Benchis, Melisa Pe a; Shahzad, Khu am; Dan, So in
A icle
Compa a i e analysis o blockchain adop ion in he
public and p i a e sec o s. A echnology-o ganiza ion-
en i onmen (TOE) amewo k app oach
Jou nal o Inno a ion & Knowledge (JIK)
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Else ie
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Benchis, Melisa Pe a; Shahzad, Khu am; Dan, So in (2025) : Compa a i e
analysis o blockchain adop ion in he public and p i a e sec o s. A echnology-o ganiza ion-
en i onmen (TOE) amewo k app oach, Jou nal o Inno a ion & Knowledge (JIK), ISSN 2444-569X,
Else ie , Ams e dam, Vol. 10, Iss. 4, pp. 1-16,
h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.jik.2025.100746
This Ve sion is a ailable a :
h ps://hdl.handle.ne /10419/327641
S anda d-Nu zungsbedingungen:
Die Dokumen e au EconS o dü en zu eigenen wissenscha lichen
Zwecken und zum P i a geb auch gespeiche und kopie we den.
Sie dü en die Dokumen e nich ü ö en liche ode komme zielle
Zwecke e iel äl igen, ö en lich auss ellen, ö en lich zugänglich
machen, e eiben ode ande wei ig nu zen.
So e n die Ve asse die Dokumen e un e Open-Con en -Lizenzen
(insbesonde e CC-Lizenzen) zu Ve ügung ges ell haben soll en,
gel en abweichend on diesen Nu zungsbedingungen die in de do
genann en Lizenz gewäh en Nu zungs ech e.
Te ms o use:
Documen s in EconS o may be sa ed and copied o you pe sonal
and schola ly pu poses.
You a e no o copy documen s o public o comme cial pu poses, o
exhibi he documen s publicly, o make hem publicly a ailable on he
in e ne , o o dis ibu e o o he wise use he documen s in public.
I he documen s ha e been made a ailable unde an Open Con en
Licence (especially C ea i e Commons Licences), you may exe cise
u he usage igh s as speci ied in he indica ed licence.
h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/
Compa a i e analysis o blockchain adop ion in he public and p i a e
sec o s. A echnology-o ganiza ion-en i onmen (TOE)
amewo k app oach
Melisa Pe a Benchis , Khu am Shahzad
*
, So in Dan
Uni e si y o Vaasa, Wol in ie 32, 65200 Vaasa, Finland
ARTICLE INFO
JEL codes:
O3
O32
O33
O310
O320
O330
O380
L320
L330
Keywo ds:
Blockchain adop ion
P i a e sec o
Public sec o
TOE amewo k
Compa a i e analysis
Technology-o ganiza ion-en i onmen
ABSTRACT
Blockchain echnology (BT) can po en ially enhance anspa ency, e iciency, and us ac oss all domains.
Howe e , i emains unclea how he ela i e adop ion o BT be ween he p i a e and public sec o s compa es in
ligh o exis ing s udies. This a icle con ibu es o he li e a u e by e alua ing he adop ion p ocess h ough he
echnology, o ganiza ional, and en i onmen al dimensions o he TOE amewo k. A compa a i e esea ch
design was employed h ough 21 semi-s uc u ed in e iews wi h pa icipan s om he public and p i a e sec o s
in Finland. The esul s indica e ha challenges o adop ion uni o mly exis be ween bo h sec o s in he o m o
egula o y conce ns and misconcep ions ega ding ene gy ma e s, as well as incen i es ha a e di ec ly linked o
he sec o . The p i a e sec o is incen i ized o adop BT o scalabili y, e iciency, and esponsi eness o ma ke
demand in ligh o compe i i e ad an age. The public sec o is mo i a ed o adop BT h ough anspa ency and
egula o y conce ns, al hough a willingness o accommoda e legacy sys ems in he sho e m exis s so ha public
se ices and ac i i ies a e no in e up ed. In addi ion, ou indings highligh he impo an ole o public in-
s i u ions in BT adop ion. Ul ima ely, bo h sec o s equi e s ong isiona y leade ship and aining o o e come
knowledge de iciencies and p oo -o -concep s udies o educe unce ain y and eliance on ex e nal applica ions
and pa ne ships. This a icle con ibu es o he li e a u e by compa a i ely highligh ing he simila i ies and
di e ences in his phenomenon. I o e s p ac ical and policy- ela ed implica ions and encou ages an indus y-
speci ic app oach o adop ion, c oss-indus y inno a ions, and egula o y policies.
In oduc ion
The inc easing awa eness and g owing in e es in digi al echnolo-
gies ha e pu digi al ans o ma ion a he op o o ganiza ional agendas
(Ha eez e al., 2025) as o ganiza ions seek o de elop hei inno a i e
digi al capabili ies (Shahzad e al., 2025a). Eme ging echnologies such
as blockchain echnology (BT) play a pi o al ole in d i ing hese
ans o ma ions. BT has eme ged o e he yea s as a se o inno a ions
ha cap u e in e es and in es men ac oss bo h go e nmen al in-
s i u ions and p i a e en e p ises (Haq e al., 2024; Juszczyk & Shahzad,
2022; Mahula e al., 2025, 2025; Shahzad e al., 2024a; Tan e al.,
2022a). BT is a decen alized da abase ha enables secu e, anspa en ,
and ampe -p oo in o ma ion o be sha ed ia a dis ibu ed ledge
sys em (DLT) (Rod íguez Bolí a e al., 2019). The co e a ibu es o he
echnology include secu i y, decen aliza ion, and immu abili y. I s
dis up i e po en ial is e iden in i s abili y o eplace adi ional
echnologies and p ocesses, leading o enhanced pe o mance, ans-
pa ency, cos , and ope a ional e iciency (Shahzad, 2020). I e ol ed
in o a mul ipu pose ool applied ac oss indus ies, including inancial
sys ems, digi al igh s managemen , and public go e nance (Kayani &
Hasan, 2024; Nakamo o, 2008; Rod íguez Bolí a e al., 2019; Tan e al.,
2022a). Howe e , blockchain adop ion is a om being a echnology,
conside ing i s mul iple applica ions. In he p i a e sec o , BT is mos
popula —wi h e ec i e applica ion— o i s ope abili y, anspa ency,
and dec eased cos s. I is used in supply chains o imp o e acking in
inancial capi al ma ke s o inc eased ansac ion speeds and decen-
alized lending oppo uni ies and in he ene gy ma ke o pee - o-pee
ades and decen alized ene gy g ids (Dehghani e al., 2022; Zhang
e al., 2024). Howe e , in he public sec o , BT is heo ized o be e
go e nance and be e se ice deli e y esul s (Tan e al., 2022a). Key
applica ions include digi al iden i y managemen , ensu ing secu e and
ampe -p oo eco ds and land egis ies, p o iding anspa ency in
* Co esponding au ho : Uni e si y o Vaasa, Wol in ie 32, 65200 Vaasa, Finland.
E-mail add esses: [email p o ec ed] (M.P. Benchis), [email p o ec ed] (K. Shahzad), [email p o ec ed] (S. Dan).
Con en s lis s a ailable a ScienceDi ec
Jou nal o Inno a ion & Knowledge
jou nal homepage: www.else ie .com/loca e/jik
h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.jik.2025.100746
Recei ed 16 Janua y 2025; Accep ed 27 May 2025
Jou nal o Inno a ion & Knowledge 10 (2025) 100746
A ailable online 5 June 2025
2444-569X/© 2025 The Au ho s. Published by Else ie España, S.L.U. on behal o Jou nal o Inno a ion & Knowledge. This is an open access a icle unde he CC
BY license (
h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/ ).
p ope y ansac ions, and o ing sys ems, and o e ing anspa en and
immu able elec o al p ocesses (Andoni e al., 2019; Tan e al., 2025;
Tou aily e al., 2021).
While empi ical s udies ha e explo ed he adop ion o BT in bo h he
public and p i a e sec o s sepa a ely (Cagigas e al., 2023; Rod íguez
Bolí a e al., 2019; Shahzad e al., 2024a; Sousa, 2023; Tan e al.,
2022a, 2025), compa isons o he adop ion p ocesses be ween he wo
emain limi ed (wi h he excep ion o Tou aily e al., 2021). This s udy
explo es hese p ocesses om a compa a i e pe spec i e, iden i ying
how he echnology-o ganiza ion-en i onmen (TOE) ac o s di e on
he basis o he adop ion in en ion and implemen a ion p ocesses be-
ween he wo sec o s. The signi icance o e alua ing he simila i ies and
di e ences be ween blockchain adop ion in he public and p i a e sec-
o s comes om di e en d i es and limi a ions (Rod íguez Bolí a
e al., 2019; Tan e al., 2025; Wong e al., 2020).
