Understanding economic integration in immigrant and refugee populations: A scoping review of concepts and metrics in the United States

Naseh, Mi a e al.
A icle
Unde s anding economic in eg a ion in immig an and
e ugee popula ions: A scoping e iew o concep s and
me ics in he Uni ed S a es
Economies
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
MDPI – Mul idisciplina y Digi al Publishing Ins i u e, Basel
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Naseh, Mi a e al. (2024) : Unde s anding economic in eg a ion in immig an
and e ugee popula ions: A scoping e iew o concep s and me ics in he Uni ed S a es, Economies,
ISSN 2227-7099, MDPI, Basel, Vol. 12, Iss. 7, pp. 1-14,
h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/economies12070167
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Ci a ion: Naseh, Mi a, Jihye Lee,
Yingying Zeng, P osco ia Nabunya,
Valencia Al a ez, and Meena Sa i.
2024. Unde s anding Economic
In eg a ion in Immig an and Re ugee
Popula ions: A Scoping Re iew o
Concep s and Me ics in he Uni ed
S a es. Economies 12: 167.
h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/
economies12070167
Academic Edi o : Sajid Anwa
Recei ed: 20 Ma ch 2024
Re ised: 13 June 2024
Accep ed: 27 June 2024
Published: 30 June 2024
Copy igh : © 2024 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
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A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps://
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economies
Re iew
Unde s anding Economic In eg a ion in Immig an and Re ugee
Popula ions: A Scoping Re iew o Concep s and Me ics in he
Uni ed S a es
Mi a Naseh 1,* , Jihye Lee 1, Yingying Zeng 2, P osco ia Nabunya 3, Valencia Al a ez 1and Meena Sa i 1
1Ini ia i e on Social Wo k and Fo ced Mig a ion, B own School, Washing on Uni e si y in S . Louis,
S . Louis, MO 63130, USA
2School o Social Wo k, Uni e si y o Geo gia, A hens, GA 30602, USA
3In e na ional Cen e o Child Heal h and De elopmen , B own School, Washing on Uni e si y in S . Louis,
S . Louis, MO 63130, USA
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac : In an inc easingly mobile wo ld, he in eg a ion o immig an s and displaced indi iduals is
an impo an ac o in c ea ing cohesi e and inclusi e socie ies. In eg a ion has di e en dimensions;
his scoping e iew examines he concep ualiza ion and measu emen o economic in eg a ion among
immig an s and e ugees in he Uni ed S a es. Quan i a i e pee - e iewed jou nal pape s measu ing
o concep ualizing he economic in eg a ion o i s -gene a ion documen ed adul immig an s o
e ugees in he Uni ed S a es, as well as ele an concep ual o heo y pape s on his opic, we e
included in he e iew. The sea ch s a egy included an online sea ch o he Web o Science Co e
Collec ion, PsycINFO, Applied Social Sciences Index and Abs ac s (ASSIA), and EconLi . Addi ional
sea ch s a egies included scanning he e e ence lis s o s udies iden i ied as ele an in he ini ial
da abase sea ch. An analysis o 72 s udies included in he e iew using a da a ex ac ion able
e eals se en key domains o economic in eg a ion: income and economic secu i y, employmen
and occupa ional ca ego ies, asse s and use o inancial se ices, neighbo hood and housing, heal h,
educa ion, and use o public assis ance. Income and economic secu i y eme ged as he mos common
indica o s o in eg a ion in he e iewed s udies. No ably, less han hal o he e iewed publica ions
had a mul idimensional app oach o de ining o measu ing economic in eg a ion, and he majo i y
o s udies we e ocused on immig an s, wi h a smalle p opo ion dedica ed o e ugees. This
e iew emphasizes he need o comp ehensi e amewo ks in assessing economic in eg a ion among
immig an s and e ugees, e lec ing he mul i ace ed na u e o hei economic in eg a ion expe iences.
Keywo ds: scoping e iew; immig an s; e ugees; economic in eg a ion; Uni ed S a es; po e y
1. In oduc ion
I is es ima ed ha 1 in e e y 28 indi iduals wo ldwide li es ou side o hei coun y
o bi h (McAuli e and T ianda yllidou 2021). Mig a ion is a di e se and complex phe-
nomenon, in luenced by economic, geog aphic, demog aphic, and a ious o he ac o s
ha shape dis inc pa e ns (McAuli e and T ianda yllidou 2021;Po ocky and Naseh 2020).
No ably, many mig an s mo e om de eloping coun ies o la ge economies, wi h he
Uni ed S a es being a p ima y des ina ion; i is cu en ly home o o e 51 million mig an s
(McAuli e and T ianda yllidou 2021). The e exis s a dis inc ion be ween immig an s and
o cibly displaced indi iduals; he o me usually mo e olun a ily, d i en usually by
he p ospec o economic imp o emen , while he la e a e o en compelled o lea e hei
homes in esponse o unplanned and o en auma ic e en s such as wa and con lic s
(Loesche 1996;Zong and Ba alo a 2018).
