibed abo e, he a ge o he p esen a icle.
ega ding he o e hea ing issue ela ed o he sma phone 15 lineup (sep embe 12, 2023), he s ock
p ice (aaPl) beha ed ‘no mally’ as changes in s ock p ices occu due o accumula ion o many ac o s,
in his case psychological, and o he pa icula elemen s ha de e mine he in e nal mo emen s e lec -
ing he ‘p ice independence’ un ela ed o mac oeconomics, poli ical e en s, and ma ke ing s a egies
and/o ac ions.
ne e heless, changes in he s ock p ice do no measu e o e lec , by any means, he pe cep ion o
he b and o he p oduc (sma phone 15 lineup), and any change in he s ock alue can in e e e in
eaching he objec i es and a ec ma ke ing ac ions. howe e , no e idence o al e a ion ela ed o he
o e hea ing issue was ound ha could di ec ly o indi ec ly a ec he company’s s ock p ice in he
e e ed pe iod.
On he o he hand, Figu e 16 illus a es he o al wo ldwide e enue o he company, as a company,
om 2019 (19Q1) o 2023 (23Q4). i also shows he o al wo ldwide e enue o he sma phone lineup,
which is no able o ep esen ing mo e han hal o he company’s annual e enue, acco ding o cu y (2023).
P oduc a ailabili y in la e sep embe and he ‘end-o -yea ’ sales a e ep esen ed in Q4. i is also
expec ed ha sales in Q3 (July-sep embe ) will slow down due o he expec a ion o a new model
coming soon on Q4 (Oc obe -Decembe ). O he companies’ p oduc s, accesso ies, and se ices ep esen
he es (<50%), e en hough he company hos s one launch e en (mainly o hose p oduc s) in Ma ch.
Despi e he company’s decision o s op disclosing sma phone sales igu es o he public, he yea ly
lineup uni sales a e e iden in 2018 Q4 (cu y, 2023; ga un, 2018), as depic ed in Figu e 17. sales
peaked in 2021 a 242 million uni s a e s eady g ow h since 2008. howe e , sales numbe s canno
accu a ely e lec he new model because hey migh include olde models. a e 2019, all alues we e
o ecas s and es ima es. sales igu es beha ed ‘no mally’, as in p e ious yea s, wi h inc easing numbe s
cons an ly yea ly. acco ding o koe sie (2024), he company shipped 234.6 million uni s in 2023, ba ely
1% mo e han in 2022. his igu e shows he en i e sma phone lineup.
Table 4. op 10 Rela ed Que ies o he sea ch e m ‘iphone 15 o e hea ing’.
1. iphone 15 p o 100 6. iphone 15 p o max o e hea ing 71
2. o e hea ing iphone 15 p o 100 7. apple iphone 15 max o e hea ing 51
3. apple iphone 15 o e hea ing 73 8. apple iphone 15 p o max
o e hea ing
44
4. apple iphone 15 73 9. is iphone 15 o e hea ing 18
5. iphone 15 p o max o e hea ing 71 10. iphone 15 o e hea ing issue 13
No e: Pe iod sep embe 12–oc obe 12, 2023. Da a sou ce: google ends (h ps://www.google.com/ ends), n.d.
Figu e 15. His o ical Beha io o he apple inc. Common s ock (aaPL) P ice.
Da a sou ce: google Finance (h ps://www.google.com/ inance) & nasdaq (h ps://www.nasdaq.com).
18 a. esPinOZa anD c. a. PiÑa-ga cÍa
Discussion
We a gue ha (coun e )ma ke ing is mean o be used o manipula e and dis o consume pe cep ion,
e en wi h a posi i e agenda, as ma ke ing may be de ined as he success ul sa is ac ion o needs in a
p o i able way. Digi al media p o ides new ools o pe suade consume s. in addi ion, i has been used
o al e consume pe cep ions and he sales and e enue o o he companies h ough ake e iews.
howe e , i would depend on he loyal y cus ome s may ha e owa d a ce ain p oduc o b and, as
hei alues o pe cep ions may no be al e ed.