Ou esul s, suppo ed by iangula ion om o he esea ch,
demons a e ha he p i a e sec o p io i izes ou comes such as e i-
ciency, scalabili y, and compe i i e ad an age on he basis o indus y
(And ews e al., 2011; Boyne, 2002). Con e sely, he public sec o is
mo e conce ned wi h egula o y compliance and anspa ency, leading
o a mo e ese ed app oach o adop ion and a ocus on he know-how
p ocess, which is o en aligned wi h exis ing legacy sys ems (Boyne,
2002; Osbo ne, 2006). The e o e, ela i e o his s udy, a compa a i e
assessmen o he indings p o ides a clea e pic u e o he dynamics a
play, which is bene icial in he long e m o policymake s, execu i es,
and p ac i ione s wi hin hei indus y, as hey need o know how o bes
adop BT o sui hei speci ic needs. Fu he mo e, unde s anding how
adop ion di e s c ea es e ec i e go e nmen syne gy h ough
public-p i a e pa ne ships ha can ensu e g ea e e ec i eness o BT
knowledge and ope a ional e en ion wi hin sec o s (Tou aily e al.,
2021).
This esea ch is g ounded in he TOE amewo k, which is a consis-
en model o delimi a ion ha examines echnological inno a ion om
an o ganiza ional iewpoin . While o he po en ial heo ies such as he
di usion o inno a ion o he uni ied heo y o accep ance and use o
echnology only examine he adop ion expe ience om he cus ome
iewpoin , he TOE con ines he esea che o a mo e sys ema ic
explana ion o o ganiza ional, mic o, and mac o dynamics (Chi ipaka
e al., 2023; Dehghani e al., 2022). TOE is a ai ly u ilized amewo k
and has been applied in many ele an s udies o in es iga e blockchain
adop ion ac oss mul iple indus ies. Fo example, TOE has been used in
supply chain esea ch (Chi ipaka e al., 2023), inance and banking
(Daidai & Tamnine, 2023; Kayani & Hasan, 2024), en e p ise esou ce
planning sys ems (Awa e al., 2016), and e en c oss-coun y s udies a
he o ganiza ional le el (Malik e al., 2022). TOE is pa icula ly
app op ia e o his esea ch because i o e s a s ong heo e ical
amewo k and empi ical ele ance o he esul s o p io s udies. In
addi ion, i allows o an all-encompassing e alua ion o he adop ion o
BT in bo h sec o s (Malik e al., 2022; To na zky & Fleische , 1990).
Thus, he objec i e o ou s udy is o explo e how he public and
p i a e sec o s a e simila and di e en in e ms o blockchain adop ion
a he le els o echnology, o ganiza ion, and he en i onmen . Ou
s udy con ibu es o he g owing body o esea ch on blockchain adop-
ion by o e ing a compa a i e analysis o he speci ic simila i ies and
di e ences be ween he public and p i a e sec o s. By le e aging he
TOE amewo k, his esea ch examines how echnological, o ganiza-
ional, and en i onmen al ac o s shape BT adop ion in dis inc ways
ac oss bo h sec o s. In doing so, i ad ances exis ing esea ch by iden-
i ying common adop ion challenges while ou lining sec o -speci ic
d i e s ha in luence BT implemen a ion s a egies. In pa icula , his
s udy makes he ollowing con ibu ions o he li e a u e: (1) a oun-
da ion o building c oss-sec o collabo a ion, allowing public and p i-
a e en i ies o le e age each o he ’s s eng hs and collec i ely add ess
common pain poin s in BT adop ion, and (2) insigh s in o sec o -speci ic
adop ion s a egies, o e ing ecommenda ions ha encou age syne gies
be ween go e nmen agencies and p i a e en e p ises h ough well-
s uc u ed pa ne ships and policy amewo ks. Thus, he ecommen-
da ions ocus on egula o y consis ency and ease, whe e p o-blockchain
ac ions exis . Fu he mo e, a men ali y change is necessa y o ensu e
ha BT is no pe cei ed as jus ano he dis up i e c yp ocu ency ha
consumes excessi e ene gy. The ela i ely ecen disco e ies abou new
ene gy ese es and new compliance and ene gy public-p i a e pa -
ne ships will legi imize sa e, complian , e icien , and seamless in e-
g a ion o blockchain in he u u e.
In he public sec o , inexpensi e pilo p og ams can alida e whe he
BT can enhance exis ing anspa ency, e iciency, and quali y o se ices
ende ed. These p og ams se e no only as alida ion o he easibili y
o cu en se ices ende ed bu also as he ideal ope a ing a mosphe e
o scalabili y. In he p i a e sec o , scalabili y depends on he buy-in o
he ins i u ion, hus, managemen mus a ge aining, a ocused, nea -
con ex ual de ini ion o implemen a ion, and ela i e in ol emen in
ope a ions o achie e e iciency, s abiliza ion, and da a p i acy. Mo e-
o e , educa ed implemen a ion equi es co ec ions o misconcep ions
om wi hin and os e ing an in ap eneu ial cul u e o ease assimila-
ion. Ul ima ely, BT adop ion is an o ganiza ional change, no jus a
echnological change, ia compliance and coope a ion. This s udy se s
he ajec o y o u u e s udies abou he in e play o adop ing BT wi h
o he eme ging echnologies such as AI and he IoT. As his echnology
ad ances and oppo uni ies o in a ield esea ch yield g ea e unde -
s anding, u u e legisla o s, manage s, and enginee s will be be e
equipped o adop i in mul iple comme cial and go e nmen al a enas.
The emainde o he pape is s uc u ed as ollows: The ollowing
sec ion syn hesizes he ex an li e a u e, de eloping a heo e ical oun-
da ion o ou pape . This is ollowed by a desc ip ion o ou me hod-
ological design, including he da a collec ion and analysis app oach. We
hen explain ou indings in he esul s sec ion. Finally, we conclude ou
pape by discussing ou esul s wi h exis ing esea ch and o e heo-
e ical and manage ial implica ions ollowed by limi a ions and u u e
esea ch a enues.
Li e a u e e iew
Blockchain adop ion in he public and p i a e o ganiza ions
The heo e ical phenomenon o dis ibu ed ledge echnology (DLT)
and i s p ac ical use o BT, which s ems om Nakamo o’s wo k on
Bi coin has exponen ially inc eased academically ele an esea ch on
his opic. The li e a u e suppo s he heo e ical ounda ions o BT wi h
p ac ical applica ions o business go e nance and ad ancemen s by
public egula o s. Fo example, Tou aily e al. (2021) conduc ed a
comp ehensi e li e a u e e iew in which he eade can see ‘nine
s eams o esea ch ela ed o blockchain adop ion’ (Tou aily e al., 2021, p.
2). These s eams include bu a e no limi ed o, he pos ula ion o
ba ie s o adop ion, p i acy conce ns, socioeconomic mic o/mac o,
business/go e nance no ions abou BT, hi d-pa y accommoda ions o
in luence, p esen and u u e applica ions o BT, e c., and discuss he
ex e nal ac o s ha a ec he s a e o BT adop ion. In his con ex , as
he use o BT has been mo e p e alen du ing he las ew yea s, we can
see an inc ease in mo e in-dep h s udies (Haq e al., 2024; Sanda e al.,
2022; Shahzad e al., 2024a; Sung & Pa k, 2021), especially om an
adop ion s andpoin (Zhang e al., 2024).
The p i a e sec o was an ea ly adop e o BT, as i deal wi h less
sc u iny om he legisla i e sys em, ea ing i wi h lexibili y. La e , he
ocus on blockchain eme ged, and i was eo ien ed o solu ions ailo ed
o business objec i es. This p ac ical app oach has led o a ious ap-
plica ions ac oss indus ies and egions (Alhasan & Hamdan, 2023; Asa
& Zosu, 2023; Daidai & Tamnine, 2023; Gup a e al., 2024). While
ea lie esea ch a icles ocused on blockchain’s echnical ea u es and
design (Ak am e al., 2020; T ipa hi e al., 2023; Upadhyay, 2020),
ecen s udies ha e shi ed owa d explo ing i s po en ial o deli e
measu able business alue, i s applica ions ac oss sec o s, and i s
modeling impac a he o ganiza ional le el (Abbas & Myeong, 2024;
M.P. Benchis e al.