In eg a ion, hen, is he p ocess by which ( o ced) mig an s become accep ed in o
hei new socie y, eel sa is ied, o ha e a sense o belonging encompassing bo h indi idual
Economies 2024,12, 167. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/economies12070167 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/economies
Economies 2024,12, 167 2 o 14
adap a ion and communi y accep ance (da Sil a e al. 2022;Le pold e al. 2023). In eg a ion
is essen ial o building inclusi e and cohesi e socie ies and p omo ing ull socie al pa -
icipa ion (OECD/Eu opean Commission 2023). This in ol es pa icipa ion in all aspec s
o li e and necessi a es accep ance by he hos popula ion (Alba e al. 2012). In eg a ion
encompasses a ious domains o immig an s and e ugees. Fo ins ance, Ha de e al.
(2018) ca ego ize hese domains in o psychological, linguis ic, poli ical, social, na iga ional,
and economic in eg a ion o immig an s, while Ga cés-Masca eñas and Penninx (2016)
highligh legal and poli ical, cul u al and eligious, and socioeconomic ac o s as main
aspec s o in eg a ion o e ugees.
Achie ing in eg a ion implies mig an s ob aining pa i y in li e oppo uni ies compa ed
o he na i e-bo n majo i y, while main aining hei cul u al iden i y (Kuhlman 1991;Pineau
and Wa e s 2015). In eg a ion is a complex p ocess, in luenced by suppo i e o es ic i e
policies, pe sonal agency and human capi al, and social ne wo ks, and i s success no only
bene i s immig an s and hei o sp ing by enhancing hei communi y con ibu ions bu is
also an impo an goal o he hos coun ies hemsel es (Ga cés-Masca eñas and Penninx
2016;Le pold e al. 2023;Pineau and Wa e s 2015).
One c i ical dimension o in eg a ion o immig an s and o cibly displaced indi idu-
als is economic in eg a ion, which measu es he ex en o which immig an s can pa icipa e
in and con ibu e o he hos coun y’s economy while espec ing hei cul u al alues
(Kuhlman 1991). Economic in eg a ion is a key indica o o social inclusion, spa ial assimi-
la ion, a sense o belonging, and diminished dispa i ies wi hin he communi y (Jayakody
e al. 2022;Massey and Mullan 1984). Economic in eg a ion is a mul i ace ed and complex
p ocess wi h challenges o ( o ced) immig an s, including limi ed social suppo , sca ce
inancial esou ces, es ic ed access o ai employmen oppo uni ies, and unde alued
educa ion and quali ica ions (Pain e 2013;Po ocky and Naseh 2020). Fo hose who a e
o cibly displaced, he sudden and unplanned jou ney and associa ed auma ic expe i-
ences wi h o ced mig a ion can u he complica e economic in eg a ion (Po ocky and
Naseh 2020).
De ining economic in eg a ion o ( o ced) immig an s is complex, pa icula ly in a
socie y ha is i sel changing and in ica e (Pineau and Wa e s 2015). The mul i ace ed
na u e o economic in eg a ion and i s p o ound e ec s on bo h mig an s and hos socie ies
demand a ho ough unde s anding. Despi e i s impo ance, he e is a no able gap in he
li e a u e on his opic. In ligh o his, we ha e conduc ed a scoping e iew o documen
and answe he ques ion o how economic in eg a ion has been de ined and measu ed o
adul immig an s and o cibly displaced indi iduals, speci ically e ugees, in he Uni ed
S a es. Ou sys ema ic sea ch s a egy unco e s he b oad spec um o de ini ions and
indica o s o economic in eg a ion among adul immig an s and e ugees, e lec ing ou
p ima y objec i e o cap u ing i s mul idimensional in e p e a ions. This syn hesis p o ides
a comp ehensi e de ini ion o economic in eg a ion o immig an s and e ugees in he
Uni ed S a es and add esses a c i ical gap in he li e a u e.
