Tailored to Women, Provided to Men? Gendered Occupational Inequality in Access to Flexible Working-Time Arrangements

Jacobi, Aljoscha; Hamjedie s, Maik; Naujoks, Tabea
A icle — Published Ve sion
Tailo ed o Women, P o ided o Men? Gende ed
Occupa ional Inequali y in Access o Flexible Wo king-Time
A angemen s
Social Indica o s Resea ch
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Sp inge Na u e
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Jacobi, Aljoscha; Hamjedie s, Maik; Naujoks, Tabea (2024) : Tailo ed o
Women, P o ided o Men? Gende ed Occupa ional Inequali y in Access o Flexible Wo king-Time
A angemen s, Social Indica o s Resea ch, ISSN 1573-0921, Sp inge Ne he lands, Do d ech , Vol.
176, Iss. 3, pp. 1179-1205,
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Social Indica o s Resea ch (2025) 176:1179–1205
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ORIGINAL RESEARCH
Tailo ed oWomen, P o ided oMen? Gende ed
Occupa ional Inequali y inAccess oFlexible Wo king‑Time
A angemen s
AljoschaJacobi1 · MaikHamjedie s1,2 · TabeaNaujoks3,4
Accep ed: 18 No embe 2024 / Published online: 30 Decembe 2024
© The Au ho (s) 2024
Abs ac
Nume ous policy-make s and social scien is s p omo e lexible wo king as a means o
econcile wo k and amily li e, o en explici ly a ge ing women. Acco dingly, one migh
expec ha lexible wo king- ime a angemen s a e mo e p e alen in occupa ions wi h a
high sha e o emale employees. Ye , p e ious e idence indica es he opposi e. To add ess
his puzzle, we in es iga e he occupa ional oppo uni y s uc u es o lexible wo king.
A de alua ion a gumen p oposes ha employe s pe cei e emale- yped wo k as being o
lowe alue, hus inhibi ing he p o ision o lexible wo king- ime a angemen s in e-
male-domina edoccupa ions. We e alua e his a gumen agains al e na i e explana ions,
namely di e ences in he abili y o ba gain o lexible wo king and in s uc u al o p ac i-
cal ba ie s o lexible wo king. Desc ip i e esul s based on Ge man panel da a (GSOEP,
2003–2017) en iched wi h occupa ional-le el in o ma ion con i m ha emale-domina ed
occupa ions p o ide he leas access o lexible wo k. Linea p obabili y models wi h yea ly
ixed-e ec s indica e ha powe esou ces and s uc u al ba ie s accoun o di e ences in
lexible wo king be ween male-domina ed and in eg a ed occupa ions; ye an unexplained
disad an age o emale-domina ed occupa ions emains. Mo eo e , his disad an age has
g own be ween 2003 and 2017. We in e p e his esul as suppo o a cul u al de alua ion
o emale-domina ed occupa ions in access o lexible wo king- ime a angemen s. Ou
indings highligh ha he empi ical eali y o gende ed occupa ional oppo uni y s uc-
u es con adic s he gende ed policy discou se on lexible wo k.
Keywo ds Flexible wo king· Gende · Occupa ional gende seg ega ion· De alua ion·
Ge many
* Aljoscha Jacobi
[email p o ec ed]
1 Depa men o Social Sciences, Humbold -Uni e si ä zu Be lin, Un e den Linden 6,
10099Be lin, Ge many
2 Depa men o Poli ical andSocial Sciences, Eu opean Uni e si y Ins i u e, Via dei Rocce ini 9,
50014SanDomenicodiFiesole, I aly
3 Ins i u e o Sociology andDemog aphy, Uni e s iy o Ros ock, Ulmens aße 69, 18057Ros ock,
Ge many
4 He ie School, F ied ichs aße 180, 10117Be lin, Ge many
1180
A.Jacobi e al.
1 In oduc ion
Flexible wo king gi es employees con ol o e when and some imes whe e hey wo k
(Ka asek, 1979; Kelly and Moen, 2007). Employees’ con ol o e hei ime can be seen
as a wo ke s’ igh ha shi s powe om employe s o employees and can hus also
be seen as an end in i sel . Addi ionally, lexible wo king is o en discussed and p o-
mo ed in he con ex o econciling employmen and he ime demands o p i a e ca e
wo k. I is he eby implici ly and o en explici ly “ ailo ed o women” o whom ca e
wo k is asc ibed. P ominen social scien is s and policymake s call o p o iding emale
employees mo e schedule con ol o inc ease women’s labo o ce pa icipa ion (Goldin,
2014; Eu o ound, 2017; Kelly e al., 2011).
Mos p e ious schola ship on unequal access o lexible wo king ocused on indi-
idual de e minan s o on in e na ional compa isons o wel a e s a e egimes mode a -
ing di e ences in access (o e iew in: Chung 2020a). Gende di e ences, howe e , a e
nei he he me e esul o indi idual (mic o-le el) choices and p e e ences, no pu ely
shaped by mac o-le el ins i u ions. They a e also linked o oppo uni y s uc u es a
he meso-le el. Occupa ions—as his o ically dis inc o ms o o ganizing wo k—a e a
cen al ins i u ion in labo ma ke s and a e s ongly seg ega ed by gende (Cha les and
G usky, 2004; S einme z, 2012). Occupa ions anspo s e eo ypes and p o ide oppo -
uni ies and cons ain s o indi iduals wo king in hem. Consequen ly, wo king-hou
no ms a e embedded in occupa ional con ex s (Weeden and G usky, 2005; Williams
e al., 2013), which likely a ec whe he i ms p o ide lexible wo king- ime a ange-
men s and whe he employees demand and use hem. The ein, Chung (2019b) poin ed
o a puzzle cha ac e izing lexible wo king in many Eu opean coun ies: while access o
lexibili y is only mode a ely unequal be ween men and women on he indi idual le el,
occupa ions domina ed by women a e almos hal as likely o p o ide lexible wo king-
ime a angemen s compa ed o in eg a ed o male-domina ed occupa ions. This sug-
ges s a gende ed occupa ional oppo uni y s uc u e in access o lexible wo king ha
is a odds wi h a policy discou se ha “ ailo s” lexible wo king o women o educe
wo k- amily con lic .