Jou nal o Inno a ion & Knowledge 10 (2025) 100746
2
Rahman e al., 2024; Sha ma e al., 2022).
Recen s udies ha e b oadened he scope o BT applica ions om
adi ional use cases, such as c oss-bo de ansac ions, da a s o age, and
supply chain aceabili y (Abbas & Myeong, 2024; Li e al., 2023), o
eme ging a eas, such as enewable ene gy ading (Cui e al., 2023;
Rejeb e al., 2024), decen alized iden i y managemen (Yan e al.,
2024), he in eg a ion o BT wi h AI o p edic i e analy ics (Ressi e al.,
2024), and inancial se ices and iden i y managemen (Daidai &
Tamnine, 2023; Manzoo e al., 2022; Shahzad e al., 2024a; Wang e al.,
2019;). Ejai u e al. compa ed BT applica ions in he USA and A ica. In
he USA, i le e ages BT o s eamlined p ocesses h ough sma con-
ac s, whe eas in A ica, he echnology inspi es us despi e in a-
s uc u al se backs. The ecu en hemes, howe e , a e us c ea ion
and enabling collabo a ion in sec o s such as supply chain managemen
(Shahzad e al., 2024a), logis ics (Ganguly, 2024), and inance (Daidai &
Tamnine, 2023; Kayani & Hasan, 2024). Ne e heless, challenges such
as accoun abili y in sma con ac ailu es and secu i y b eaches pe sis
(Chu e al., 2023), highligh ing he need o isk mi iga ion amewo ks.
Adop ion dispa i ies u he complica e in eg a ion, wi h SMEs acing
esou ce cons ain s (Clemen e-Almend os e al., 2024), whe eas la ge
i ms lead adop ion e o s (Dehghani e al., 2022). The lack o consis-
en egula o y amewo ks is also a ba ie o g ow h in he a eas o
inance and heal hca e, despi e pa ial solu ions such as he EU’s MiCA
and DORA amewo ks (Cappai, 2023; Eu opean Union, 2024). In his
con ex , Finland’s p oac i e legal app oach demons a es how egula-
ion can os e inno a ion, bu challenges such as scalabili y and change
managemen s ill pe sis (So sa & Salmi-Tolonen, 2021).
The adop ion o BT in he public sec o has ga ne ed inc easing
a en ion as go e nmen s seek inno a i e solu ions o keep pace wi h
social changes and scien i ic ad ancemen s in socie y (Dehghani e al.,
2022; Tan e al., 2022a). Xan hopoulou e al. (2023) highligh ed ha he
public sec o ep esen s a key a ea o blockchain applica ions, wi h
o e 200 use cases epo ed globally by go e nmen s and public o ga-
niza ions. Founda ional uses include iden i y e i ica ion and au hen i-
ca ion, as demons a ed in a 2017 s udy o Canada’s public‒p i a e
ecosys ems, whe e blockchain sys ems ensu ed da a in eg i y ac oss
ins i u ions such as banks, heal hca e p o ide s, and go e nmen
agencies (Sung & Pa k, 2021; Tan e al., 2022a; Wol ond, 2017).
Blockchain adop ion in he public sec o p io i izes go e nmen al obli-
ga ions, such as cen alized iden i y managemen , alongside p oduc-
i i y, secu i y, and po en ial h ea s (Khal an e al., 2022; Rod íguez
Bolí a e al., 2019). E-go e nance models inco po a ing
blockchain-based solu ions demons a e imp o emen s in da a man-
agemen , legal compliance acking, and add essing e hical dilemmas
(Kassen, 2024; Mus a a e al., 2024). Addi ionally, public‒p i a e
pa ne ships (PPPs) based on BT p o ide bo h pa ies wi h he oppo -
uni y o achie e hei sus ainabili y goals by p omo ing accoun abili y
and ci izen-cen ic amewo ks while also emphasizing p i acy and
compa ibili y wi h exis ing sys ems (Ta u o e al., 2023). Howe e ,
egula o y ba ie s emain, including he Gene al Da a P o ec ion
Regula ion (GDPR), a ia ions in ju isdic ions, and gene al scalabili y
issues (Tan e al., 2022a). Mos ins i u ions s ill ope a e on legacy sys-
ems ha equi e signi ican upda es, whe eas bu eauc a ic s uc u es
a e esis an o change (Shahzad e al., 2024b, 2025b). O e coming
hese challenges demands a ge ed in es men s in in as uc u e,
comp ehensi e aining o ci il se an s, and he p omo ion o o ga-
niza ional lea ning (I ani e al., 2023; Tan e al., 2022a). In his con ex ,
Haq e al. (2024) and Kusi e al. (2024) emphasize ha leade ship plays
a c i ical ole in add essing hese challenges by iden i ying compe encies
in cu iosi y, unde s anding echnology, and aligning blockchain ou -
comes wi h o ganiza ional objec i es. Leade ship ha os e s a collab-
o a i e, cu iosi y-d i en mindse is i al when ini ia ing and na iga ing
hese complexi ies (Shahzad e al., 2025b).
The public sec o ’s in e es in BT s ems om i s po en ial o es o e
and main ain us in public ins i u ions h ough decen aliza ion and
anspa ency. Coun ies a e es ing BT- ela ed applica ions o se ice
aceabili y and public o ing (i.e., E he Vo e), and mos o hese ap-
plica ions a e e ec i e, al hough hey ace some egula o y and e hical
challenges, as well as p i acy and access equi y issues (Abbas & Myeong,
2024; Cha lebois e al., 2024; Hossain Fa uk e al., 2024; Spanos &
Kan za elou, 2023). Finally, p o ec ion om a lack o quali y in se ice
p ocu emen can be add essed h ough anspa ency powe ed by BT
solu ions. This model will c ea e us in go e nmen agencies while
diminishing human e o (Zhang e al., 2024). Howe e , in eg a ion
equi es inancial in es men s and app op ia e legisla ion o se p i a e
and access equi y s anda ds.
While some o he p io li e a u e o e s insigh in o in en ions o
adop BT, ew s udies assess challenges o speci ic indus ies in a c i ical
ashion. Tou aily e al. (2021) analyzed he challenges and implica ions
o BT adop ion ia a heo y-d i en app oach, assessing ypes o block-
chain. Dehghani e al. (2022) applied he TOE amewo k o assess a
be e unde s anding o BT adop ion ac oss a ious indus ies; howe e ,
hey did no assess how he public and p i a e sec o s di e in hei
d i e s o BT adop ion. In addi ion, ecen indings by Mahula e al.
(2025) acknowledge speci ic impo an elemen s ha a e only ound in
he public sec o . Fo example, a mo i a ing in en ion o leade ship is o
gain e enue o p i a e sec o implemen a ion (Kusi e al., 2024).
The e o e, while each o hese s udies no es he sec o -speci ic si ua-
ional se ing in which BT implemen a ion wo ks o does no wo k a
imes, his does no ans o m in o a compa a i e assessmen o how
each sec o implemen s i . Thus, ou esea ch becomes pe inen , as we
o e compa a i e insigh s based on a mul isec o pe spec i e on wha
elemen s a ec blockchain implemen a ion h ough he lens o TOE.
TOE amewo k in he con ex o BT adop ion ac oss sec o s
The TOE amewo k was de eloped by To na zky and Fleische
(1990) and has been widely applied in esea ch as an e icien model o
s udying echnological inno a ion ac oss a ious con ex s, add essing
bo h he echnical and non- echnical ac o s o adop ion (Bake , 2011).
Schola s ag ee ha , compa ed wi h o he a ailable amewo ks, TOE
o e s a holis ic pe spec i e o echnological adop ion by no accoun ing
o indus y-speci ic cons ain s o he size o a speci ic o ganiza ion
(Awa e al., 2017). In his con ex , he TOE amewo k has been widely
applied in s udies analyzing echnology adop ion and inno a ions,
including BT esea ch (Awa e al., 2017; Dehghani e al., 2022; Ganguly,
2024; Kos e & Bo gman, 2020; Suwanpos i e al., 2021; Tahe doos ,
2022).