Finally, we disco e ed p e ious coun e -ma ke ing s udies (cas onuo o, 2020; Du al, 2023; an lieshou
& Bee es, 2017; Mckenna e al., 2000; no h Dako a, 2022; Ve íssimo, 2017) as posi i e powe ul ools in
he igh agains nega i e subjec s like obacco, in e na ional labo , biodi e si y and a ms dealing. By
ocusing on business managemen , empowe men , educa ion, and social esponsibili y, hese campaigns
aim o shi cul u al no ms, a i udes and beha io s owa ds mo e e hical choices. howe e , we did no
ind any li e a u e suppo ing he use o coun e -ma ke ing as a nega i e ool e sus a posi i e issue.
Conclusion
he pu pose o his esea ch was o disco e he e ec s o possible coun e -ma ke ing ac ions and hei
e ec s on consume s’ pe cep ion o he p oduc and/o b and, ollowing wha we could call an ampli i-
ca ion a emp o p omo e misin o ma ion in he o m o ake e iews. his s udy aimed o unde s and
he e ec s o coun e -ma ke ing s a egies may al e consume beha io . o accomplish his, we ga he ed
and examined da a om social media pla o ms, online o ums, sea ch engines, and s ock ma ke beha -
io . We conside i impo an o men ion ha since 2018, apple has no made i s sales numbe s public,
speci ically on he sma phone lineup. howe e , he in e es , acco ding o he sea ch engine esul s, has
been inc easing, pa icula ly in he ou h qua e (Q4) yea ly and he sales acco ding o specialis s.
Figu e 16. Re enue a ea Rep esen a ion o apple and iPhone om 2019-2023 as o no embe 13, 2023.
No e: in Billions o Dolla s (usD) / Da a om 2023 Q4 no ye comple e. Da a sou ce: Cu y, 2023.
Figu e 17. De ice uni sales, Wo ldwide, om 2015-2023.
No e: in Millions o uni s. Da a sou ce: Cu y, 2023; Koe sie , 2024.
cOgen Business & ManageMen 19
Fi s ly, we analyzed a da ase ga he ed om ik ok1, using he 4ca ool. We disco e ed se e al ideos
using humbnails and images as backg ound sugges ing lames and enhancing he o e hea ing issue.
his could be in an a emp o al e he pe cep ion o he p oduc (sma phone 15 lineup) bu also he
b and. h ough a sen imen and an icon analysis ( o he wo mos ep esen a i e ideos on he da ase )
he con e sa ion is mainly nega i e, as expec ed. commen s and eplies, o ganic and possibly alse,
add essed he o e hea ing p oblem, howe e use s do no pos de ices on lames o bu n ma ks on any
body pa , as pos s sugges ed.
second, on a communi y ne wo k, we analyzed se e al publica ions unde he main esea ch que y.
We disco e ed ha use s eplied bu mainly pos ed ques ions abou he issue, some o he pos ed
images, and ideo humbnails (mos ly om online ideo sha ing pla o m ideos), ampli ying he p ob-
lem using lames, i e, and haza d- ela ed images. sen imen analysis o he ex , commen s, and eplies
showed a nega i e one due o he na u e o an o e hea ing issue. simul aneously, we analyzed he
same que y on an online o um known o company use s o pos conce ns, p oblems, seeking echnical
assis ance, and pee solu ions. his conce n was boos ed by publica ion in he digi al edi ion o he
gua dian. his piece o con en men ions use s pos ing ques ions and conce ns abou he o e hea ing
issue. howe e , as we analyzed he pos s ci ed in news media publica ions, we ound ha he impac
on pos s and pa icipa ion was educed o minimum engagemen . his sugges s ha he impac is no
ele an in e ms o coun e -ma ke ing ac ions and echniques ( Q1).
hi d, we used sea ch engine ends o measu e in e es in he main que y on a global basis. he e
we e que ies associa ed wi h he main e m and opics; none heless, i s beha io in e ms o in e es was
he same as he main que y. asia showed he mos in e es in sea ching o he o e hea ing issue by
egion. in o he egions such as ame ica and eu ope, in e es was no ele an .
he company s ock expe ienced a epe i i e beha io as p e ious yea s (2018-2023), as i aced a
cons an and yea ly inc ease o he s ock p ice, also, a ‘no mal’ d op on he p ice. We did no analyze
whe he he company aced simila p oblems a e he annual sma phone launch compa ed o he o e -
hea ing issue, al hough he s ock p ice and sales gene ally inc eased. his is in line wi h he sales da a
ha he business and expe s es ima e, which display consis en annual sales igu es o all o he com-
pany’s goods and se ices, pa icula ly sma phones.