This s udy esponds o his puzzling lack o lexible wo king in emale-domina ed
occupa ions by assessing po en ial explana ions o indi idual-le el and occupa ional
di e ences h ough c oss-sec ional and longi udinal analysis. D awing on p e ious
esea ch demons a ing wage disad an ages in emale-domina ed occupa ions (England,
1992), we a gue ha hese occupa ions a e also “de alued” in e ms o access o lex-
ible wo king- ime a angemen s. A de alua ion o emale-domina ed occupa ions in
e ms o access o lexible wo k may s em om gende s e eo ypes ha a e a ached
no only o indi iduals bu also o occupa ions, and hese limi employe s’ esponsi e-
ness o demands o lexible wo k. This a gumen is es ed agains al e na i e explana-
ions, namely di e ences in powe esou ces and s uc u al ba ie s ha inhibi access
o lexible wo king- ime a angemen s. The empi ical analysis builds on he Ge man
Socio-Economic Panel (GSOEP) om 2003 o 2017 combined wi h da a on occupa-
ional cha ac e is ics om he Ge man Mik ozensus, he Eu opean Social Su ey (ESS)
as well as he Ge man Gene al Social Su ey (ALLBUS). The esul s indica e ha
while occupa ional di e ences in powe esou ces and s uc u al ba ie s can accoun
o highe access o lexible wo king- ime a angemen s in in eg a ed compa ed o male-
domina ed occupa ions, he lowe access in emale-domina ed occupa ions emains
unexplained. Mo eo e , his disad an age o emale-domina ed occupa ions e en g ew
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Tailo ed oWomen, P o ided oMen? Gende ed Occupa ional…
be ween 2003 and 2017, indica ing ha emale-domina ed occupa ions did no bene i
om he inc easing p oli e a ion o lexible wo king- ime a angemen s o he same
ex en as o he occupa ions did.
Ou s udy con ibu es wo new insigh s o he li e a u e. Fi s , we ex end he heo e i-
cal a gumen o de alua ion o he p o ision o lexible wo king- ime a angemen s and
p o ide empi ical e idence o i . Highligh ing meso-le el explana ions, we indica e ha
a de alua ion o emale-domina ed occupa ions shapes he a ailabili y o lexible wo k-
ing- ime a angemen s. Second, ou indings challenge popula assump ions in he policy
discou se ega ding he associa ion o lexible wo k and gende as well as heo ies o com-
pensa ing di e en ials (File , 1985), which assume ha lowe pay in emale-domina ed
occupa ions is compensa ed o by highe lexibili y.
2 Theo e ical Backg ound
Flexible wo king- ime is o en amed as a emedy agains women’s ba ie s o employ-
men . Wo king- ime lexibili y is de ined as he abili y o employees o exe a ce ain
deg ee o con ol o e when hey wo k (Lo and Chung, 2016). This is di e en om pa -
ime wo k, which may s ill ha e igidly ixed hou s, and dis inc om employe s demand-
ing i egula hou s. Wo king- ime lexibili y ideally p o ides employees wi h clea igh s
( o ins ance ins i u ionalized wo king ime accoun s). Such con ol o e wo king- ime
helps employees o econcile paid wo k and o he esponsibili ies, such as ca e wo k. Espe-
cially a e childbi h ca e wo k is s ill p ima ily asc ibed o women (G unow e al., 2012;
Kühhi , 2012), he e o e lexible wo k may be bene icial o women and hei ( e)in eg a-
ion in o he labo ma ke . Some e idence sugges s ha lexible wo king is an e ec i e
measu e o econcile employmen and ca e wo k (Abend o h, 2022; Russell e al., 2009;
Wange and Zap , 2022; Hegewisch and Go nick, 2011). A he same ime he discu si e
associa ion o lexibili y and eminini y—also e e ed o as “ lexibili y s igma” (Williams
e  al., 2013)—leads o lowe up ake among men (A kinson and Hall, 2009; Hennekam
e al., 2023). This sugges s ha lexible wo king is mo e accessible o women compa ed o
men and pe agg ega ion, should be mo e common wi hin emale-domina ed occupa ions
compa ed o in eg a ed o male-domina ed occupa ions.
Ye , his conjec u e is con es ed by se e al s udies. On he indi idual le el, se e al
c oss-coun y s udies show no gende di e ence o e en disad an ages o women in
access o lexible wo king (Lyness e al., 2012; Be g e al., 2004; O ega, 2009; Plan enga
and Reme y, 2010; P äg and Mills, 2014). These gende di e ences end o be smalle in
occupa ions, in which women a e nume ically dominan (S ie and Yaish, 2014). Ye , mo e
impo an ly, a he occupa ional le el, hese emale-domina ed occupa ions p o ide gene -
ally lowe access o lexible wo king o bo h gende s (Chung, 2019b). We ake his puz-
zling inding as he s a ing poin and acco dingly posi a nega i e ela ionship be ween
occupa ional gende composi ions and he a ailabili y o lexible wo king:
H.1 Female-domina ed occupa ions p o ide less lexible wo king- ime a angemen s
han in eg a ed and male-domina ed occupa ions.
The emainde o his sec ion de elops a amewo k o disen angle his coun e -in ui-
i e ela ionship. We i s explo e po en ial explana ions ha a ibu e he lack o lexible
wo king o composi ional di e ences a he han gende i sel . These a e, on he one hand,
occupa ional di e ences in indi idual and collec i e ba gaining powe , and, on he o he
hand, occupa ional di e ences in s uc u al ba ie s o lexible wo king. Subsequen ly, we
1182
A.Jacobi e al.
u n o gende ole expec a ions as po en ial explana ions o a emaining nega i e associa-
ion. Finally, we a gue ha emale-domina ed occupa ions a e de alued and hus ha e less
access o lexible wo king- ime a angemen s.
2.1 Ba gaining o Flexible Wo king‑Time A angemen s
While gene ally all employees migh demand lexible wo king- ime a angemen s, only
employees wi h su icien powe esou ces can success ully ba gain o hem (Ko pi, 2006).
In Ge many, minimum s anda ds o some aspec s o wo king- ime, such as annual lea e
and maximal hou s, a e legally de ined bu his is no he case o lexible wo king. This
lea es he ac ual implemen a ion o indi idual o collec i e ag eemen s be ween i ms and
employees. The success o employees in hese nego ia ions hence depends on bo h hei
indi idual and collec i e abili y o oice hei demands and hei ba gaining powe o eal-
ize hem.