The echnological con ex consis s o echnological equipmen ,
in as uc u e, and p ocesses. I ocuses on he cha ac e is ics o he
echnology i sel , including compa ibili y (Chi ipaka e al., 2023),
complexi y (Suwanpos i e al., 2021) wi h exis ing sys ems, and
pe cei ed bene i s (Chi ipaka e al., 2023). The o ganiza ional dimen-
sion conside s he o ganiza ional compe ence ega ding human e-
sou ces, cen alized decisions, o maliza ion o p ocesses, he
o ganiza ion s uc u e, and ela ions among employees, as well as o he
in e nal ac o s such as op managemen suppo , o ganiza ional eadi-
ness, size, and esou ces ha in luence an ins i u ion’s abili y o adop
BT (Awa e al., 2017; Dehghani e al., 2022). The en i onmen al con ex
includes he in luence o ac o s ou side he o ganiza ion’s con ol, such
as compe i o s, he mac o en i onmen , egula ion, and he le el o
a ailable echnological suppo . The use o BT is a guably mo e sus-
cep ible o egula o y ecosys ems whe e compliance wi h laws such as
he GDPR o inancial ansac ion s anda ds d ama ically al e s BT
implemen a ion (Awa e al., 2017; Bake , 2011; Ha oun e al., 2020).
This a icle u ilizes he TOE amewo k as a measu emen because i
allows o he g adual ansi ion om conside ing p i a e and public
en i ies sepa a ely o a blended app oach o assessing hei adop ion
p ocesses (Bake , 2011). Fu he mo e, since each dimension aligns wi h
a dis inc a iable o he adop ion p ocess, i is pa icula ly signi ican in
o ming a pe spec i e o compa ing he di e en sec o s. The TOE
amewo k suppo s such an assessmen by measu ing he adop ion
M.P. Benchis e al.
Jou nal o Inno a ion & Knowledge 10 (2025) 100746
3
p ocess h ough he lenses o echnology, o ganiza ion, and he en i-
onmen . This p omo es a sec o -speci ic unde s anding o he di e -
ences and gene al challenges o a as po en ial s a egy o wha could
be necessa y o blockchain adop ion o u u e o ganiza ions and in-
s i u ions. In addi ion, by aking inspi a ion om he u u e ecom-
menda ions o p io esea ch, we conside i an app op ia e app oach o
co e his nuance o he BT adop ion p ocess h ough he TOE ame-
wo k. We op ed o conduc ou c oss-sec o al s udy by analyzing he
echnological, o ganiza ional, and en i onmen al dimensions o he BT
adop ion p ocess. By u ilizing he TOE amewo k, we a emp o
es ablish a s uc u ed me hod o compa ison be ween he de e minan
ac o s o he adop ion p ocess (Chi ipaka e al., 2023; Dehghani e al.,
2022; Ha oun e al., 2020; Malik e al., 2022; Tou aily e al., 2021).
Me hodology
Da a collec ion
Da a collec ion is pa o mo e ex ensi e esea ch ha aims o s udy
and explo e BT adop ion p ocesses and implica ions wi hin he public
and p i a e sec o s. The da a collec ion was conduc ed be ween 2022
and 2023. The basis o he da ase consis s o 21 semi-s uc u ed in-
e iews (Rouls on & Choi, 2018). We in e iewed 11 pa icipan s om
p i a e sec o i ms and 10 om public sec o o ganiza ions ope a ing in
Finland and ob ained e y ich quali a i e insigh s in o o ganiza ional
challenges and oppo uni ies ela ed o BT implemen a ion. Table 1
de ails he o ganiza ions in ol ed and he pa icipan s’ backg ound
in o ma ion. The da a om he 21 in e iews eached sa u a ion when
he in e iews ceased o p o ide new hemes o insigh s (Fusch & Ness,
2015). We con inuously e iewed ou da a un il he en i e ex was
coded acco ding o he ele ance o he opic, as we ied o iden i y i
he new in e iews would in oduce and con ibu e addi ional pe -
spec i es. A e se en o eigh in e iews in each sec o , no signi ican
new hemes we e iden i ied, and he es o he in e iews only ein-
o ced exis ing insigh s, suppo ing he iabili y o ou sample size
(Saunde s e al., 2018).
These in e iews we e conduc ed in English h ough Zoom and
Mic oso Teams and las ed 40–102 min. Each session was ully an-
sc ibed, anonymized o con iden iali y, and compiled in a 132-page
da ase o analysis. The in e iew ques ions we e ailo ed o ob ain
e lec ions on pa icipan s’ expe iences in adop ing BT, unde s anding
o ganiza ional p ocesses, and con ex ual ac o s a ec ing decision-
making p ocesses in each sec o (G¨
okalp e al., 2020). To inc ease he
eliabili y o he da a, some in e iews we e co acili a ed by wo e-
sea che s, gua an eeing consis en in e p e a ion and cap u ing a ange
o esponses. By adop ing his app oach, he s udy explo ed he nuanced
adop ion p ocesses in he public and p i a e sec o s, emphasizing hei
echnological, o ganiza ional, and en i onmen al con ex s as amed
wi hin he TOE amewo k (Bake , 2011).
Da a analysis
An abduc i e app oach was pe o med ega ding da a analysis
conside ing he TOE amewo k o explo e blockchain adop ion in he
public and p i a e sec o s. MaxQDA so wa e e sion 2024 (MaxQDA,
2024) was used o he coding p ocess o ack and analyze key p o-
cesses. To ensu e in e -coding eliabili y, we compa ed he esul s o
assess he consis ency in heme iden i ica ion. Uncla i ies we e
add essed h ough discussions ha led o consensus.
The analysis s a ed wi h a p elimina y ead- h ough o he in e iew
ansc ip s o ensu e ha he esea che s we e acquain ed wi h he da a.
F om his, a second eading ook place o c ea e codes ha would
ep esen he ideas desc ip i ely and hema ically ega ding he p o-
cesses o BT adop ion. A e he coding p ocess eached sa u a ion, we
o ganized he codes on he h ee dimensions o TOE— echnology, o -
ganiza ion, and en i onmen (Awa e al., 2017; Chi ipaka e al., 2023;
Malik e al., 2022)— o each sec o (e en i he e was an o e lap o
codes). In o al, he p i a e sec o analysis esul ed in 71 codes o
Technology, 116 o O ganiza ion, and 63 o En i onmen , whe eas he
public sec o analysis esul ed in 75 codes o Technology, 148 o O -
ganiza ion, and 45 o En i onmen . Dis inc ions appea ed as some
codes o e lapped ac oss sec o s, whe eas o he s we e speci ic o one
sec o . The codes ela ing o each ca ego y o he TOE amewo k we e
pai ed oge he ia he p inciples o he Gioia me hodology (Gioia e al.,
2013). To s eng hen ou unde s anding o he esul s, we checked hem
agains indus y epo s, policy documen s o inno a ion and de el-
opmen , documen s om di e en o ganiza ions, epo s, and web
pages. This ensu ed iangula ion and alignmen wi h eal-wo ld
implemen a ion ends (Denzin, 2012). Sub hemes o codes in each
TOE ca ego y we e c ea ed and hen agg ega ed in o hemes o c ea e
logical isual ep esen a ions and na a i es. This led o he de elop-
men o a clea and cohe en na a i e, isually ep esen ed in he
accompanying diag ams om he esul s sec ion. The p i a e sec o
analysis can be summa ized in 31 sub hemes ac oss 9 hemes o
Technology. O ganiza ions a e summa ized as 12 sub hemes ac oss 6
hemes and 14 sub hemes ac oss 7 hemes o he en i onmen . The
Table 1
Lis o pa icipan s and hei backg ound.