We did no ind c oss-pla o m con en o au ho s ampli ying he o e hea ing que y. his is impo an
due o he ac ha each social media and online o um has i s own audience, and each audience is
segmen ed acco ding o se e al ac o s including, bu no limi ing o, demog aphics, cul u al and
economical.
We ound consis en e idence o ake e iews; ne e heless, we could no es ablish he in en ion
behind coun e -ma ke ing ac ion. h ough sen imen analysis, we de e mined ha e iews we e mainly
nega i e. Visual examina ion o images pos ed on online o ums and social media pla o ms was consis-
en wi h exagge a ing and misin o ming he consume , wi h he scope al e ing i s pe cep ion and ul i-
ma ely i s pu chase in en ion. howe e , no e idence o sma phone 15 de ices bu s ing in o lames o
physical damage o consume hands o aces was ound.
Bo h au oma ed and o ganic mode a o s can mi iga e he sp ead o misin o ma ion and audulen
con en , no only on social media o communi y ne wo ks, bu also on o he online e aile pla o ms o
communi y o ums. howe e , e e ywhe e he e is illegi ima e a ic, businesses and digi al pla o ms
should ake p oac i e measu es o add ess he issue o ake e iews, which can boos posi i e pe cep-
ions o al e hem by in luencing consume s’ pe cep ions. con e sely, nega i e e iews aim o modi y
(damage) he pe cep ion o a p oduc o b and.
cu en ly, legisla o s and egula o s in he us a e s epping up o o ce pla o ms, online o ums, and
businesses o s eng hen hei con en e iew pla o ms. howe e , ha e o is no di ec ed a ackling
ake news o e iews disguised as ‘expe iences’ o ‘ques ions’ in consume o ums. Fi s , hey should iden-
i y and il e e iews, know and be awa e o he isks, and an icipa e hem.
O icially, he company add essed he o e hea ing issue and e en p o ided a so wa e solu ion
(upda es) o i s Os 17 and also e e ed o hi d-pa y apps. i also ein o ces he sa e use o all sma -
phone lineups and p o ides ecommenda ions on wha o do i he de ice u ns uncommonly ho .
Based on he in o ma ion ga he ed, he beha io o online use s, and he company’s s ock p ice and
sales, we can s a e ha he coun e -ma ke ing e o o manipula e he consume ’s pe cep ion o he
20 a. esPinOZa anD c. a. PiÑa-ga cÍa
p oduc (b and) du ing he ea ly s ages o he buye ’s decision p ocess could ha e aimed o undecided
consume s seeking a new sma phone o new use s om he company. We can s a e ha e en hough
he con e sa ion ac oss pla o ms showed pa icipa ion, he pe cep ion, loyal y, and sales we e no pe -
suaded by he coun e -ma ke ing campaign ( Q2). i is impo an o no e ha he p ice o a p oduc
ac s as a po en segmen a o , which in some cases unc ions as a s a us symbol and could be he main
conce n o a selec ed g oup o consume s.
he e o e, we can conclude ha , despi e an alleged e o o manipula e and pe suade po en ial and
ac ual, and u he mo e, loyal consume s o he sma phone lineup and he company and b and, he
coun e -ma ke ing e o s o modi y hei beha io o pe cep ion we e close o being unsuccess ul,
because he p oduc (b and) expe ienced a well-expec ed beha io in e ms o sales o demand. We can
also see ha he company handled he alleged o e hea ing issue p omp ly.
ne e heless, we ound li e a u e s a ing ha , in ac , he company has aced p oblems ul illing he
s ong demand o he sma phone 15 lineup du ing he weeks a e he de ice was a ailable, online, and
in b ick-and-mo a s o es. howe e , he p esen esea ch in ends o c ea e awa eness o coun e -ma ke ing
ac ions and se e as a e e ence o u u e s udies on ac ions and s a egies aimed a damaging and/o
manipula ing consume s’ pe cep ions o any p oduc o b and.