Wo ke s’ indi idual ba gaining powe is-à- is hei employe is a unc ion o hei p o-
duc i i y and hei po en ial o lea e he i m o be e ou side op ions. E en ba ing di ec
nego ia ions i ms migh ha e an in e es in imp o ing wo king condi ions as a non-pecuni-
a y incen i e o p oduc i i y and in o de o e ain especially alued employees in he i m
(Jacobi, 2022). Since an employee’s p oduc i i y is di icul o measu e, schola s usually
ocus on se e al obse able dimensions cap u ing p oduc i i y ela ing o he concep o
human capi al (Mince and Polachek, 1974): educa ion and oca ional aining as well as
gene al labo ma ke expe ience and i m-speci ic human capi al in he o m o enu e a
he cu en i m. These ac o s a e indica i e o ba gaining powe and ha e been shown o
posi i ely a ec he p o ision o lexible wo king (Chung, 2020a). Simul aneously, some o
hese o ms o capi al a e sca ce among employees in emale-domina ed occupa ions. Fo
ins ance, he sha e o pa - ime posi ions is subs an ially highe no only among women on
he indi idual le el bu also wi hin emale-domina ed occupa ions in Ge many (Bächmann
e al., 2022), leading o less accumula ed ull- ime wo k expe ience. Addi ionally, oca-
ional aining o emale-domina ed occupa ions is much mo e o en o ganized as school-
based aining, whe eas app en iceships p edomina ed o in eg a ed and male-domina ed
occupa ions (K üge , 2003), leading o composi ional di e ences in enu e be ween hei
wo ke s. Thus, occupa ional di e ences in hese esou ces migh accoun o a ela ionship
be ween gende ed occupa ions and he a ailabili y o lexible wo king- ime a angemen s.
Beyond indi idual-le el powe esou ces, access o collec i e ba gaining is a cen al
powe esou ce. His o ically, he Ge man “dual sys em” (Thelen, 1991) delega ed issues
o wo k o ganiza ion and wo king- ime a angemen s o i m-le el nego ia ions ia wo ks
councils, whe eas wages we e la gely nego ia ed on he agg ega e le el ia a i s. This
di ide became less ele an o e ime (Hassel, 1999, 2014), wi h cu en ly i m-le el as
well as agg ega e-le el mobiliza ion o powe esou ces playing a signi ican ole in nego i-
a ing wo king- ime a angemen s. A he collec i e ba gaining le el unions a e he p ima y
agen s, which is mi o ed by union membe s also o en unning i m-le el wo ks councils.
Hence, he e ec i eness o bo h a enues o employee in luence s ongly depends on union
densi y. Since unions a e o his day mo e p e alen among male-domina ed occupa ions
(c . Mu phy & Oesch, 2016), a ia ion ac oss occupa ions in union densi y migh pa ly
accoun o he associa ion be ween an occupa ion’s sha e o emale employees and he
access o lexible wo king- ime a angemen s.
H.2. Dispa i ies in indi idual-le el and collec i e ba gaining powe accoun o he
penal y o emale-domina ed occupa ions in access o lexible-wo king ime a angemen s.

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Tailo ed oWomen, P o ided oMen? Gende ed Occupa ional…
2.2 Ba ie s oFlexible Wo king‑Time A angemen s
In addi ion o ba gaining powe , s uc u al ba ie s speci ic o ce ain occupa ions could
impai he p o ision o and access o lexible- ime wo king a angemen s. Female-
domina ed occupa ions may ace mo e o hese ba ie s. These ba ie s include ac o s
such as he p e alence o pa - ime wo k, he size o he i m, and he occupa ional ask
p o iles.
Pa - ime wo k is, in many cases, al eady a solu ion o wo k-li e con lic s. The e o e,
i can subs i u e lacking lexible wo king- ime a angemen s, o ins ance, when denied
access o lexibili y pushes employees in o pa - ime a angemen s (Chung, 2019b,p.
113). Simila ly, pa - ime wo k is gene ally associa ed wi h ewe powe esou ces,
hence i could no only be seen as a ba ie o lexible wo king bu also be ele an
h ough i s impac on ba gaining powe — he demands o pa - ime employees migh
ca y less weigh han hose o hei ull- ime colleagues. Pa icula ly in Ge many
women mo e o en han men wo k in pa - ime posi ions (Schmeiße e al., 2012) and
pa - ime wo k is mo e p e alen in emale-domina ed han in male-domina ed occupa-
ions (Bächmann e al., 2022). Hence, he ade-o be ween pa - ime wo k and lex-
ible wo king- ime a angemen s migh esul in lowe access o he la e among emale-
domina ed occupa ions. Howe e , as pa - ime wo k could also lea e mo e oom o
lexible scheduling, e idence o a ela ionship be ween wo king hou s and access o
lexible wo king- ime a angemen s is weak (Glaube , 2011; Chung, 2019a).
P e ious s udies also es ablished ha la ge i ms a e mo e likely o p o ide lexible
wo king hou s (Zap , 2016; Jacobi, 2022; Chung, 2020). Plausible mechanisms a e ha
la ge i ms a e mo e likely o o malize hei wo k o ganiza ion, ace lowe ela i e
adminis a i e cos s when in oducing lexible wo king policies, and a la ge wo k o ce
may c ea e mo e oppo uni ies o indi idual lexibili y. Female-domina ed occupa ions
a e concen a ed o a non-negligible deg ee in smalle i ms, which makes dispa i ies in
a e age i m size ano he likely explana ion o gende ed occupa ional di e ences.
H.3. Di e ences in s uc u al cons ain s, namely smalle pa - ime wo k and i m
size, accoun o he penal y o emale-domina ed occupa ions in access o lexible
wo king- ime a angemen s.
Some asks pe o med in a job may impose addi ional cos s o gi ing up ixed sched-
ules. Fo example, occupa ions ypically pe o ming asks ha equi e in-pe son con-
ac , such as nu sing o pe sonal se ices, equi e mo e coo dina ion o appoin men s
and hence p o ide ewe low-cos oppo uni ies o g an employees con ol o e hei
schedules (Ge s el and Clawson, 2014; Goldin, 2014). As occupa ions wi h a high sha e
o ca e wo k ela ed asks a e o en also mo e emale-domina ed (Le anon and G usky,
2016), he link be ween asks and easibili y o lexible scheduling is no gende -neu al.
Simila ly, supe iso y posi ions and managing asks allow a ce ain disc e ion in sched-
uling wo k, making hem mo e likely o ha e access o lexible wo king- ime a ange-
men s. Simul aneously, hese posi ions a e mo e o en held by men. Hence, asks ypi-
cally pe o med by membe s o an occupa ion may accoun o gende ed occupa ional
di e ences.