Companies Pa icipan s’
Posi ions
O ganiza ion Du a ion o
in e iews
P i a e sec o companies
Company 1 CEO (1) Agile so wa e
de elopmen
87 mins
Company 2 CEO (2) Ene gy p oduc ion 58 mins
Company 3 P ojec Manage
(PM) (1)
Ene gy p oduc ion 53 mins
Company 4 CEO (3) IT se ices 40 mins
Company 5 CEO (4) Deli e y and ins alla ion
solu ions o ma ine and
olling s ock indus ies
74 mins
Company 6 P ojec Manage
(PM) (2)
Technology cen e 72 mins
Company 7 Boa d Membe (BM) Educa ion, communi y,
and ne wo king
46 mins
Company 8 CEO (5) Ene gy p oduc ion 54 mins
Company 9 Communica ion and
B anding Manage
(CBM)
Business se ices 63 mins
Company 10 Execu i e Vice
P esiden
Au oma ion, p o ec ion,
and dis ibu ion
56 mins
Company 11 CEO (6) Supplie o was e- o-
alue p oduc s
54 mins
Public sec o o ganiza ions
O ganiza ion
1
De elope Tax adminis a ion and
e enue Managemen
102 mins
O ganiza ion
2
CTO Digi al iden i y solu ions 54 mins
O ganiza ion
3
Chie Ecosys em and
Technology O ice
T a ic managemen and
con ol
45 mins
O ganiza ion
4
In as uc u e
Di ec o
Public anspo , s ee s,
pa ks, o es s, ma inas
and po s
35 mins
O ganiza ion
5
Managing Di ec o Educa ion ma e ial o
Finnish schools and legal
in o ma ion. (Legal ield)
56 mins
O ganiza ion
6
Chie Inno a ion
O ice (CIO)
Social insu ance and
p o ec ion o ganiza ion
75 mins
O ganiza ion
7
Counselo and Head
o Public
P ocu emen
Public p ocu emen 46 mins
O ganiza ion
8
Main Ad iso Radia ion and nuclea
sa e y
57 mins
O ganiza ion
9
Public Senio
Ad iso
Policy p ojec s ela ed o
digi aliza ion in he
public sec o , digi al
iden i y, EU blockchain
46 mins
O ganiza ion
10
Resea che C yp og aphy and
secu i y
65 mins
M.P. Benchis e al.
Jou nal o Inno a ion & Knowledge 10 (2025) 100746
4
public sec o had 18 sub hemes ac oss 8 hemes o Technology, 18
sub hemes ac oss 7 hemes o O ganiza ion, and 10 sub hemes ac oss 5
hemes o En i onmen s.
Resul s
P i a e sec o
As deduced om he coding p ocess (summa y in Fig. 1), he p i a e
sec o is ansac ional in app oach. Fo he p i a e sec o o p oduce
capi al, i needs o maximize i s esou ces. On he basis o he da a, he
adop ion o BT is cha ac e ized by he enhancemen o p ocesses o
scalabili y and o de , ene gy e iciency, and adap abili y o he ma ke
and cus ome needs. P i a e o ganiza ions see he po en ial o BT on he
basis o i s abili y o enhance ope a ional e iciency, da a p i acy, and
compe i i e ad an ages. O ganiza ionally, he p i a e sec o akes a
lexible app oach compa ed wi h he public sec o , which is o ien ed
owa d inno a ion. I p omo es a deg ee o decen aliza ion in decision-
making and os e s alignmen ac oss depa men s, enabling he o ma-
ion o s a egic goals. En i onmen ally, p i a e o ganiza ions ope a e
p essu ed by he compe i i e ma ke , which o ces hem o na iga e
egula o y amewo ks while pu suing pa ne ships.
On he basis o he na a i e o he esul s o he s uc u e o he TOE
amewo k, we o ganized he da a in Table 2, p esen ing he hema ic
pe spec i e o he p i a e sec o ega ding BT adop ion.
In he p i a e sec o , he echnology sec ion o he TOE amewo k is
cons uc ed on he basis o he coupling o codes belonging o he
echnical side o he inno a ion p ocess. This sec ion is composed o 71
codes in o al, g ouped in o 30 s-o de g oups, and u he pai ed in o 9
hemes ep esen a i e o BT adop ion. A he same ime, he equency o
he codes c ea es a de ailed accen on he epea ing concep s seen
h ough he in e iews. This is why he p i a e sec o p io i izes BT’s
capaci y o ack inpu s, ou pu s, and p ocesses; p i acy and ans-
pa ency; and adequa e in eg a ion o he code wi h exis ing in as uc-
u e. A unique aspec includes he ocus on ene gy- ela ed applica ions
and he po en ial ha BT has o moni o ing and alida ing da a in eal-
ime ope a ions o he ene gy sec o and was e managemen in Finland.
The o ganiza ional componen wi hin he TOE amewo k has he
highes olume o codes in he p i a e sec o , e lec ing he in e nal
dynamics, s uc u al challenges, and cul u al eadiness essen ial o
adop ing BT. Wi h 116 codes, 12 sub hemes, and 6 hemes, his sec ion
examines he ela ionships be ween employee mindse s, knowledge
gaps, leade ship ision, decision-making s uc u es, and esou ce allo-
ca ion as pa o he o ganiza ional pe spec i e, wi h each heme high-
ligh ing he o ganiza ional nuances ha in luence he success o BT
adop ion. The en i onmen sec ion is cons uc ed on he basis o codes
ha e lec he ex e nal in luences a ec ing BT in eg a ion. This sec ion
comp ises app oxima ely 64 codes o ganized in o 14 seconda y g oups
and u he ca ego ized in o 7 o e a ching hemes ha highligh key
en i onmen al ac o s o BT adop ion. Ex e nal in luences he e include
ma ke compe i ion, indus y-speci ic egula o y compliance, and po-
en ial collabo a ion wi h echnology p o ide s. Codes e eal a s ong
ocus on add essing compe i i e p essu es and adjus ing o apidly
changing indus y ends. The uniqueness o he p i a e sec o in his
sec ion is he challenge o na iga ing egula o y equi emen s and
deciding o pu sue p o i abili y h ough BT inno a ions o deciding o
wai o he compe i ion and la ge playe s o es ablish he ma ke .
Public sec o
In he public sec o , he main d i e o BT adop ion is he need o
op imize he a ailable esou ces (summa y o codes in Fig. 2). In his
sec ion, he adop ion p ocess is cha ac e ized by public se ice quali y,
sys em upda es, compa ibili y, in ensi e planning, echnical know-how
de elopmen , egula o y compliance, and in e agency collabo a ion. A
he same ime, in he case o he public sec o , socie y holds hem
accoun able o he implemen a ion o his echnology; hence, he p i-
o i ies o anspa ency, s abili y, and alignmen wi h he exis ing in-
as uc u es s ongly esona e. Top-down decision-making and C-sui e
in ol emen a e highly isible, so blockchain ini ia i es need o align
wi h he mission and asks o he public sec o .
On he basis o he na a i e o he esul s o he s uc u e o he TOE
amewo k, we o ganized he da a in Table 3, p esen ing he hema ic
pe spec i e o he public sec o ega ding BT adop ion.
Simila i ies and di e ences in blockchain adop ion be ween he p i a e and
public sec o s
This sec ion p esen s he simila i ies and di e ences be ween he wo
sec o s ia he s uc u al lenses o he TOE amewo k. As he amewo k
Fig. 1. P i a e sec o codes equency—Codes cloud.
M.P. Benchis e al.
Jou nal o Inno a ion & Knowledge 10 (2025) 100746
5
was used o es ablish he lenses h ough which we ega ded he adop ion
p ocess o BT in bo h sec o s independen ly, i is now he uni ying spine
o he da a, and i helps wi h c ea ing a s uc u e o compa ison. This
app oach can allow he eade o be e unde s and how he sec o s
na iga e he challenges and oppo uni ies hey encoun e and wha he
ela ionship is be ween he p i a e and public sec o s ega ding BT.
The e o e, his compa ison is mean as an assessmen guideline o he
sec o s so ha hey can pinpoin he g ounds on which o build pa -
ne ships and he a ionale behind hem. These compa isons a e also an
assessmen o he unique poin s ha di e en ia e hem in e ms o alue
gene a ion.
Simila i ies o he BT adop ion p ocess in he p i a e and public sec o s
The simila i ies in hese sec o s a e ma ked by sha ed goals o bo h
sec o s, despi e he di e en o ganiza ional con ex s. The common
poin s we e iden i ied in he challenges he sec o s a e acing while
ying o implemen BT and he common gene al app oach o adop ion.
By using TOE on he coded da a, we obse ed ha bo h indi idual
sec o s ollow a simila s uc u e o hinking in he p ocess o BT
adop ion while making he ac ion plan pe sonalized o he needs o each
sec o .