O icially, he company only e e s o he ma e wi h a pos on he suppo page o i s websi e
(apple, 2023b). howe e , i does no speci ically add ess i ; ins ead, i o e s ad ice on how o de e mine
he de ice ope a ing empe a u es and empe a u e con ol wi hou men ioning any speci ic p oduc s.
addi ionally, expe iencing a highe empe a u e is no mal because he de ices can ge wa m du ing
ce ain p ocesses, such as ini ial se up, backing up and es o ing he de ice, wi eless cha ging, hea y use
o g aphics and p ocessing apps, games, and ea u es such as augmen ed eali y and s eaming
high-quali y ideo. ne e heless, i also add esses he issue o he de ice becoming oo cold while using
i in e y cold condi ions ou side. he company also ad ises agains keeping he de ice in a ca on a
‘ho ’ day unde di ec sunligh . his e e s o a gene ic empe a u e wa ning sc een ha is displayed
when an Os de ice eaches a ‘ce ain’ empe a u e. simply shu ing o he de ice, pu ing i in a ‘coole ’
loca ion, and wai ing o i o ‘cool’ down o will allow you o esume using i .
No es
1. Wi hou ou explici pe mission, you may only use he ik ok name in ex whe e i is used o iden i y o
e e o he pla o m o se ices e.g. “uploaded on ik ok” o “ ollow us on ik ok.” Legal. h ps:// ik okb andbook.
com/d/hhX jVk1Poj9/legal#/legal/o e iew
2. gephi conso ium. legal. h ps://gephi.o g/legal/copy igh /.
3. apple suppo communi y h ps://discussions.apple.com/ e ms & legal h ps://www.apple.com/legal/
in ellec ual-p ope y/.
4. eddi inc. b and e ms o use. h ps://www. eddi inc.com/policies/ adema k-use-policy. h ps://www. eddi inc.
com/asse s/p ess- esou ces/ eddi _b and_guidelines_202009-3.pd
5. gephi conso ium. legal. h ps://gephi.o g/legal/copy igh /.
Acknowledgemen s
no assis ance was p o ided ha is no desc ibed in he sec ions on au ho con ibu ions and unding. all au ho s
ha e consen ed o he p esen acknowledgmen .
Disclosu e s a emen
no po en ial con lic o in e es was epo ed by he au ho (s).
Abou he au ho s
D . A mando Espinoza is an associa e p o esso in he Mas e o Managemen p og am a he ins i u e o esea ch
and highe s udies in adminis a i e sciences a uni e sidad Ve ac uzana, Mexico. his esea ch in e es s include
digi al ma ke ing, social ne wo k analysis and online consume beha io .
cOgen Business & ManageMen 21
D . Ca los Adol o Piña-Ga cía is a ull ime esea che a uni e sidad Ve ac uzana, Mexico; he holds a Ph.D. in
compu e science om uni e si y o essex a he school o compu e science and elec onic enginee ing. his
esea ch in e es s include social ne wo k analysis, compu a ional social science and social mining.
Au ho con ibu ions
concep ualiza ion, a.e.; me hodology, a.e.; so wa e, a.e. and c.a.P.-g.; alida ion, a.e. and c.a.P.-g.; o mal analysis,
a.e. and c.a.P.-g.; in es iga ion, a.e. and c.a.P.-g.; esou ces, a.e. and c.a.P.-g.; da a cu a ion, a.e. and c.a.P.-g.; w i -
ing—o iginal d a p epa a ion, a.e.; w i ing— e iew and edi ing, a.e.; isualiza ion, a.e.; supe ision, a.e. and
c.a.P.-g.; p ojec adminis a ion, a.e. and c.a.P.-g.; unding acquisi ion, a.e. and c.a.P.-g. all au ho s ha e ead and
ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip .
he da a ha suppo he indings o his s udy a e openly a ailable in 4 u esea ch Da a a h ps://doi.
o g/10.4121/733c73ae-9c 5-4c58-a479-b23ebc0 bea6. 1, no e e ence numbe .
Da a deposi ion
DOi 10.4121/733c73ae-9c 5-4c58-a479-b23ebc0 bea6
ORCID
a mando espinoza h p://o cid.o g/0000-0002-7477-5277
ca los adol o Piña-ga cía h p://o cid.o g/0000-0001-8741-4860
Re e ences
amo y, D. (2013). Manipula ion. Handbook o Social and Psychological Manipula ion. (1s ed.). lulu.com
apple. (2023a). Apple debu s iPhone 15 and iPhone 15 Plus. news oom. sep embe 12. e ie ed Oc obe 20, 2023,
om h ps://www.apple.com/news oom/2023/09/apple-debu s-iphone-15-and-iphone-15-plus/
apple. (2023b). I you iPhone o iPad ge s oo ho o oo cold. suppo , Oc obe 16. e ie ed Oc obe 22, 2023, om
h ps://suppo .apple.com/en-us/h 201678
apple. (2023c). Abou iOS 17 upda es. suppo , no embe 7. e ie ed Oc obe 20, 2023, om h ps://suppo .apple.