H.4. Di e ences in occupa ional ask p o iles accoun o he penal y o emale-domi-
na ed occupa ions in access o lexible wo king- ime a angemen s.
1184
A.Jacobi e al.
2.3 Gende ed Expec a ions
Gende s e eo ypes encompass se e al dimensions and shape he alloca ion o esou ces.
Mos p ominen ly linked o lexible wo king- ime a angemen s is he s e eo ypical
asc ip ion o ca e wo k o women, which becomes especially salien in di e en -sex
couples a e childbi h (G unow e al., 2012; Kühhi , 2012). Ye , gende ed expec a-
ions encompass u he dimensions ha migh o some ex en accoun o lowe lex-
ibili y in emale-domina ed occupa ions.
Gende s e eo ypes also encapsula e a p i ileged posi ion o men in he labo ma -
ke (Ridgeway, 2009). S e eo ypical belie s o men’s p imacy in he labo ma ke migh
impai women’s access o lexible wo king- ime a angemen s ia wo mechanisms:
On he side o employees, in e nalized gende no ms may lead o women being less
asse i e and ha ing a less p onounced sense o en i lemen when making claims in he
wo kplace (Luekemann and Abend o h, 2018). This mechanism migh be ein o ced as
women who display masculine agen ic ai s a e punished o iola ing p esc ip ions o
eminine niceness (Rudman and Glick, 2001). Acco dingly, women migh be less likely
o demand and ba gain o lexible wo king- ime a angemen s, despi e he gende ed
discou se asc ibing hem a highe demand. On he side o employe s, claims made by
women may be e alua ed di e en ly compa ed o men’s due o disc imina ing belie s
(Saue e al., 2021) o he assump ion ha women use lexibili y o make ime o ca e
wo k while men use i o maximize p oduc i i y (Chung, 2020b). This migh be exace -
ba ed i decision-making posi ions a e mo e o en held by men, who a e mo e espon-
si e o claims made by o he men (c . Pe e s e al., 2023). In line wi h his, some bu
no all s udies indica e ha women ha e less access o lexible wo king- ime a ange-
men s on he indi idual le el (Lyness e al., 2012; P äg and Mills, 2014; Plan enga and
Reme y, 2010), which could accumula e wi hin occupa ions o a nega i e ela ionship
be ween an occupa ion’s sha e o emale employees and lexible wo king.
H.5. Women’s indi idual-le el lowe access o lexible wo king- ime a angemen s
accoun s o he penal y o emale-domina ed occupa ions in access o lexible wo king-
ime a angemen s.
Finally, gende ed expec a ions also mani es a he le el o occupa ions, amongs o h-
e s as a cul u al de alua ion o emale-domina ed occupa ions. Occupa ions s ongly
di e in hei gende composi ions and his has led o he de elopmen o gende ed s e-
eo ypes eme ging also on he occupa ional le el, wi h gende ed pe cep ions o occupa-
ions, hei ypical wo ke , and ypical asks (e.g., He e al., 2019). Based on he obse -
a ion ha emale-domina ed occupa ions o en pay wo se, England (1992) p oposed an
a gumen o gende ed expec a ions biasing employe s’ pe cep ions o ewa ds in “male”
and “ emale” occupa ions: beyond lowe s a us assigned o indi idual emale wo ke s,
employe s also asc ibe a lowe alue o he wo k done in occupa ions wi h a high sha e
o women. This de alua ion d i es employe s o o e ewe bene i s and o espond less
o employees’ demands (Wilkinson e al., 2014). Al hough mos e idence on his phe-
nomenon pe ains o wages (Le anon e al., 2009; Busch, 2018; Ha is, 2022; Mu phy
and Oesch, 2016), pe cep ions o lowe alue in emale- yped wo k may also diminish
non-mone a y bene i s, as shown by lowe access in emale-domina ed occupa ions o
employe -p o ided heal h insu ance and e i emen plans in he U.S. (Hodges, 2020).
Likewise, employe s may p o ide ewe lexible wo king- ime op ions o be less espon-
si e o eques s om employees in emale-domina ed occupa ions. While gende s e-
eo ypes in male-domina ed occupa ions may also en ail an “ideal wo ke ” no m o
1185
Tailo ed oWomen, P o ided oMen? Gende ed Occupa ional…
ull- ime commi men ha limi s lexibili y (Williams, 2013), he de alua ion hypo h-
esis sugges s ha emale-domina ed occupa ions s ill o e ewe lexible ime a ange-
men s, e en a e adjus ing o o he occupa ional di e ences.
H.6. E en a e adjus ing o all p e ious accoun s o occupa ional di e ences ha
d i e access o lexible wo king- ime a angemen s, emale-domina ed occupa ions s ill
p o ide lowe wo k- ime lexibili y han in eg a ed o male-domina ed occupa ions.
2.4 The Cu en S udy
Ou s udy is si ua ed in Ge many. The Ge man labo ma ke is s uc u ed along he lines
o highly c eden ialized occupa ions (e.g., Mülle and Sha i , 1998) and cha ac e ized
by compa a i ely high gende seg ega ion (Cha les and G usky, 2004), p o iding a al-
uable scena io o examining occupa ional inequali ies. Flexible wo king- ime a ange-
men s became mo e eadily a ailable in Ge many o e he pas decades, a end ha is
d i en by de-indus ializa ion, changes in egula ions as well as ela i ely low unem-
ploymen (Jacobi, 2022).
Agains his backd op, we assess he puzzling obse a ion ha emale-domina ed
occupa ions ha e lowe access o lexible wo king- ime a angemen s. I a disad an-
age o emale occupa ions pe sis s a e we adjus o he mechanisms ou lined in
ou hypo heses, we ake such esidual associa ion as an indi ec es o he de alua ion
a gumen . This app oach is—simila o s udies on he gende wage gap—suscep ible o
omi ed a iable bias, bu also o o e -con ol. The la e would occu i a con ol a ia-
ble al eady cap u es gende ed s e eo ypes, which migh especially apply o occupa ional
asks. While o ins ance, an adjus men o he ex en o “ca ing” asks p oxies a need
o in-pe son con ac ha is a ba ie o lexible schedules, “ca ing” is also his o ically
asc ibed o women, ende ing cul u al pe cep ions o he asks s ongly in e wined wi h
gende s e eo ypes. S e eo ypes abou ca e wo k also o en depic i as al uis ically
mo i a ed o “in he na u e o women”, which migh ende employe s o pe cei e wo k-
e s as less suscep ible o ex e nal wo k incen i es, such as wages o access o lexible
wo king- ime a angemen s (England e al., 2002). The ein, he de alua ion o emale-
domina ed occupa ions is ha dly comple ely sepa able om “ca e penal ies” (Folb e
e al., 2021), which has o be kep in mind when adjus ing o occupa ional asks.