De ining economic in eg a ion o ( o ced) immig an s is complex, pa icula ly in
a socie y ha is i sel changing, and is in ica e (Pineau and Wa e s 2015). The deba e
o en cen e s a ound he app op ia e s anda ds o compa ison o ac o s o include. The
mul i ace ed na u e o economic in eg a ion and i s p o ound e ec s on bo h mig an s
and he hos socie ies demands a ho ough unde s anding. Despi e i s impo ance, he e
is a no able gap in he li e a u e on his opic. In ligh o his, we ha e conduc ed a
scoping e iew o documen how economic in eg a ion has been de ined and measu ed
o immig an s and o cibly displaced indi iduals, speci ically e ugees, in he Uni ed
S a es. Ou sys ema ic sea ch s a egy unco e s he b oad spec um o de ini ions and
indica o s o economic in eg a ion among adul immig an s and e ugees, e lec ing ou
p ima y objec i e o cap u ing i s mul idimensional in e p e a ions. The syn hesis p o ides
a comp ehensi e de ini ion o economic in eg a ion o immig an s and e ugees in he
Uni ed S a es and esponds o a c i ical gap in he li e a u e.
Economies 2024,12, 167 3 o 14
2. Me hodology
The s udy ollowed he P e e ed Repo ing I ems o Sys ema ic Re iews and Me a-
Analyses ex ension o Scoping Re iews (PRISMA-ScR) Checklis (T icco e al. 2018) and
used he Re iew P o ocol Templa e de eloped by Visin ini (2024).
2.1. Sea ch S a egy
The sea ch s a egy o his pape included an online sea ch o abs ac s and ull
ex s o pee - e iewed jou nal pape s published in English in he Web o Science Co e
Collec ion, PsycINFO, Applied Social Sciences Index and Abs ac s (ASSIA), and EconLi
using keywo ds ela ed o “mig a ion”, “in eg a ion”, “success”, and he “Uni ed S a es”.
A sample o he ull elec onic sea ch s a egy is a ailable in Appendix B. The sea ch was
conduc ed on 10 Decembe 2022, and e ie ed s udies h ough he sea ch we e expo ed
in o Co idence so wa e o he e iew p ocess. Addi ional sea ch s a egies included
o wa d ci a ion sea ching, sea ching o ind all o he a icles ha ci e back o key iden i ied
a icles; and backwa d e e ence sea ching, scanning he e e ence lis s o s udies iden i ied
as ele an in he ini ial da abase sea ch. This was done o ind schola ly a icles o po en ial
in e es ha we e no indexed in he selec ed da abases o he scoping e iew.
2.2. Inclusion and Exclusion C i e ia o he Re iew
A he sc eening s age, o i le and abs ac e iew phase, ou inclusion c i e ia
we e pee - e iewed jou nal pape s, s udies ocused on he success o in eg a ion o i s -
gene a ion documen ed adul immig an s o e ugees in he Uni ed S a es, as well as ele-
an concep ual o heo y pape s on his opic. Du ing his s age, we excluded books, book
chap e s, epo s, disse a ions, and any o he ype o publica ion excep pee - e iewed
jou nal pape s. Addi ionally, we excluded s udies on unde -documen ed immig an s,
asylum seeke s, popula ions o he han i s -gene a ion adul immig an s o e ugees in
he Uni ed S a es, and s udies on mixed popula ions ha included adul immig an s o
e ugees bu did no p o ide disagg ega ed da a o his g oup.
We speci ically excluded s udies on unde -documen ed (undocumen ed) immig an s,
mixed-s a us amilies, and asylum seeke s o ocus on he o eign-bo n popula ion wi h
ull access o a ailable esou ces o economic in eg a ion and success, such as he igh o
wo k. We use he e m “unde -documen ed” o e e o indi iduals who o en possess some
o m o legal documen a ion ha may be expi ed o no ecognized by he Uni ed S a es
o a ious easons. Addi ionally, quali a i e pape s, concep no es, scoping o sys ema ic
e iews, and me a-analyses we e excluded, as we we e only in e es ed in manusc ip s
measu ing economic in eg a ion quan i a i ely o pape s concep ualizing i . Howe e , we
kep a eco d o any p e ious scoping o sys ema ic e iews and me a-analyses o ou
e iew and compa ison.
A he ull- ex e iew s age, ou inclusion c i e ia we e s udies quan i a i ely mea-
su ing economic in eg a ion among i s -gene a ion adul immig an s o e ugees in he
Uni ed S a es and s udies concep ualizing economic in eg a ion among i s -gene a ion
adul immig an s o e ugees in he Uni ed S a es. A his s age, we labeled he included
s udies by hei ocus on economic, social, cul u al, o spa ial in eg a ion; in eg a ion in
gene al; and success. We hen only included hose ocused on economic in eg a ion. Fo
his s udy, we conside ed inancial in eg a ion as pa o economic in eg a ion.