com/en-us/h 213781
apple. (n.d.a). Apple suppo communi y. Welcome. e ie ed Oc obe 26, 2023, om h ps://discussions.apple.com/
welcome
apple. (n.d.b). Lea n mo e abou he apple suppo communi y. communi y. e ie ed Oc obe 20, 2023, om h ps://
discussions.apple.com/lea n
a al, s. (2020). The hype machine (1s ed.). cu ency.
aWs. (n.d.). Wha is sen imen analysis? amazon Web se ices. e ie ed no embe 27, 2023, om h ps://aws.amazon.
com/wha -is/sen imen -analysis/#:~: ex =sen imen %20analysis%20is%20 he%20p ocess,social%20media%20
commen s%2c%20and%20 e iews
Babu, J. (2023, sep embe 30). Apple iden i ies issues causing o e hea ing in he iPhone 15. eu e s. e ie ed no embe
2, 2023, om h ps://www. eu e s.com/ echnology/apple-iden i ies-issues-causing-o e hea ing-iphone-15-2023-
09-30/
Bagwell, k. (2007). he economic analysis o ad e ising. in M. a ms ong and . Po e (eds.), Handbook o indus ial
o ganiza ion (1s ed., pp. 1701–1844). h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/s1573-448X(06)03028-7
Bandu a, a. (1986). Social ounda ions o hough and ac ion (1s ed.). P en ice hall.
Ba nhill, a. (2014). Wha is Manipula ion? in: coons, c. & Webe , M. (eds.) Manipula ion: Theo y and P ac ice (1s ed.,
pp. 51-72). Ox o d uni e si y P ess.
Be elson, B., & s eine , g. a. (1964). Human beha io : An in en o y o scien i ic indings (1s ed.). ha cou , B ace and
Wo ld.
calkins, e. e. (1915). The business o ad e ising (1s ed.). D. apple on and company.
cas onuo o, M. (2020). The e ec i eness o he coun e ma ke ing s a egy o he u h®campaign [Bachelo disse a ion,
uni e si y o sou h ca olina]. senio heses. 1–24. h ps://schola commons.sc.edu/senio _ heses/363
che alie , J. a., & Mayzlin, D. (2006). he e ec o wo d o mou h on sales: Online book e iews. Jou nal o Ma ke ing
Resea ch, 43(3), 345–354. h p://www.js o .o g/s able/30162409 h ps://doi.o g/10.1509/jmk .43.3.345
cialdini, . B. (1984). In luence: The psychology o pe suasion (1s ed.). ha pe -collins.
cu y, D. (2023). apple s a is ics. Business o Apps. Janua y 8. e ie ed no embe 27, 2023, om h ps://www.
businesso apps.com/da a/apple-s a is ics/
22 a. esPinOZa anD c. a. PiÑa-ga cÍa
Deng, X. X., & lu, . s. (2011). coun e measu es o cus ome de elopmen o ma ke ing depa men in u u e com-
panies. in l. Zhang and c. Zhang (eds.), Enginee ing educa ion and managemen . Lec u e no es in elec ical enginee -
ing (p. 112). sp inge . h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/978-3-642-24820-7_41
D enik, g. (2023). he ake web: how ma ke ing o ganiza ions can de end hemsel es om bo s, ake use s and
aud. Fo bes, ap il 7. e ie ed no embe 29, 2023, om h ps://www. o bes.com/si es/ga yd enik/2023/04/07/
he- ake-web-how-ma ke ing-o ganiza ions-can-de end- hemsel es- om-bo s- ake-use s-and- aud/?sh=
3119c9207 39
Du al, a. (2023). spec acula in e na ional labo law: ambush coun e -ma ke ing in he spo ligh o Qa a ’s 2022 FiFa
Wo ld cup. Ge man Law Jou nal, 24(9), 1712–1728. h ps://doi.o g/10.1017/glj.2024.3
ecke , u. k. h., lewandowsky, s., cook, J., schmid, P., Fazio, l. k., B ashie , n., kendeou, P., V aga, e. k., & amazeen,
M. a. (2022). he psychological d i e s o misin o ma ion belie and i s esis ance o co ec ion. Na u e Re iews
Psychology, 1(1), 13–29. h ps://doi.o g/10.1038/s44159-021-00006-y
Fama, e. F. (1965). he beha io o s ock-ma ke p ices. The Jou nal o Business, 38(1), 34–105. h p://www.js o .o g/
s able/2350752 h ps://doi.o g/10.1086/294743
Finance. (2023). apple inc. (aaPl). Google. e ie ed no embe 7, 2023, om h ps://www.google.com/ inance/quo e/
aaPl:nasDaQ?window=5Y
ga un, n. (2018). apple will no longe e eal how many iPhones, iPads, and Macs i sells. The Ve ge. no embe 1.