To u he es ou a gumen , we also adop a longi udinal pe spec i e. P e ious esea ch
o en u ned o longi udinal da a o gauge de alua ion in e ms o wages ia occupa ional-
le el ixed e ec s (e.g., Le anon e  al., 2009; Busch, 2018) o ins umen al a iable
app oaches (Ha is, 2022) o add ess po en ial biases om omi ed a iables. Howe e ,
hese app oaches hea ily ely on changes in he nume ical ep esen a ion o women ac oss
ime, wi h he assump ion being ha a cul u al de alua ion occu s quickly a e he gende
composi ion o an occupa ion changes. Ye , cul u al ine ia main ains he in luence o s e-
eo ypes on beha io e en a e changes in occupa ional gende composi ion (c . Busch,
2018), impai ing he de ec ion o sho - e m e ec s o changes in women’s ep esen a ion
wi hin occupa ions. Ne e heless, changes in he o e all ubiqui y o lexible wo king p o-
ide ano he pe spec i e o gauge he de alua ion a gumen . We u ilize longi udinal da a o
in es iga e how occupa ional gende composi ions (as an indica o o occupa ional gen-
de s e eo ypes) accoun o di e gen adop ion o lexible wo king o e ime. The o e all
inc ease may no be e enly dis ibu ed and de alued occupa ions may ha e bene i ed less.
1186
A.Jacobi e al.
3 Da a
Ou p ima y da a sou ce is he Ge man Socio-Economic Panel (GSOEP), an annual ep e-
sen a i e household panel su ey o he Ge man esiden ial popula ion launched in 1984.
Da a on lexible wo king is a ailable bi-annually om 2003 o 2011 and annually om
2012 o 2017. We es ic he sample o employed adul s aged 18–65yea s and exclude
special sub-samples, such as he 2016 e ugee sample, o which no da a on wo king- ime
a angemen s is a ailable. Addi ionally, we supplemen he indi idual-le el GSOEP da a
wi h in o ma ion on he occupa ional le el om h ee u he da a sou ces, namely, he
Ge man Mik ozensus (a epea ed c oss-sec ional manda o y su ey o one pe cen o he
households esiding in Ge many), he Eu opean Social Su ey (ESS) and Ge man Gene al
Social Su ey (ALLBUS).
3.1 Dependen Va iable: Flexible Wo king‑Time A angemen s
The a ailabili y o lexible wo king- ime a angemen s was measu ed by asking espond-
en s o cha ac e ize hei wo king- ime a angemen by choosing one o ou mu ually
exclusi e op ions (Fig.1). The i s ca ego y does no g an employees disc e ion o e hei
wo king hou s. The second ca ego y is employe -o ien ed lexibili y, which includes sea-
sonally o e en daily adjus ed wo king hou s by he employe (c . Langne , 2018). Lo
(2020) a gues ha employees wi h employe -d i en lexibili y pe cei e no only a lack o
schedule con ol bu expe ience addi ional schedule unce ain y. We he e o e do no con-
side his op ion as sel - egula ed wo king- ime lexibili y and code hese esponses as no
lexible wo king. Fo ou main analysis, we combine esponden s who decide hei own
hou s (ca ego y 3) and esponden s using a “wo king hou s accoun ” (ca ego y 4)—mo e
commonly e e ed o as “ lexi ime” (Lo , 2020; sepa a e analysis o he wo ca ego ies in
Figs.5 and 6 in he Appendix). Wi hin he “ lexi ime” a angemen , o e ime is accoun ed
o and can be used wi h a ce ain deg ee o disc e ion by he employee. The ad an age o
employees is ha hei wo king ime and i s managemen a e ins i u ionalized. The com-
bina ion o “wo king- ime au onomy” and “ lexi ime” in o one ca ego y likely cap u es a
a ie y o a angemen s, bu is su icien ly delinea ed om schedules de e mined by he
employe , and can hus be in e p e ed as an a angemen g an ing wo ke s some deg ee o
con ol.
Nowadays, he e a e anumbe o di e en ypes o wo kinghou s a ailable.
Whicho he ollowing possibili ies is mos applicable o you wo k?
1. Fixeddaily wo king hou s.
2.Business ixed,pa lychangingwo king hou spe day.
3. No o mally ixed wo king hou s, decide my ownwo kinghou s.
4. Flexi ime wi hinawo king hou saccoun andace ain deg ee o sel -de e mina iono
daily wo kinghou s wi hin his accoun .
Fig. 1 Su ey ins umen used o measu e wo king- ime a angemen s
1193
Tailo ed oWomen, P o ided oMen? Gende ed Occupa ional…
(

𝛽2
−

𝛽
1
<
0.01
in he las ow o Fig.3). Thus, he p oposed explana ions accoun o he
di e ence be ween male-domina ed and in eg a ed occupa ions, which co obo a es hei el-
e ance o occupa ional access o lexible wo king. Only he penal y o emale-domina ed
occupa ions emains, which we ake as e idence o hypo hesis H.6 and o a cul u al de alu-
a ion ha impai s access o lexible wo king- ime a angemen s among hem.
To u he assess he disad an age o emale-domina ed occupa ions, we in es iga e
how he occupa ional-le el di e ences de eloped o e he 15 yea s o ou analy ical ime
pe iod. Gi en ha we obse e a secula end owa ds mo e lexible wo king ha is d i en
by policy-make s p omo ing lexible wo king and os ensibly a ge ing women, we in es-
iga e whe he he impai ed access o lexible wo king in emale-domina ed occupa ions
indeed dec eased o e ime; o al e na i ely, whe he cul u al de alua ion led o wo ke s in
emale-domina ed occupa ions no equally bene i ing om he inc ease in lexible wo king.
In o de o espond o his, we apply he same me hodological app oach as abo e and add
an in e ac ion e m o he occupa ional di e ences and he calenda yea .