2.3. Sc eening and Full-Tex Re iew
Abs ac s o he s udies impo ed in o Co idence we e e iewed by wo esea che s
and in case o a con lic in o ing o exclude o include, a hi d e iewe made he inal
decision. Pee - e iewed jou nal pape s on in eg a ion and success among i s -gene a ion
adul immig an s o e ugees in he Uni ed S a es we e included in he sc eening. A eam
o h ee esea che s e iewed he ull ex s o he s udies ele an o in eg a ion wi h a
speci ic ocus on economic in eg a ion. Simila ly o he sc eening p ocess, each ull ex was
e iewed by wo independen esea che s, and con lic s in o ing we e esol ed by a hi d
Economies 2024,12, 167 4 o 14
e iewe ollowing a Zoom discussion be ween he esea ch eam membe s. In e - a e
eliabili y o o ing o e iewe s was measu ed by Cohen’s Kappa s a is ic (McHugh 2012).
2.4. Da a Ex ac ion and Syn hesis
Da a om he included s udies a e ull- ex e iew we e ex ac ed in wo s eps. In
he i s s ep, using a da a ex ac ion o m, he esea ch eam independen ly ex ac ed
da a on publica ion in o ma ion (names o he au ho s, yea o publica ion, names o he
jou nals) and in eg a ion ca ego y (in eg a ion in gene al o economic, social, cul u al,
o spa ial in eg a ion). In he second s ep, he esea ch eam independen ly ex ac ed
da a on indica o s used o de ine, measu e, o concep ualize in eg a ion. This scoping
e iew ocuses on s udies we ound wi h da a o concep ual amewo ks de ining economic
in eg a ion among adul immig an s o e ugees in he Uni ed S a es.
3. Resul s
The online da abase sea ch yielded 12,255 po en ially ele an s udies. A e elimina -
ing 3307 duplica es using Co idence, a six-membe esea ch eam sc eened he abs ac s o
8948 s udies. Based on he inclusion c i e ia, 8108 abs ac s we e excluded in he sc eening
s age, lea ing 840 s udies o ull- ex e iew. The ull- ex e iew iden i ied 199 quan-
i a i e pape s ocusing on in eg a ion among i s -gene a ion immig an s o e ugees
in he Uni ed S a es. O hese s udies, 72 included da a o concep ual amewo ks ha
de ined economic in eg a ion among i s -gene a ion immig an s o e ugees in he Uni ed
S a es (Figu e 1). The sc eening s age had a 98.2% ag eemen a e among e iewe s, wi h a
Cohen’s Kappa alue o 0.90, indica ing s ong ag eemen . A he ull- ex e iew s age, he
ag eemen a e d opped sligh ly o 91.1%, wi h a Cohen’s Kappa alue o 0.76, e lec ing
mode a e ag eemen .
Economies2024,12,xFORPEERREVIEW5o 17


Figu e1.PRISMA lowcha o  hes udy.
3.1.EconomicIn eg a ionin heCon ex o IncomeandEconomicSecu i y
Themajo i yo  heincludeds udies(n=53,74%)pa iallyo  ullyde inedeconomic
in eg a ionbasedon ac o s ela ed oincomeandeconomicsecu i y,suchaswagesand
hou swo ked.Incomewasmeasu edei he a  heindi idualo householdle elandwas
gene ally epo edonamon hlyo annualbasis.Among heincludeds udies,35used
incomeinsome o m ode ineeconomicin eg a ion.Among hema e19s udies ha used
incomeo ea nings oquan i yo measu eeconomicin eg a ionamongimmig an sand
e ugees(Ak esh2007,2011;Baue e al.2011;Ee2019;Hags omandPe ei a2021;Ke ka 
andDo a2011;Kusowe al.2018;Michaliko aandYang2016;Nianka a2020;Paulson
andRhine2008;Po esandZhou1992;Po ocky1997;Po ockyandMcDonald1995;
Po ocky-T ipodi2001,2004;Shawe al.2022;S empelandAlemi2021;S odolskae al.
2007;Zhou1998).Mo eo e ,among hesewe esixs udies ha de inedo measu ed he
economicin eg a iono immig an so  e ugeesbycompa ing hei incomes o hoseo 
na i e-bo nindi idualsandhouseholds(Ab ami zkye al.2014;Allenswo h1997;Bi -
gie e al.2018;Escamilla-Gue e oe al.2021;Lin2013,2016).Wealso oundeigh s udies
ha compa edimmig an s’and e ugees’incomeswi h hena ionalpo e ylinesand
usedpo e yasanindica o o economicin eg a ionamongimmig an sand e ugees
(C owleye al.2015;Kuhlman1991;Kwone al.2004;LiandZhang2021;Nasehe al.
2022a;Nasehe al.2022b;Silles2018;Takeda2000).Twos udiesbyKisle (2014,2018)
quan i iedeconomicsuccessamongimmig an sbasedonwage,income,andoccupa ion
using heHause andWa enSocioeconomicIndex(Hause andWa en1997).