Technology (T). Bo h he p i a e and he public sec o s acknowledge he
echnical po en ial o BT as a ool ha can imp o e he anspa ency o
da a. This ea u e is deemed o imp o e communica ion be ween de-
pa men s and educe silos, which would c ea e e iciency in he p ocess
elian on he da a epo s. This cha ac e is ic is pai ed wi h BT’s abili y
o enhance secu i y o bo h sec o s, making i di icul o indi iduals
wo king inside o ou side he o ganiza ion o ampe wi h he da a
owing o he aceable unique eco d. Bo h sec o s ag eed ha his
cha ac e is ic would enhance us be ween di e en s akeholde s and
build accoun abili y. In he p i a e sec o , his aspec would c ea e
c edibili y and us o he clien s and would boos us wi h sha e-
holde pa ne s. Fo go e nmen agencies, he cha ac e is ics align wi h
he mission o main aining anspa ency be ween ci ilians and busi-
nesses alike.
Bo h sec o s equi e an assessmen o he le el o compa ibili y,
applica ions, and isks o he echnology wi h he o ganiza ional scope.
Table 2
P i a e sec o - TOE amewo k on hemes.
TOE Fac o Themes Sub- hemes
Technology Implemen a ion eadiness
and echnical ba ie s
•In as uc u e and Resou ce
Limi a ions
•Technological Readiness and
Ma u i y
•Time Cons ain s and
Implemen a ion Challenges
•E alua ion and Compa ibili y
•T ansi ion and In eg a ion
Requi emen s
P i acy, secu i y, and us
conce ns
•Da a P i acy Conce ns
•Secu i y and Cybe secu i y
Measu es
•T us and Da a Sha ing
Complexi y
•P o ocol and Cos -Rela ed
Conce ns
Cos and inancial impac •Cos as a Ba ie
•Value and Cos E iciency
•Re u n on In es men and
Value Gene a ion
Ene gy consump ion and
en i onmen al impac
•Po en ial Use Cases o
Blockchain Technology (BT) in
Ene gy
•Ene gy Conce ns as Ba ie s
•Ma ke ing and Awa eness
Challenges
Use cases, applica ion
po en ial, and p ac ical
bene i s
•Indus y-Speci ic Applica ions
•Da a S o age, Ve i ica ion, and
Accessibili y
•P ocess Au oma ion and
Ope a ional E iciency
•Financial T ansac ions and Tax
Applica ions
•Pilo Tes ing and
Implemen a ion Challenges
•Theo e ical s. P ac ical Use
Cases
T anspa ency and
accoun abili y
enhancemen s
•T anspa ency in Da a and
Communica ion
•Secu i y and Accoun abili y
•O ganiza ional Impac
Ma ke ing, pe cep ion, and
knowledge ba ie s
•Misconcep ions and
Associa ions wi h
C yp ocu encies
•Lack o P oo and Conc e e Use
Cases
•Ma ke ing and
Communica ion Challenges
Technological compa ibili y
and in eg a ion challenges
•Impo ance o Digi al
In as uc u e
•Business Model Op imiza ion
Use expe ience and
in e ace design
•Use -F iendly In e ace
De elopmen
•Usabili y and P o i abili y
O ganiza ional Resis ance and mindse
challenges
•Resis ance o change
•Mindse and pe cep ion
ba ie s
Knowledge gaps and aining
needs
•T aining and educa ional
ini ia i es
•Awa eness and knowledge
building
Leade ship and s a egic
ision
•Leade ship’s ole in adop ion
•S a egic ision and goal
alignmen
S akeholde engagemen and
communica ion
•Communica ion as a ool o
adop ion
•S akeholde pe suasion and
buy-in
O ganiza ional s uc u e and
decision-making p ocesses
•O ganiza ional dynamics and
decision-making
•In e nal collabo a ion and
p ocess op imiza ion
Mo i a ion, lea ning, and
esou ce alloca ion
•Mo i a ion and openness o
lea ning
Table 2 (con inued)
TOE Fac o Themes Sub- hemes
•Resou ce a ailabili y and
alloca ion
En i onmen al Regula o y and legisla i e
en i onmen
•The Need o Legisla ion and
Policies
•Poli ical and Social In luence
on Regula ion
Resou ce alloca ion and
inancial in es men
•Funding and Financial Suppo
•Human Resou ces and
Knowledge De elopmen
Ma ke and compe i ion
dynamics
•Ma ke Rele ance and
Compe i i e Landscape
•Cus ome Expec a ions and
Rela ionship Managemen
En i onmen al and
sus ainabili y conside a ions
•Ene gy and En i onmen al
Impac
•Sus ainable Inno a ion and
Social Impac
Collabo a ion and
ne wo king
•Collabo a ion wi h Ex e nal
Pa ne s
•Knowledge Sha ing and
Indus y In luence
Risk managemen and
secu i y conce ns
•Managing Risks and Th ea s
•Pilo P ojec s and Inc emen al
Adop ion
Tempo al and con ex ual
ac o s
•T ansi ion and Adop ion
Timeline
•Ex e nal Fac o s A ec ing
Adop ion
M.P. Benchis e al.
Jou nal o Inno a ion & Knowledge 10 (2025) 100746
6
Manage s o bo h sec o s need o make sense o BT when p esen ing i o
s akeholde s/go e nmen o icials. This assessmen helps manage s
hold hei case o he need o adop BT in on o op managemen o
make hei o e all decision. The in e iewees explained ha he posi i e
decision o adop BT is also co ela ed wi h he dis ibu ed size o he
o ganiza ion.
In eg a ing BT in o al eady es ablished sys ems may lead o com-
plica ions in bo h con ex s. Bo h sec o s ace compa ibili y issues in
e ms o cu en in as uc u e. The public sec o emphasized a g ea e
need o sys em upda es han did he p i a e sec o , bu he p oblem
pe sis ed in bo h scena ios, adding up o he implemen a ion cos s. This
challenge o en in ol es legacy sys ems and would equi e, in bo h
cases, ex ensi e planning and echnical adap a ion so ha he in e ace
would be a ailable o o ganiza ions and, a he same ime, hei clien s,
cus ome s, and supplie s ( he need o a double wo k in e ace). In he
p i a e sec o , we ha e he example o a nuclea ene gy sys em and he
need o upda e old sys ems. Mo eo e , he public sec o s essed he
need o inc emen al adop ion om old sys ems o a BT sys em, p io i-
izing a s uc u ed plan ha would ensu e ha BT is in eg a ed wi hou
se ice dis u bances. Simila ly, o bo h sec o s, as a icula ed in a
hand ul o en ies, he e is also a need o use cases and pilo es ing o
minimize po en ial isk and ailu e when adop ing BT a a la ge scale,
especially o he public sec o . Bo h ypes o leade s ( om he p i a e
and public sec o s) ecognize ha his would be an e ec i e way o
adop he echnology and educe change esis ance a an o ganiza ional
le el.
A inal no able echnological simila i y is he sha ed conce n o he
en i onmen al impac o BT due o ene gy consump ion. This aspec has
i s oo s in he common misconcep ion ha bo h sec o s exe cised, o
some deg ee, in associa ing BT wi h Bi coin (c yp ocu ency). Because
o BT’s poo wo d-o -mou h ma ke ing in e ms o sus ainabili y and
limi ed esea ch ini ia i es by o ganiza ions, BT is seen as a high-ene gy-
consump ion echnology by manage s and leade s, which inspi es
skep icism in adop ion decisions. Bo h he p i a e and public sec o s
ha e sus ainabili y goals in mind; he e o e, hey seek echnical solu-
ions ha align wi h b oade en i onmen al objec i es, making he
esponsible use o ene gy a p io i y.
O ganiza ional (O). On he basis o he o ganiza ional sec ion o he TOE
amewo k, he mos impo an simila i y be ween he sec o s is he
need o a isiona y leade who would d i e o wa d he BT adop ion
p ocess. The in e iewees men ioned ha such leade s and manage s a e
equi ed o communica e he alue o BT and o s a egically guide i s
implemen a ion in e ms o esou ce alloca ion, employee engagemen ,
and adop ion ini ia ion. The da a on leade ship s a e ha BT p ojec s
wi h lowe o ganiza ional esis ance succeeded when he employees
we e pu unde less p essu e. In one p ojec , o example, he p ocess
was ega ded as a seconda y p ojec . I made he ask seem mino o he
employees. Employees, he e o e, wo k wi hou panic o ea , esul ing
in minimal esis ance o change. This would, he e o e, imply ha em-
ployees emained p oduc i e when he leade ship downplayed he
p essu e and impo ance o a p ojec , which dec eased esis ance.
Ano he o ganiza ional need ecu en ly iden i ied in he da ase s
has been he need o aining and knowledge de elopmen . Bo h sec o s
ace gaps on he echnical on ha may s i o ganiza ional esis ance
(highe esis ance in he p i a e sec o han in he public sec o ).