Figu e4 displays he es ima ed ad an age o male-domina ed occupa ions (le panel)
and o in eg a ed occupa ions ( igh panel) by yea . The gap be ween emale-domina ed
and in eg a ed occupa ions es ima ed by he bi a ia e model (ci cle ma ke s) does no
change subs an ially o e ime and nei he do he gaps es ima ed by he model including
powe esou ces and s uc u al cons ain s (a ow-shaped ma ke s) o he model addi ion-
ally con olling o asks (g ey ma ke s). The e is hence no e idence ha emale-domina ed
male−domina ed occupa ions in eg a ed occupa ions
2005 2010 2015 200520102015
0.0
0.1
0.2
A
ME
a. bi a ia e
b. + powe + cons ain s
c. + asks + sex
Fig. 4 Reg ession coe icien s o access o lexible wo king- ime a angemen s in male-domina ed and
in eg a ed compa ed o emale-domina ed occupa ions, by yea . No e: Yea -speci ic coe icien s (wi h 95
pe cen con idence in e als) om in e ac ing gende ed occupa ions and yea -indica o wi h inc easing se s
o con ol a iable shown; x-axis depic s di e ence o wo king a male-domina ed occupa ion (le panel)
and in eg a ed occupa ion ( igh panel) compa ed o wo king in a emale-domina ed one ( e e ence ca e-
go y). Model b (c) is analogue o hi d (las ) es ima e om Fig.3. Sou ce: GSOEP (2003–2017), Mik ozen-
sus (2003–2017), ALLBUS (2002–2018), ESS(2002–2019). Weigh ed es ima es.

1194
A.Jacobi e al.
occupa ions became inc easingly de alued, no ha hey caugh up in compa ison o in e-
g a ed occupa ions. The disad an age o emale-domina ed compa ed o male-domina ed
occupa ions on he o he hand did inc ease o e ime. Male-domina ed occupa ions saw he
la ges inc ease in he a ailabili y o lexible wo king- ime a angemen s be ween 2003 and
2017 (ci cle ma ke s; see also Fig.2). This inc ease is no explained by male-domina ed
occupa ions gaining powe esou ces o losing cons ain s (a ow-shaped ma ke s). Only
when adjus ing o occupa ional asks we do no longe obse e an inc ease in he di e ence
be ween male- and emale-domina ed occupa ions (g ey ma ke s). Hence, he ask p o-
iles o emale- o male-domina ed occupa ions mus ha e changed o e ime. In line wi h
an expansion o lexible wo king- ime a angemen s, male-domina ed occupa ions saw a
decline in manual asks ha inhibi lexibili y and an inc ease in managing and de elop-
men asks ha acili a e lexibili y (see Fig.7 and Table3in he Appendix). By con as ,
emale-domina ed occupa ions (and o some ex en in eg a ed occupa ions) shi ed owa ds
mo e educa ion and ca ing asks a he expense o managing asks, and his shi in he ask
p o ile p edic s impai ed p o ision o lexible wo king- ime a angemen s.
Summa izing he longi udinal e idence, he inc ease in he a ailabili y o lexi ime
made access o lexibili y mo e unequal be ween gende ed occupa ions. This inc eased
disad an age is no easily explained wi h powe esou ces o cons ain s. While changing
ask p o iles accoun s o an inc ease in he ad an age o male-domina ed occupa ions o e
ime, occupa ional asks a e s ill highly in e wined wi h gende s e eo ypes. Hence, he
inding could also e lec a cul u al de alua ion o he inc easing p e alence o educa ion
and ca e asks among hese occupa ions, as a speci ic mani es a ion o he cul u al de alu-
a ion o emale-domina ed occupa ions. No ably, changes in he ask p o iles only accoun
o he change o e ime in he di e ence be ween emale- and male-domina ed occupa-
ions, bu a subs an ial unexplained gap emains.
6 Discussion
Gi ing employees con ol o e when hey wo k is no only an end in i s own igh bu also
o en amed as a solu ion o mode n conund ums o wo k and amily econcilia ion. In
his ega d, a puzzle o lexible wo king being “ ailo ed o women bu p o ided o men”
eme ged a he occupa ional le el. We illumina ed his puzzle by in es iga ing he ela ion-
ship be ween esponden s’ sel - epo ed wo king- ime a angemen s and hei occupa ions’
gende composi ion using da a om Ge many co e ing he yea s 2003 o 2017. Ou esul s
show ha lexible wo king- ime a angemen s a e less common in emale-domina ed occu-
pa ions. E en a e accoun ing o se e al composi ional di e ences (including occupa ional
asks), we ind ha emale-domina ed occupa ions a e a a subs an ial disad an age e -
sus in eg a ed and male-domina ed occupa ions by 8 and 9 pe cen age poin s espec i ely.
While male-domina ed occupa ions also lag behind in eg a ed ones, we we e able o accoun
o hese ia he composi ional di e ences in powe esou ces and s uc u al cons ain s.
We make wo b oade con ibu ions. Fi s , we ex end he heo e ical a gumen o de al-
ua ion heo y o he p o ision o lexible-wo king ime a angemen s. In con as o p e i-
ous esea ch ha la gely ocused on indi idual-le el gende inequali ies in lexible wo king
and on coun y-le el cha ac e is ics shaping gende inequali ies, we ocus on occupa ions
as a meso-le el ha de e mines he p o ision o lexible wo king. Desc ip i ely, we show
ha a disad an age o emale- yped occupa ions also exis s in he case o lexible wo k-
ing- ime a angemen s in Ge many and ins ead o na owing, he gap has g own o e ime
1195
Tailo ed oWomen, P o ided oMen? Gende ed Occupa ional…
in compa ison o male-domina ed occupa ions. The gap is nei he due o s uc u al ba i-
e s no powe esou ces, p o iding s ong e idence o a cul u al de alua ion o emale-
domina ed occupa ions leading o less access o lexible wo king- ime a angemen s. Pos-
sible mechanisms include employe s p o iding ewe bene i s and being less esponsi e o
claims om employees in emale-domina ed occupa ions (Wilkinson e al., 2014). Employ-
e s may also asc ibe a lowe alue o emale- yped wo k o pe cei e less need o ex e nal
incen i es i , o example, ca e wo k is pe cei ed as in insically mo i a ed.
Second, ou inding challenges popula assump ions in he policy discou se and in na a-
i es on he expansion o lexible wo king- ime a angemen s. The e-o ganiza ion o wo k
le behind emale-domina ed occupa ions despi e he claimed in en ions o policy-make s
and employe s. As shown, he g ow h o lexible wo king in he pas decades bene i ed
male-domina ed occupa ions he mos , leading o he assessmen ha he s a ed goal has
been clea ly missed. Mo eo e , some ha e a gued ha wo king- ime lexibili y compen-
sa es o lowe wages in emale-domina ed occupa ions (File , 1985). Exis ing e idence o
non-pecunia y bene i s compensa ing o lowe wages is a bes mixed (e.g., Wues enenk
and Begall, 2022; Glass, 1990). Ou esul s u he con adic he compensa ing di e en ial
pe spec i e and ein o ce he de alua ion a gumen .