O  he e ieweds udies, i ede inedeconomicin eg a ionbasedonincomeo wage
g ow h(CohenandHabe eld2007;DuncanandT ejo2015;Lubo sky2007;Seebo gand
Wu2012;Spindle -Ruiz2021).Asubse o s udiescombinedincomewi hasse s oe alu-
a eweal ho weal haccumula ionasanindica o o economicin eg a ion(Ak esh2011;
Baue e al.2011;Hags omandPe ei a2021;Ke ka andDo a2011).Thehou lywage
Figu e 1. PRISMA low cha o he s udy.

Economies 2024,12, 167 5 o 14
Economic in eg a ion in he included s udies in his scoping e iew was a iously
desc ibed o amed as economic achie emen , adap a ion, ad ancemen , assimila ion,
a ainmen , inco po a ion, mobili y, secu i y, sel -su iciency, success, and wellbeing as well
as inancial assimila ion o in eg a ion, labo ma ke o occupa ional s a us, and socioeco-
nomic achie emen , adap a ion, and in eg a ion. Da a ex ac ed om he included s udies
sugges ha economic in eg a ion among immig an s and e ugees is concep ualized in he
exis ing li e a u e ac oss se en main domains: (1) income and economic secu i y, (2) employ-
men and occupa ional ca ego ies, (3) asse s and use o inancial se ices, (4) neighbo hood
and housing, (5) heal h, (6) educa ion, and (7) use o public assis ance. Less han hal o he
s udies (n = 32) de ined o measu ed economic in eg a ion among e ugees and immig an s
mul idimensionally o ac oss wo o mo e o hese domains.
3.1. Economic In eg a ion in he Con ex o Income and Economic Secu i y
The majo i y o he included s udies (n = 53, 74%) pa ially o ully de ined economic
in eg a ion based on ac o s ela ed o income and economic secu i y, such as wages and
hou s wo ked. Income was measu ed ei he a he indi idual o household le el and was
gene ally epo ed on a mon hly o annual basis. Among he included s udies, 35 used
income in some o m o de ine economic in eg a ion. Among hem a e 19 s udies ha
used income o ea nings o quan i y o measu e economic in eg a ion among immig an s
and e ugees (Ak esh 2007,2011;Baue e al. 2011;Ee 2019;Hags om and Pe ei a 2021;
Ke ka and Do a 2011;Kusow e al. 2018;Michaliko a and Yang 2016;Nianka a 2020;
Paulson and Rhine 2008;Po es and Zhou 1992;Po ocky 1997;Po ocky and McDonald
1995;Po ocky-T ipodi 2001,2004;Shaw e al. 2022;S empel and Alemi 2021;S odolska e al.
2007;Zhou 1998). Mo eo e , among hese we e six s udies ha de ined o measu ed he
economic in eg a ion o immig an s o e ugees by compa ing hei incomes o hose o
na i e-bo n indi iduals and households (Ab ami zky e al. 2014;Allenswo h 1997;Bi gie
e al. 2018;Escamilla-Gue e o e al. 2021;Lin 2013,2016). We also ound eigh s udies ha
compa ed immig an s’ and e ugees’ incomes wi h he na ional po e y lines and used
po e y as an indica o o economic in eg a ion among immig an s and e ugees (C owley
e al. 2015;Kuhlman 1991;Kwon e al. 2004;Li and Zhang 2021;Naseh e al. 2022a,2022b;
Silles 2018;Takeda 2000). Two s udies by Kisle (2014,2018) quan i ied economic success
among immig an s based on wage, income, and occupa ion using he Hause and Wa en
Socioeconomic Index (Hause and Wa en 1997).
O he e iewed s udies, i e de ined economic in eg a ion based on income o wage
g ow h (Cohen and Habe eld 2007;Duncan and T ejo 2015;Lubo sky 2007;Seebo g and
Wu 2012;Spindle -Ruiz 2021). A subse o s udies combined income wi h asse s o e alua e
weal h o weal h accumula ion as an indica o o economic in eg a ion (Ak esh 2011;Baue
e al. 2011;Hags om and Pe ei a 2021;Ke ka and Do a 2011). The hou ly wage was also
used as an economic in eg a ion indica o in mul iple s udies (Aguile a 2005;B a sbe g
e al. 2006;Ca oll and Scha e 2021;Chi 2015;Conno 2010;Goodwin-Whi e 2008;James
e al. 2002;Padilla and Glick 2000;Pos on 2002;Schoellman 2010). Finally, hou s o wo k
se ed as an indica o o economic assimila ion and secu i y in h ee s udies (Lozano and
So ensen 2015;T an and La a-Ga cía 2020;Wilkinson e al. 2006).