T aining p og ams a e essen ial o build in e nal know-how and p o ide
employees wi h he equi ed skills, be hey employees on he back end o
employees and clien s on he on -end side.
The accoun abili y o employees, as a o m o pe o mance moni-
o ing by bo h sec o s, is again sough . I also ela es o he need o ha e
a small g oup ha would es he ap i udes o BT in a pilo p ojec . This
means ha bo h sec o s wan o ensu e ha BT p ojec s mee he ex-
pec a ions o s akeholde s and c ea e alue in e ms o e iciency,
quali y, and e u n on in es men quali y. F om a collabo a i e
pe spec i e, bo h sec o s would desi e he emo al o silos be ween
depa men s, which is why maximizing in e nal communica ion, sup-
po i e knowledge sha ing, and collabo a ion du ing a po en ial change
p ocess was an impo an aspec o he in e iewees. Because o he
need o achie e enhanced coope a ion du ing o ganiza ional change,
some in e iewees men ioned ha hei ole as leade s would be
accen ua ed in e ms o engaging, encou aging and moni o ing, and
p o iding eedback o employees in a men o ing manne .
En i onmen (E). The en i onmen al simila i ies be ween he p i a e
and public sec o s highligh he complexi y o he policies and egula-
o y eali y ha impac blockchain deploymen and capaci y o scal-
abili y. In his con ex , bo h sec o s a e awa e and ag ee ha inancial
egula ions, da a p i acy, and secu i y alues need o be main ained a
high s anda ds; e en so, he common ag eemen is ha he legisla i e
con ex is no adap ed o he new echnological landscape esona ing
h ough he ma ke , bo h a he na ional le el and he Eu opean le el.
Fig. 2. Public sec o codes equency: Codes cloud.
M.P. Benchis e al.
Jou nal o Inno a ion & Knowledge 10 (2025) 100746
7
This pu s a hold on he implemen a ion p ocess o BT, especially o he
p i a e sec o , when doing in e agency collabo a ions inside he Eu o-
zone wi h clien s po en ially in e es ed in DLT. The heigh o go e n-
men policies also hea ily depends on public o ganiza ions, whe e
in e agency collabo a ion is o en manda o y. Fo he sec o , his c ea es
a obus bu igid amewo k ha ensu es s abili y a he expense o
inno a ion in he case o BT adop ion. Pa ne ships be ween he public
and p i a e sec o s, as well as ne wo king, a e also accen ua ed. The
in e iewees emphasized, on bo h sides, he need o acili a e knowledge
sha ing and BT expe ise ha would encou age suppo i e egula o y
amewo ks. Bo h sec o s discussed ha ecu en and las ing collabo-
a ion wi h di e en o ganiza ions would c ea e a pool o esou ces ha
would educe adop ion ba ie s and help hem gain insigh s and expe-
ience in he BT adop ion p ocess ( he p i a e sec o emphasized spe-
cialis s in BT, whe eas he public sec o e e ed o he p i a e sec o and
in es men s in academic esea ch and educa ional cu icula on he
subjec ).
Th ough his na a i e, we can conclude ha e en i BT is ailo ed o
he speci ic needs o each sec o in p ac ice, bo h sha e speci ic chal-
lenges, isks, and p io i ies ha o e hem a deg ee o simila i y. In he
con ex o blockchain adop ion, hese men ions could be building blocks
o encou aging he wo sec o s o u he de elop hei communica ion
and collabo a ion ini ia i es. Table 4 p o ides suppo ing quo a ions
om he esponden s.
Di e ences in he BT adop ion p ocesses in he p i a e and public sec o s
The p i a e sec o and he public sec o app oach a e shaped by
dis inc ope a ional s uc u es and expec a ions in e ms o egula ions.
These cha ac e is ics in luence he s a egy models o bo h o ganiza-
ions in e ms o alue c ea ion alignmen , esis ance o change, and he
me hods o implemen ing hose s a egies.
Technology (T). The echnological di e ences be ween he sec o s
became isible du ing he assessmen ha he in e iewees made
ega ding he in as uc u e eadiness o he o ganiza ions. The public
sec o men ioned o en ou da ed in as uc u e sys ems, some da ing
om 20 o 30 yea s ago, depending on he depa men o a ea o public
adminis a ion. In his con ex , he public sec o ’s main conce n is
ela ed o ca e ully measu ing he compa ibili y o BT wi h he legacy
sys ems o go e nmen ope a ions, which now ac as a go e nmen al
backbone ha is us ed by bo h ci ilians and employees.
This compa ibili y and he need o inc emen al adop ion a e
equi ed o ensu e ha he po en ial ans e o da a and ac i i ies does
no dis up he public se ices ha a e essen ial o day- o-day ac i i ies
and p ocesses. The e o e, blockchain adop ion in he public sec o is
cha ac e ized by a mo e cau ious app oach and a isk-a e se mindse .
Manage s and employees delega ed o such p ojec s would need o es
and e alua e he e ec i eness o he echnology epe i i ely and o
ensu e ha be a es ing is leanly adop ed on a la ge scale. In pa allel,
he p i a e sec o is o ien ed owa d he need o op imize he ope a-
ional e iciency o he business. This sec o iews BT mo e as a ool ha
could help wi h he high-demand eal- ime acking o p oduc s and
p i acy managemen han an en i e sys em. I s main ou comes ocused
on helping wi h scalabili y ac ions (whe e he size o he business e-
qui es i ) and, mos impo an ly, p o i gene a ion owing o i s lexible
Table 3
Public sec o - TOE amewo k on hemes.
TOE ac o Themes Sub- hemes
Technology Adop ion eadiness and
echnical easibili y
•In as uc u e and Readiness
•Technology eadiness is posi i e
in e ms o echnology
•Pilo Tes ing and Inc emen al
Adop ion
Secu i y, p i acy, and da a
managemen
•P i acy and Da a T anspa ency
•Secu i y and T us
Cos and inancial iabili y •Cos Ba ie s and Sa ings
Po en ial
•Economic Jus i ica ion and
E iciency
P ac ical applica ions and
use cases
•Po en ial and Desi ed Ou comes
•Func ional Applica ions and
U ili y
Technological challenges
and cons ain s
•Technical and Knowledge
Ba ie s
•Implemen a ion Unce ain y and
Readiness
Scalabili y and Long-Te m
Viabili y
•Scalabili y and Fu u e
In eg a ion
•Adap a ion o Ma ke T ends and
Needs
Flexibili y and modula i y •Adap able Use Case Models
•I e a i e Lea ning and P ac ical
Adjus men s
•S a egic Focus and Vision
Policy, compliance, and
egula o y adjus men s
•In as uc u e and Collabo a ion
•Resea ch and P oblem-Sol ing
Focus
O ganiza ional Leade ship and decision-
making
•Visiona y and Resul s-O ien ed
Leade ship
•Top-Down s. Dis ibu ed
Decision-Making
T aining, knowledge, and
skills de elopmen
•Educa ion and Knowledge
Building
•Lea ning Th ough P ac ical
Applica ion
•The need o knowledge and
quali ied p o essionals
•Leade s a e ying o make sense
o BT
Communica ion and
collabo a ion
•In e nal and Ex e nal
Collabo a ion
•E ec i e Communica ion o
Change Managemen
•Leade ship De elopmen and
Guidance
•Collabo a ion and Teamwo k
Mo i a ion, ewa ds, and
employee engagemen
•Incen i es and Mo i a ion
•Employee Engagemen and
Empowe men
O e coming esis ance and
change managemen
•Add essing Resis ance o Change
•Adap ing O ganiza ional
Mindse s
Accoun abili y and
pe o mance managemen
•Accoun abili y S uc u es
•Pe o mance Moni o ing and
E alua ion
P ac ical implemen a ion
and knowledge applica ion
•U ilizing Use Cases and
Examples
•P ac ical Applica ion and
Inno a ion
En i onmen al Pa ne ships and
collabo a ion
•Public-p i a e pa ne ships and
Ne wo king o Knowledge
De elopmen
•C oss-Sec o and O ganiza ional
Collabo a ion
Legisla ion, egula ion,
and accoun abili y
•Need o Legisla i e and
Regula o y F amewo ks
•E hics, Accoun abili y, and
Compliance
Ci izen engagemen and
educa ion
•Raising Public Awa eness and
Unde s anding
•Social and Cul u al
Conside a ions
Table 3 (con inued)
TOE ac o Themes Sub- hemes
Resou ces and
collabo a ion
•Financial and Human Resou ce
In es men
•In as uc u e and Local
Expe ise
Technological i and
ma ke ele ance
•Adap a ion and Scalabili y o
Ma ke Needs
•Ba ie s and Challenges in
Adop ion
M.P. Benchis e al.