Ou esul s come wi h some limi a ions. Fi s , he sel - epo s by employees on he use o
lexible wo king do no di ec ly in o m us abou he a ailabili y o lexible wo king. Employ-
ees migh no know abou he policies in place o be hesi an o u ilize hem; bo h would lead
o unde - epo ing o lexible wo king. While we do no expec sys ema ic bias ac oss gen-
de ed occupa ions, u u e esea ch would bene i om imp o ed measu es allowing o dis-
inguish be ween p o ision and up ake o lexible wo king. Second, while ou s udy ocused
on he occupa ional le el, he a ailabili y o lexible wo king- ime a angemen s is, o a la ge
ex en , decided on he i m le el. Fu u e esea ch should in es iga e a ia ion ac oss i ms o
elucida e whe he lowe access o lexible wo king- ime a angemen s is indeed a cha ac e -
is ic o emale-domina ed occupa ions o , a he , women’s impai ed access occu s la gely
among emale-domina ed i ms (Hamjedie s and Pe e s, 2024). Thi d, ou esidual app oach
o assessing he de alua ion o emale-domina ed occupa ions is p one o po en ial omi ed
a iable bias o o e -con ol. While we a gue ha cul u al ine ia o occupa ional s e eo ypes
unde mines an assessmen ia sho - e m changes in occupa ional gende composi ion and
ca e ully in e p e he ela ionship be ween occupa ional gende composi ions and occupa-
ional asks, esea ch ha de elops mo e di ec es s o he de alua ion o emale-domina ed
occupa ions would be a aluable supplemen .
Ou indings wa an some e lec ion on b oade implica ions. The gende ed na u e
o he lexibili y discou se should no be blindly eplica ed, and he e a e many easons
o be skep ical abou he e ec s o lexible wo king on gende inequali y (Chung, 2022).
Empi ically, women s ill do he majo i y o ca e wo k and also mo e o en wo k in ca -
ing occupa ions. I is gene ally ques ionable ha mo e access o lexible wo king will
ha e a la ge impac on his di ision o labo . Some indings o posi i e e ec s on gende
equali y in ca e wo k exis (Chung and Booke , 2023), bu men ha e also been ound o
use hei lexibili y o ca e wo k only unde ce ain ci cums ances and mos ly ein es
hei lexibili y in paid wo k (Lo and Chung, 2016). The use o lexible wo king is
gende ed. E en hough lexible wo king is o en amed as a measu e o econcile wo k
and amily li e, employe s o en p o ide i o inc ease p oduc i i y and hus c ea e an
a ea o ension be ween he no ms o an ideal wo ke and an ideal pa en . Despi e hese
well- ounded doub s abou he bene i s o lexible wo king o gende equali y, con ol
o e schedules h ough new o ms o wo k o ganiza ion is an impo an dimension o
indi idual li e chances and social inequali y in i s own igh .
1196
A.Jacobi e al.
Appendix
See Figs.5, 6, 7 and Tables2, 3.
0.07
0.05
0.04
0.02
0.04
0.17
0.12
0.10
0.05
0.06
male−domina ed occupa ions in eg a ed occupa ions
0.05 .1 .15 0.05 .1 .15
+ sex
+ asks
+ cons ain s
+ powe
bi a ia e
β
^
1
β
^
2
Fig. 5 Reg ession coe icien s compa ing access o lexi ime in emale-domina ed occupa ions o male-
domina ed and in eg a ed occupa ions. No e: Analogous o Fig.3, OLS eg ession coe icien s on he a ail-
abili y o lexi ime o male and in eg a ed occupa ions e sus emale occupa ions ( e e ence ca ego y). The
ba s indica e 95 pe cen con idence in e als. Sou ce: GSOEP (2003–2017), Mik ozensus (2003–2017),
ALLBUS (2002–2018), ESS(2002–2019). Weigh ed es ima es
0.04
0.08
0.09
0.08
0.05
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.04
0.02
male−domina ed occupa ions in eg a ed occupa ions
0.05 .1 0.05 .1
+ sex
+ asks
+ cons ain s
+ powe
bi a ia e
β
^
1
β
^
2
Fig. 6 Reg ession coe icien s compa ing access o wo king- ime au onomy in emale-domina ed occupa-
ions o male-domina ed and in eg a ed occupa ions. No e: Analogous o Fig.3, OLS eg ession coe icien s
on he a ailabili y o wo king- ime au onomy o male and in eg a ed occupa ions e sus emale occupa-
ions ( e e ence ca ego y). The ba s indica e 95 pe cen con idence in e als. Sou ce: GSOEP (2003–2017),
Mik ozensus (2003–2017), ALLBUS (2002–2018), ESS(2002–2019). Weigh ed es ima es
1197
Tailo ed oWomen, P o ided oMen? Gende ed Occupa ional…
Male−domina ed In eg ea ed Female−domina ed
2006 2010 2014 2006 20102014 2006 20102014
0
20
40
60
yea
sha e in %
De elopmen and design Educa ion and ca e ManagingManual
Fig. 7 A e ages o ask sha es o esponden s in he analy ic sample in male-domina ed, in eg a ed and
emale-domina ed occupa ions by su ey yea . The occupa ional cha ac e is ics we e es ima ed om he
Mik ozensus. GSOEP 36, weigh ed
1198
A.Jacobi e al.
Table 2 Classi ica ion o
occupa ional asks Task Coding
Ope a ing machines Manual
Fa ming Manual
Mining Manual
Cons uc ing Manual
Selling/buying Managing
Repa a ing Manual
Execu ing w i ing/calcula ing/IT- asks Managing
Checking by guidelines Managing
C ea ing p odcu s/plans/p og ams De elopmen and design
Ad e ising/PR De elopmen and design
Managing Managing
Hos ing/ ood p epa a ion Educa ion and ca e
Execu ing/judging laws/o de s Managing
Educa ing Educa ion and ca e
Consul ing Managing
(Heal h)ca e/cosme ics Educa ion and ca e
En e aining (a s/jou nalis s) De elopmen and design
D i ing/loading/handling o logis ics Manual
Cleaning Manual
Secu ing/p o ec ing Educa ion and ca e
Resea ch/de elopmen De elopmen and design

1199
Tailo ed oWomen, P o ided oMen? Gende ed Occupa ional…
Table 3 OLS Reg essions o lexible wo king- ime a angemen s
Models o Fig.3Robus ness checks
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
Bi a ia e + Powe + Cons ain s + Tasks + Sex − Powe Tasks ine g ained
Occupa ional gende comp.:
Re .: Female-domina ed.