3.2. Economic In eg a ion in he Con ex o Employmen and Occupa ion Ca ego y
Nea ly hal o he s udies included in his scoping e iew (n = 34, 44%) conside ed
employmen s a us and/o occupa ional ca ego ies when de ining o measu ing economic
in eg a ion among immig an s and e ugees. Many s udies p ima ily ocused on whe he
pa icipan s we e employed o unemployed a he ime o he in e iew (Adida e al. 2015;
Bi gie e al. 2018;B a sbe g e al. 2006;Bulu and Ca lson 2020;Conno 2010;C owley
e al. 2015;Ee 2019;E ans e al. 2021;Flo ian e al. 2022;Fu ado and Theodo opoulos
2010;Hags om and Pe ei a 2021;Kisle 2018;Kuhlman 1991;Naseh e al. 2022a;Po-
ocky 1997;Po ocky and McDonald 1995;Po ocky-T ipodi 2001,2004;Roo h and Sco
Economies 2024,12, 167 6 o 14
2012;Shaw e al. 2022;Silles 2018;S empel and Alemi 2021;T an and La a-Ga cía 2020;
Wilkinson e al. 2006).
O he s udies examined a ious aspec s o occupa ion, such as he ype o occupa ion
(Aguile a 2005;Takeda 2000;Toussain -Comeau 2006), he occupa ional index (Ak esh
2006), occupa ional di e si y (Les e and Nguyen 2016), and occupa ional s a us o posi ion
(Shaw e al. 2022;Wilkinson e al. 2006). In addi ion, ou s udies speci ically measu ed
sel -employmen , en ep eneu ship, o business owne ship as indica o s o economic
in eg a ion o immig an s and e ugees (Mindes e al. 2022;Po es e al. 2002;Po es and
Zhou 1992;Tseng 1995;Zhou 1998).
3.3. Economic In eg a ion in he Con ex o Asses and Use o Financial Se ices
Among he e iewed s udies, 11 pape s quan i ied economic in eg a ion including
inancial assimila ion pa ly o comple ely based on asse owne ship and/o use o inancial
se ices. Ak esh (2011) and Baue e al. (2011) quan i ied economic in eg a ion based on
weal h and measu ed weal h as he combina ion o asse s and income. Pain e (2013,2014,
2015) and Pain e e al. (2016) quan i ied economic in eg a ion based on ne wo h and
measu ed i by deduc ing deb s om asse s. Asse owne ship and asse accumula ion we e
used as an indica o o economic in eg a ion in s udies by Cha e jee (2009), Cha e jee
and Zahi o ic-He be (2014), and Hags om and Pe ei a (2021). Addi ionally, he use
o inancial se ices, speci ically checking and sa ing accoun s, was highligh ed as an
indica o o economic and inancial in eg a ion by Hags om and Pe ei a (2021), Nam e al.
(2015), and Paulson and Rhine (2008).
3.4. Economic In eg a ion in he Con ex o Neighbo hood and Housing
Among he s udies included in his scoping e iew, i e o hem pa ially de ined he
concep o economic in eg a ion wi h a ocus on housing si ua ions (C owley e al. 2015;
Naseh e al. 2022a,2022b;Paulson and Rhine 2008) and home owne ship (Li and Zhang
2021). In e ms o he housing si ua ion, C owley e al. (2015) in oduced an indica o
de ined by he numbe o ooms and emphasized he impo ance o ensu ing ha he e is
a leas one oom pe pe son in he household. Addi ionally, Naseh e al. (2022a,2022b)
examined whe he e ugee households esided in go e nmen -suppo ed housing p ojec s
o no as an indica o o hei economic in eg a ion. See Appendix A, Table A1.
3.5. Economic In eg a ion in he Con ex o Heal h and Educa ion
The wo s udies by Naseh e al. (2022a,2022b) e e ed o heal h and educa ion as
indica o s o economic in eg a ion. In hese wo s udies, economic in eg a ion among
e ugees was measu ed by a mul idimensional po e y index, and heal h and educa ion
we e bo h domains o he u ilized index. Simila ly o hese s udies, Silles (2018) used
mul iple indica o s o de ine economic in eg a ion among immig an s, and among hem
we e yea s o schooling and heal h insu ance co e age. Mo eo e , among he e iewed
s udies, Kusow e al. (2018), Michaliko a and Yang (2016), and Toussain -Comeau (2006)
conside ed educa ional a ainmen as a con ibu ing ac o o immig an s’ socioeconomic
achie emen in he Uni ed S a es.
3.6. Economic In eg a ion in he Con ex o Using Public Assis ance
Among he e iewed s udies, he ou s udies led by Po ocky (Po ocky 1997;Po ocky
and McDonald 1995;Po ocky-T ipodi 2001,2004) employed he u iliza ion o public assis-
ance as a benchma k o assessing economic in eg a ion among e ugees in he Uni ed
S a es. In hese s udies, public assis ance use was examined oge he wi h household
income and employmen as indica o s o he economic s a us o e ugees. See Appendix A.