e ie ed no embe 8, 2023, om h ps://www. he e ge.com/2018/11/1/18053782/apple-ea nings-q4-2018-s op-
ipad-iphone-mac-uni -sales-disclosu e
goh, B., & Malik, Y. (2023). apple pushes iPhone 15 P o Max deli e ies o no embe in sign o s ong o de s. Reu e s,
sep embe 15. e ie ed no embe 14, 2023, om h ps://www. eu e s.com/ echnology/apple-iphone-15-p
o-p o-max-deli e ies-delayed-china-bloombe g-news-2023-09-15/
g oen, M., & geboe s, M. (2023). F inge playe s on poli ical wi e . in . oge s (ed.), The p opaga ion o misin o ma-
ion in social media. ams e dam uni e si y P ess.
hadnagy, c. (2018). Social enginee ing. in The science o human hacking (2nd ed.). Wiley.
hawkins, D. i., Bes , . J., & coney, k. a. (2004). Consume beha io : Building ma ke ing s a egy (9 h ed.). Mcg aw hill.
ho acke , c. F., & Belanche, D. (2016). eigh social media challenges o ma ke ing manage s. Spanish Jou nal o
Ma ke ing - ESIC, 20(2), 73–80. h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.sjme.2016.07.003
Jowe , g. s., & O’Donnell, V. (2018). P opaganda and pe suasion (7 h ed.). sage.
kcue89. (2023). iPhone 15 p o - ge ing oo ho ? [commen on he online o um apple suppo communi y]. apple,
sep embe 25. e ie ed no embe 29, 2023, om h ps://discussions.apple.com/ h ead/255154584
kelly, s. M. (2023). apple con i ms ha a bug and some apps a e causing iPhone 15 models o o e hea . CNN,
Oc obe 2. e ie ed Oc obe 22, 2023, om h ps://edi ion.cnn.com/2023/10/02/ ech/iphone-15-o e hea ing-issues-
apple/index.h ml
knu sson, k. (2023). he iPhone 15’s ho mess. Fox News, Oc obe 14. e ie ed no embe 2, 2023, om h ps://www.
oxnews.com/ ech/ he-iphone-15s-ho -mess
koe sie , J. (2024). apple #1 in global sma phone Ma ke Fo Fi s ime e e . Fo bes, Janua y 16. accesed Feb ua y
1, 2024, om h ps://www. o bes.com/si es/johnkoe sie /2024/01/16/apple-1-in-global-sma phone-ma ke - o - i s -
ime-e e /?sh=358 241b1cd1
ko le , P., kelle , k. l., & che ne , a. (2022). Ma ke ing managemen (16 h ed.). Pea son.
lied ke, M. (2023). apple says i will ix so wa e p oblems blamed o making iPhone 15 models oo ho o handle.
Associa ed P ess, sep embe 30. e ie ed Oc obe 29, 2023, om h ps://apnews.com/a icle/iphone-15-
o e hea ing-apple-so wa e-bug-088 c 5250ee7e839930aea56d ed3 a
lo enzo- ome o, c., cons an inides, e., & ala cón-del-amo, M. (2014). social media as ma ke ing s a egy: an explo -
a i e s udy on adop ion and use by e aile s. (Minis e io de ciencia e inno ación, gobie no de españa, 2009–
2013). Social Media in S a egic Managemen (Ad anced Se ies in Managemen ), 11, 197–215. h ps://doi.o g/10.1108/
s1877-6361(2013)0000011014
Machado, ., can , M. c., & seabo ne, h. (2014). expe ien ial ma ke ing on B and ad ocacy: a mixed-me hod ap-
p oach on global apple p oduc s use s. In e na ional Business & Economics Resea ch Jou nal (IBER), 13(5), 955–962.