Male-domina ed 0.110
∗∗
0.128
∗∗
0.129
∗∗
0.101
∗∗
0.086
∗∗
0.077
∗∗
0.081
∗∗
(0.009) (0.010) (0.010) (0.011) (0.012) (0.009) (0.016)
In eg a ed 0.210
∗∗
0.166
∗∗
0.162
∗∗
0.085
∗∗
0.077
∗∗
0.181
∗∗
0.049
∗∗
(0.009) (0.009) (0.009) (0.009) (0.009) (0.009) (0.011)
Educa ion (CASMIN):
Re .: Low/in e media e
Seconda y/ oca ional 0.164
∗∗
0.160
∗∗
0.117
∗∗
0.118
∗∗
0.092
∗∗
(0.009) (0.008) (0.008) (0.008) (0.008)
Te ia y 0.389
∗∗
0.377
∗∗
0.335
∗∗
0.334
∗∗
0.293
∗∗
(0.010) (0.010) (0.010) (0.010) (0.011)
Tenu e a i m (log) 0.044
∗∗
0.034
∗∗
0.025
∗∗
0.025
∗∗
0.020
∗∗
(0.004) (0.004) (0.004) (0.004) (0.004)
Wo k expe ience ull- ime (log) 0.016
∗∗
0.020
∗∗
0.021
∗∗
0.020
∗∗
0.019
∗∗
(0.004) (0.004) (0.004) (0.004) (0.003)
Wo k expe ience pa - ime (log)
−
0.014
∗∗
−
0.007
−
0.002 0.004
−
0.004
(0.004) (0.005) (0.004) (0.004) (0.004)
% union membe s
−
0.053
∗∗
−
0.062
∗∗
−
0.022
∗∗
−
0.023
∗∗
−
0.015
∗∗
(0.005) (0.005) (0.004) (0.004) (0.005)
Weekly wo k hou s:
Re .: Full- ime
Pa - ime
−
0.050
∗∗
−
0.046
∗∗
−
0.041
∗∗
−
0.077
∗∗
−
0.038
∗∗
(0.010) (0.009) (0.009) (0.009) (0.009)
1200
A.Jacobi e al.
Table 3 (con inued)
Models o Fig.3Robus ness checks
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
Bi a ia e + Powe + Cons ain s + Tasks + Sex − Powe Tasks ine g ained
Ma ginal 0.043
∗∗
0.057
∗∗
0.061
∗∗
−
0.022
∗
0.058
∗∗
(0.011) (0.011) (0.011) (0.010) (0.011)
Fi m size:
Re .:
<20
≥20,
<
200
−
0.032
∗∗
−
0.028
∗∗
−
0.028
∗∗
−
0.033
∗∗
−
0.026
∗∗
(0.009) (0.008) (0.008) (0.009) (0.008)
≥200,
<
2000
0.082
∗∗
0.060
∗∗
0.060
∗∗
0.093
∗∗
0.044
∗∗
(0.010) (0.010) (0.010) (0.011) (0.009)
≥2000
0.110
∗∗
0.071
∗∗
0.071
∗∗
0.132
∗∗
0.068
∗∗
(0.010) (0.010) (0.010) (0.011) (0.009)
Occupa ional asks:
Re .: De elopmen and design
Manual
−
0.005
∗∗
−
0.005
∗∗
(0.000) (0.000)
Managemen
−
0.002
∗∗
−
0.002
∗∗
(0.000) (0.000)
Educa ion and ca e
−
0.006
∗∗
−
0.006
∗∗
(0.000) (0.000)
Sex (1 = emale)
−
0.041
∗∗
(0.009)
Cons an 0.232
∗∗
0.071
∗∗
0.069
∗∗
0.424
∗∗
0.446
∗∗
0.228
∗∗
0.445
∗∗
(0.008) (0.013) (0.014) (0.032) (0.033) (0.010) (0.070)
1201
Tailo ed oWomen, P o ided oMen? Gende ed Occupa ional…
Table 3 (con inued)
Models o Fig.3Robus ness checks
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
Bi a ia e + Powe + Cons ain s + Tasks + Sex − Powe Tasks ine g ained
Yea ixed e ec s Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Occ. asks ine-g ained Yes
R
2
0.031 0.133 0.148 0.234 0.235 0.054 0.277
N 196,222 196,222 196,222 196,222 196,222 196,222 196,222
Sou ce: GSOEP (2003–2017), Mik ozensus (2003–2017), ALLBUS (2002–2018), ESS(2002-2019). Weigh ed es ima es
OLS eg ession coe icien s shown wi h indi idual-le el clus e ed s anda d e o s in pa en heses. Le els o signi icance:
∗
p
<
0.05
,
∗∗
p
<
0.01
1202
A.Jacobi e al.
Acknowledgemen s This esea ch was pa o he DYNAMICS Resea ch T aining G oup ha is unded
by he Deu sche Fo schungsgemeinscha (DFG, Ge man Resea ch Founda ion)—390285477/GRK2458.
We hank Anna No dnes Helgøy and Heejung Chung o ex ensi e eedback on he manusc ip as well as
Hannah Zagel o p o iding eedback on he ini ial idea o his a icle. Fu he in aluable commen s we e
p o ided by E in Kelly, Thomas Lux, S e en Mau and pa icipan s o he RC28 con e ence 2022 a he
LSE.Nas ia Nedjai helped wi h he ini ial li e a u e esea ch.
Funding Open Access unding enabled and o ganized by P ojek DEAL.Funding Open Access unding
enabled and o ganized by P ojek DEAL.
Da a a ailabili y The da a used o p oduce he indings a e a ailable o esea che s h ough he S a is isches
Bundesam (Mik ozensus), he Deu sche Ins i u ü Wi scha s o schung (GSOEP), GESIS (ALLBUS)
and he Eu opean Social Su ey espec i ely.
Decla a ions
Con lic o in e es The au ho s decla e ha hey ha e no known compe ing inancial in e es s o pe sonal
ela ionships ha could ha e appea ed o in luence he wo k epo ed in his pape .
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