4. Discussion
This scoping e iew o e s he i s comp ehensi e li e a u e syn hesis ega ding he
de ini ion and measu es o economic in eg a ion among immig an s and e ugees in he
Economies 2024,12, 167 7 o 14
Uni ed S a es. This e iew iden i ies se en p ima y domains h ough which economic
in eg a ion is concep ualized. The in e wo en complexi ies o income and economic
secu i y, employmen and occupa ional ca ego ies, asse s and use o inancial se ices,
neighbo hood and housing, heal h, educa ion, and use o public assis ance highligh
he mul idimensional na u e o immig an economic in eg a ion and he challenges o
cap u ing he comp ehensi e pic u e o economic wellbeing among immig an and e ugee
popula ions. I also sugges s ha in e en ions in one domain may ha e ipple e ec s
ac oss o he s, necessi a ing a holis ic app oach conside ing he mul idimensional na u e o
immig an economic in eg a ion.
Ou indings sugges ha he discou se on income and economic secu i y in he
li e a u e is ich. Re iewed s udies inco po a ed income o ea nings, income o wage
g ow h, hou s wo ked, and income le els compa ed o na i e-bo n popula ions and na-
ional po e y lines as indica o s o economic in eg a ion. While hese indica o s a e, o a
g ea ex en , he p ima y inancial esou ces o a household, hey o e look consump ion,
he o he di ec ion o cash low c i ical o economic wellbeing. Including asse s, weal h,
and he use o inancial se ices expands he unde s anding o he economic success o
immig an s and e ugees. Acco ding o asse heo y, he accumula ion o asse s o asse
building can p oduce economic, psychological, and social ad an ages o people (She aden
2018). Owning asse s can enhance indi iduals’ capabili ies and oppo uni ies.
Employmen and occupa ion ca ego ies cons i u ed ano he signi ican domain ci ed
in he li e a u e, highligh ing he impo ance o job s a us and occupa ion in economic
in eg a ion. Ne e heless, we also iden i ied a gap in p e ious esea ch; ha is, a nuanced
explo a ion o job sa is ac ion, he ca ee ladde , and employmen quali y. Fo example,
s udies used he bamboo ceiling o desc ibe he cul u al and o ganiza ional ba ie s ha
impede Asian Ame icans om climbing he ca ee ladde (e.g., Yu 2020). Mo eo e , se e al
s udies show ha mobili y ou o he low-wage ma ke , he ma ke ha is mo e accessible
o e ugees and immig an s, is a oo di icul (Os e man and Shulman 2011;Rank e al.
2021). These kinds o wo kplace challenges and disc imina ions a e ha d o measu e by
employmen s a us, and he e is a need o u he a en ion o he ype o occupa ion. S ill,
employmen p o oundly impac s ca ee de elopmen and long- e m economic in eg a ion
among immig an s and e ugees. An in-dep h unde s anding o immig an s’ and e ugees’
employmen si ua ions is needed when measu ing hei le el o economic in eg a ion.
While he majo i y o s udies ocused on speci ic dimensions o economic in eg a ion,
a no ewo hy subse adop ed a mul idimensional app oach, inco po a ing mul iple do-
mains simul aneously (Kusow e al. 2018;Michaliko a and Yang 2016;Naseh e al. 2022a,
2022b;Silles 2018). Fo example, heal h and educa ion we e iden i ied as indica o s o
economic in eg a ion, highligh ing he in e ela ed na u e o socioeconomic ac o s. This
mul idimensional app oach unde sco es he impo ance o unde s anding economic in e-
g a ion beyond mone a y measu es. Economic in eg a ion is a mul i-laye ed and complex
issue; unidimensional measu es, such as income, migh no p o ide an accu a e pic u e o
economic in eg a ion (Naseh e al. 2022a). Measu ing economic in eg a ion mul idimen-
sionally can aid in ho oughly add essing he mul iple ac o s ha can con ibu e o his
p ocess as challenges and acili a o s.