h ps://doi.o g/10.19030/ibe . 13i5.8764
Ma ciano, J. (2021). Fake online e iews cos $152 billion a yea . he e’s how e-comme ce si es can s op hem. Wo ld
Economic Fo um, The digi al ans o ma ion o business, augus 10. e ie ed no embe 28, 2023, om h ps://www.
we o um.o g/agenda/2021/08/ ake-online- e iews-a e-a-152-billion-p oblem-he es-how- o-silence- hem/
Mccallum, s. (2023). Why you new apple iPhone 15 is o e hea ing. BBC, Oc obe 2. e ie ed no embe 5, 2023,
om h ps://www.bbc.com/news/ echnology-66982762
Mccluskey, M. (2022). inside he wa on ake consume e iews. Time, July 26. e ie ed Decembe 3, 2023, om
h ps:// ime.com/6192933/ ake- e iews- egula ion/
Mckenna, J., gu ie ez, k., & Mccall, k. (2000). s a egies o an e ec i e you h coun e -ma ke ing p og am: ecom-
menda ions om comme cial ma ke ing expe s. Jou nal o Public Heal h Managemen and P ac ice: JPHMP, 6(3),
7–13. h ps://jou nals.lww.com/jphmp/abs ac /2000/06030/s a egies_ o _an_e ec i e_You h.4.aspx h ps://doi.
o g/10.1097/00124784-200006030-00004
cOgen Business & ManageMen 23
Milmo, D. (2023). iPhone 15: use s o P o and P o Max models complain o o e hea ing issues. The Gua dian,
sep embe 29. e ie ed no embe 5, 2023, om h ps://www. hegua dian.com/ echnology/2023/sep/29/iphone-1
5-use s-o -p o-and-p o-max-models-complain-o -o e hea ing-issues
nasdaq. (n.d.). Apple Inc. Common S ock (APPL). e ie ed no embe 24, 2023, om h ps://www.nasdaq.com/
ma ke -ac i i y/s ocks/aapl
no h Dako a. (2022). coun e -ma ke ing and coun e -ad e ising campaigns/alcohol wa ning pos e s. Heal h & Human
Se ices. e ie ed ap il 27, 2024, om h ps://www.hhs.nd.go /p e en ion/alcohol/adul -binge-d inking-p e en ion-
s a egies/binge-coun e -ma ke ing#:~: ex =is%20 his%20s a egy%3F-,coun e %2Dma ke ing%20 e e s%20 o%20
he%20use%20o %20comme cial%20ma ke ing%20 ac ics,s a e%2c%20 egion%2c%20o %20communi y
nys, ., & engelen, B. (2023). comme cial online choice a chi ec u e: When oads a e pa ed wi h bad in en ions. in
F. Jongepie and M. klenk (eds.), The philosophy o online manipula ion (1s ed., pp. 135–155). ou ledge.
Openai. (n.d.). Cha GPT 3.5. h ps://cha .openai.com
Pee e s, s., & hagen, s. (2022). he 4ca cap u e and analysis oolki : a modula ool o anspa en and aceable
social media esea ch. Compu a ional Communica ion Resea ch, 4(2), 571–589. h ps://compu a ionalcommunica ion.
o g/cc /a icle/ iew/120 h ps://doi.o g/10.5117/cc 2022.2.007.hage
Phelan, D. (2023). apple iPhone 15, iPhone 15 p o o e hea ing exclusi e: apple commen s. Fo bes, Oc obe 3.
e ie ed no embe 4, 2023. h ps://www. o bes.com/si es/da idphelan/2023/10/03/apple-iphone-15-iphone-15-
o e hea ing-exclusi e-apple-commen s-iphone-15-o e hea ing-solu ion-coming/
eddi . (2023a). Abou . h ps://www. eddi inc.com
eddi . (2023b). Con en policy. h ps://www. eddi inc.com/policies/con en -policy
eddi . (2023c). T anspa ency Repo : Janua y o June 2023. e ie ed Decembe 7, 2023, om h ps://www. eddi inc.
com/policies/2023-h1- anspa ency- epo
eddi . (2023d). sea ch esul s: iPhone 15 o e hea ing [online o um]. eddi . e ie ed Decembe 7, 2023, om
h ps://www. eddi .com/sea ch/?q=iphone + 15+o e hea ingand ype=linkandcid=910d690c-0eb7-4adb-8382-8d50c
7835c89andiid=461088 d-9b2d-4696-b048-ead6d06 55 7and =mon h
esnick, P., & Zeckhause , . (2002). us among s ange s in in e ne ansac ions: empi ical analysis o eBay’ s ep-
u a ion sys em. in M. . Baye (ed). The economics o he in e ne and e-comme ce (ad ances in applied mic oeconom-
ics. (Vol. 11, pp. 127–157). h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/s0278-0984(02)11030-3
oge s, . (2023.a). “se ious que ies” and “edi o ial epis emologies. in . oge s (ed.), The p opaga ion o misin o ma-
ion in social media. (1s ed., pp. 9–32). ams e dam uni e si y P ess.
oge s, . (2023.b). he scale o Facebook’s p oblem depends upon how “ ake news” is classi ied. in . oge s (ed.),
The p opaga ion o misin o ma ion in social media (1s ed., pp. 47–66). ams e dam uni e si y P ess.
omano , a., semeno , a., Mazhelis, O., & Veijalainen, J. (2017 De ec ion o ake p o iles in social media - Li e a u e
e iew [Pape p esen a ion]. P oceedings o he 13 h in e na ional con e ence on Web in o ma ion sys ems and
echnologies (WeBis 2017) (pp. 363–369). h ps://doi.o g/10.5220/0006362103630369
saini, l. (2023). sen imen analysis wi h gP -3 and gP -3.5. Medium, ap il 30. e ie ed Decembe 15, 2023, om
h ps://medium.com/@l deep9/sen imen -analysis-on-imdb-da ase -wi h-gp -3-and-gp -3-5-b9ae8c5bc910
singe , P. W., & B ooking, e. . (2018). Like wa (1s ed.). hough on Mi lin ha cou Publishing company.
søe, s. O. (2018). algo i hmic de ec ion o misin o ma ion and disin o ma ion: g icean pe spec i es. Jou nal o
Documen a ion, 74(2), 309–332. h ps://doi.o g/10.1108/JD-05-2017-0075
ik ok. (n.d.). e ie ed Oc obe 12, 13; no embe 17–20; Decembe 6, 2023, om h ps://www. ik ok.com
ing ing, F. (2015). P oblems and Coun e measu es o he Ma ke ing Managemen Business [Pape p esen a ion]. 2015
in e na ional con e ence on social science and echnology educa ion. h ps://doi.o g/10.2991/icss e-15.2015.67
ends help. (2023). abou google ends. Google. e ie ed no embe 26, 2023, om h ps://suppo .google.com/
ends/
ends. (n.d.). iPhone 15 o e hea ing. google. e ie ed Oc obe 12, 2023, om h ps:// ends.google.com/ ends/
explo e?da e=2023-09-12%202023-10-12andq=iphone%2015,iphone%2015%20o e hea ing,iphone%2015%20
p o,iphone%20 oo%20ho andhl=en
an de linden, s. (2022). Misin o ma ion: suscep ibili y, sp ead, and in e en ions o immunize he public. Na u e
Medicine, 28(3), 460–467. h ps://doi.o g/10.1038/s41591-022-01713-6
an lieshou , J., & Bee es, . (2017). s a egic coun e -ma ke ing o igh isil. in P. a. i. Ducheine and F. P. B. Osinga
(eds.), Ne he lands annual e iew o mili a y s udies 2017 (1s ed., pp. 181–194). sp inge . h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/
978-94-6265-189-0
Van Os, J. (2018). Ma ke ing in he ake news e a. Medium, May 24. e ie ed Decembe 7, 2023, om h ps://
medium.com/swlh/ma ke ing-in- he- ake-news-e a-47bb2265c479
Ve íssimo, D. (2017). he eas e Bilby as a coun e -ma ke ing s a egy o biodi e si y conse a ion. Re is a Po uguesa
e B asilei a de Ges ão, 16(3), 59–72. h ps://www. edalyc.o g/pd /3885/388555172006.pd
Vignolo, J. (2019). Fake e iews a e a as -g owing aud conce n ha leads o b and abandonmen . si , July 31.
e ie ed Decembe 10, 2023, om h ps://blog.si .com/ ake- e iews-a e-a- as -g owing- aud-conce n/
Weinbe ge , M. g., allen, c. ., & Dillon, W. . (1981). he impac o nega i e ma ke ing communica ions: he con-
sume s union/ch ysle con o e sy. Jou nal o Ad e ising, 10(4), 20–47. h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/00913367.1981.106
72781