The no able ocus on immig an s o e e ugees e eals a signi ican gap in he li e -
a u e. While e ugees ace simila ba ie s o gene al immig an s in achie ing economic
success, such as limi ed English language p o iciency (Chin and Co es 2015), un amilia i y
wi h he Uni ed S a es economic and inancial sys ems (Pa apo n e al. 2010;Paulson
e al. 2006), unde -e alua ion o wo k expe ience and/o educa ion (Naseh e al. 2022a),
and no o limi ed c edi his o y, hey ha e unique challenges gi en hei o ced mig a-
ion na u e. Al hough he Uni ed S a es go e nmen p o ides e ugees wi h ime-limi ed
cash assis ance and social bene i s (Gi a d 2015), he cu en U.S. e ugee ese lemen
p og ams ocus p ima ily on helping e ugees achie e sel -su iciency h ough apid job
placemen o minimize he iscal bu den o e ugee ese lemen s (B ick e al. 2010). This
app oach o e emphasizes sho - e m elie wi hou paying enough a en ion o e ugees’
Economies 2024,12, 167 8 o 14
long- e m economic in eg a ion, limi ing hei upwa d mobili y oppo uni ies. A ecen
s udy on mul idimensional po e y among e ugees in he Uni ed shows ha po e y
inc eased be ween 2015 and 2017 among e ugees, wi h nea ly wo- hi ds being classi ied
as mul idimensionally poo in 2017 (Naseh e al. 2022a). This scoping e iew highligh s
he impo ance o p io i izing esea ch on e ugee economic in eg a ion, speci ically, he
de e minan s shaping he economic ajec o ies o e ugee popula ions.
4.1. Conclusions
In conclusion, his scoping e iew unde sco es he complex na u e o economic in e-
g a ion among immig an s and e ugees. By conduc ing a comp ehensi e and sys ema ic
li e a u e sea ch and e iew, we ha e iden i ied se en p ima y domains commonly used o
measu e o concep ualize economic in eg a ion by esea che s in he Uni ed S a es. These
domains—income and economic secu i y, employmen and occupa ional ca ego ies, asse s
and use o inancial se ices, neighbo hood and housing, heal h, educa ion, and use o
public assis ance—a e consis en wi h hose included in exis ing mul idimensional indices
and ools ha measu e economic in eg a ion among di e en g oups. Fo example, he
Uni ed S a es Census Mul idimensional Dep i a ion Index (MDI) encompasses six domains,
measu ing dep i a ions in s anda ds o li ing (quan i ied by income po e y), educa ion,
heal h, economic secu i y, housing quali y, and neighbo hood quali y (Glassman 2019).
Ano he example is he Mul idimensional Measu e o Immig an In eg a ion ques ionnai e,
which includes an economic in eg a ion sec ion wi h ques ions abou income, employ-
men , and sa ings. Addi ionally, he e is a mul idimensional index designed o measu e
sel - eliance among e ugees in he Global Sou h named he Re ugee Resilience Index,
which inco po a es 12 domains, including housing, ood, heal hca e, heal h s a us, sa e y,
employmen , inancial esou ces, assis ance, deb , sa ings, and social capi al (Re ugee
Sel -Reliance Ini ia i e 2020).
The indings om his scoping e iew highligh he necessi y o a holis ic app oach o
unde s anding, measu ing, and add essing economic in eg a ion among immig an s and
e ugees. The e iew also emphasizes he signi ican gap in esea ch ocusing on e ugees,
who ace unique challenges beyond hose expe ienced by gene al immig an popula ions.
Fu u e esea ch should pay mo e a en ion o he economic in eg a ion o e ugees, who
a e among he mos a isk o exclusion in his a ea (Naseh e al. 2022a). The indings
om his scoping e iew can guide he c ea ion o a mul idimensional ques ionnai e o he
adap a ion o exis ing su eys o be e measu e economic in eg a ion among immig an s
and e ugees in he Uni ed S a es.
4.2. Limi a ions and S eng hs
Despi e he ho oughness and obus ness o he scoping e iew me hodology, his
s udy has limi a ions. The ocus on English-language publica ion may in oduce language
bias. Al hough we excluded unde -documen ed immig an s, mixed-s a us amilies, and
asylum seeke s o ensu e ha he pa icipan s in he included s udies had ull access o
a ailable esou ces o economic in eg a ion, he e a e s ill nuances among he included
immig an s due o he complex immig a ion laws. Fo example, he Pe sonal Responsibili y
and Wo k Oppo uni y Reconcilia ion Ac (PRWORA) es ic s access by legal immig an s
who en e ed he Uni ed S a es a e Augus 1996 o ce ain ede al means- es ed public
bene i s o hei i s i e yea s in he coun y (O ice o he Assis an Sec e a y o Planning
and E alua ion, The U.S. Depa men o Heal h and Human Se ices 2009). The exclusion
o he unde -documen ed immig an s, mixed-s a us amilies, and asylum seeke s also in o-
duces a limi a ion, as he s udy does no accoun o a signi ican po ion o he immig an
popula ion in he Uni ed S a es. Unde -documen ed immig an s, mixed-s a us amilies,
and asylum seeke s ace unique challenges ha can a ec hei economic in eg a ion and
success. Wi h o e 10 million unde -documen ed immig an s in he U.S., no including
hem means he s udy’s indings migh no ully ep esen he b oade immig an expe i-