Jou nal o Inno a ion & Knowledge 10 (2025) 100746
8
Andoni, M., Robu, V., Flynn, D., Ab am, S., Geach, D., Jenkins, D., … Peacock, A. (2019).
Blockchain echnology in he ene gy sec o : A sys ema ic e iew o challenges and
oppo uni ies. Renewable and Sus ainable Ene gy Re iews, 100, 143–174.
And ews, R., Boyne, G., & Walke , R. (2011). Dimensions o publicness and
o ganiza ional pe o mance: A e iew o he e idence. Jou nal o Public
Adminis a ion Resea ch and Theo y, 21, 301–319.
Asa, K. J., & Zosu, S. J. (2023). Enhancing p ocu emen and supply chain managemen
o sus ainable de elopmen h ough digi al ans o ma ion. In e na ional Jou nal o
A ican Resea ch Sus ainabili y S udies, 2(2), 62–76.
Awa, H. O., Ojiabo, O., & O oko , L. (2017). In eg a ed echnology-o ganiza ion-
en i onmen (T-O-E) axonomies o echnology adop ion. Jou nal o En e p ise
In o ma ion Managemen , 30(6), 893–921.
Awa, H. O., Ukoha, O., & Emeche a, B. C. (2016). Using TOE heo e ical amewo k o
s udy he adop ion o ERP solu ion. Cogen Business & Managemen , 3(1), 1196571.
Bake , J. (2011). The Technology–O ganiza ion–En i onmen amewo k. In o ma ion
Sys ems Theo y: Explaining and P edic ing Ou Digi al Socie y, 1, 231–245.
Ba uba a, F. R., Ubach , J., & Janssen, M. (2018). Challenges o blockchain echnology
adop ion o e-go e nmen : A sys ema ic li e a u e e iew. In P oceedings o he 19 h
Annual In e na ional Con e ence on Digi al Go e nmen Resea ch: Go e nance in he Da a
Age (pp. 1–9).
Boyne, G. A. (2002). Public and p i a e managemen : Wha ’s he di e ence? Jou nal o
Managemen S udies, 39, 97–122.
Cagigas, D., Cli on, J., Diaz-Fuen es, D., Fe n´
andez-Gu i´
e ez, M., & Ha pes, C. (2023).
Blockchain in go e nmen : Towa d an e alua ion amewo k. Policy Design and
P ac ice, 6, 397–414.
Cappai, M. (2023). The ole o p i a e and public egula ion in he case s udy o c yp o-
asse s: The I alian mo e owa ds pa icipa o y egula ion. Compu e Law & Secu i y
Re iew, 49, A icle 105831.
Ca son, B., Romanelli, G., Walsh, P., & Zhumae , A. (2018). Blockchain beyond he hype:
Wha is he s a egic business alue. McKinsey & Company, 1, 1–13.
Cha lebois, S., La i , N., Ilahi, I., Sa ke , B., Music, J., & Vezeau, J. (2024). Digi al
aceabili y in ag i- ood supply chains: A compa a i e analysis o OECD membe
coun ies. Foods (Basel, Swi ze land), 13, 1075.
Chi ipaka, V., Kuma , S., Si a ajah, U., Bowden, J. L.-H., & Ba al, M. M. (2023).
Blockchain echnology o supply chains ope a ing in eme ging ma ke s: An
empi ical examina ion o echnology-o ganiza ion-en i onmen (TOE) amewo k.
Annals o Ope a ions Resea ch, 327, 465–492.
Chu, H., Zhang, P., Dong, H., Xiao, Y., Ji, S., & Li, W. (2023). A su ey on sma con ac
ulne abili ies: Da a sou ces, de ec ion and epai . In o ma ion and So wa e
Technology, 159, A icle 107221.
Clemen e-Almend os, J. A., Nicoa a-Popescu, D., & Pas o -Sanz, I. (2024). Digi al
ans o ma ion in SMEs: Unde s anding i s de e minan s and size he e ogenei y.
Technology in Socie y, 77, A icle 102483.
Cui, M., Feng, T., & Wang, H. (2023). How can blockchain be in eg a ed in o enewable
ene gy? –A bibliome ic-based analysis. Ene gy S a egy Re iews, 50, A icle 101207.
Daidai, F., & Tamnine, L. (2023). Blockchain echnology in inance: A li e a u e e iew.
In S. Mo ahhi , & B. Bossou i (Eds.), Digi al echnologies and applica ions (pp.
218–229). Sp inge Na u e Swi ze land.
Dehghani, M., William Kennedy, R., Masha an, A., Rese, A., & Ka a idas, D. (2022). High
in e es , low adop ion. A mixed-me hod in es iga ion in o he ac o s in luencing
o ganisa ional adop ion o blockchain echnology. Jou nal o Business Resea ch, 149,
393–411.
Denzin, N. K. (2012). T iangula ion 2.0. Jou nal o Mixed Me hods Resea ch, 6, 80–88.
Eu opean Union. (2024). EU blockchain ecosys em de elopmen s 3”. EU Blockchain
Obse a o y and Fo um - Eu opean Commission. published by heRe ie ed om
h ps://blockchain-obse a o y.ec.eu opa.eu/news/eu-blockchain-ecosys em-de
elopmen s-3-published-eu-blockchain-obse a o y-and- o um-2024-05-21_en.
Fusch, P. I., & Ness, L. R. (2015). A e we he e ye ? Da a sa u a ion in quali a i e
esea ch. The Quali a i e Repo , 20(9), 1408–1416.
Ganguly, K. K. (2024). Unde s anding he challenges o he adop ion o blockchain
echnology in he logis ics sec o : The TOE amewo k. Technology Analysis &
S a egic Managemen , 36, 457–471.
Gioia, D., Co ley, K., & Hamil on, A. (2013). Seeking quali a i e igo in induc i e
esea ch. O ganiza ional Resea ch Me hods, 16, 15–31.
G¨
okalp, E., G¨
okalp, M., & G¨
okalp, S. (2020). Blockchain-based Supply Chain
managemen : Unde s anding he de e minan s o adop ion in he con ex o
o ganiza ions. In o ma ion Sys ems Managemen , 39, 1–22.
Gulen, K., & Ka aagac, A. (2024). Ag icul u al ood supply chain wi h blockchain
echnology: A e iew on Tu key. Jou nal o Global S a egic Managemen , 16(2),
013–028.
Gup a, A., Singh, R. K., & Kamal, M. M. (2024). Blockchain echnology adop ion o
secu ed and ca bon neu al logis ics ope a ions: Ba ie in ensi y index amewo k.
Annals o Ope a ions Resea ch, 1–34.
Ha eez, S., Shahzad, K., & De Sil a, M. (2025). Enhancing digi al ans o ma ion in SMEs:
The dynamic capabili ies o inno a ion in e media ies wi hin ecosys ems. Long
Range Planning, 58(3), A icle 102525.
Haq, S. H. U., Dan, S., & Shahzad, K. (2024). Leade ship compe encies and blockchain
implemen a ion in public sec o o ganiza ions: A sensemaking app oach.
In e na ional Jou nal o Public Sec o Managemen .
Ha oun, M. H., Goha , N., & Hanna, H. A. (2020). TOE model: Adop ion o blockchain.
The Business & Managemen Re iew, 11, 179–185.
Hossain Fa uk, M. J., Alam, F., Islam, M., & Rahman, A. (2024). T ans o ming online
o ing: A no el sys em u ilizing blockchain and biome ic e i ica ion o enhanced
secu i y, p i acy, and anspa ency. Clus e Compu ing, 27(4), 4015–4034.
I ani, Z., Ab il, R. M., Wee akkody, V., Oma , A., & Si a ajah, U. (2023). The impac o
legacy sys ems on digi al ans o ma ion in Eu opean public adminis a ion: Lesson
lea ned om a mul i case analysis. Go e nmen In o ma ion Qua e ly, 40, A icle
101784.
Junchai ussamee, S., & K aiwani , T. (2024). B idging he echnology-go e nmen policy
di ide: Unde s anding he accep ance o blockchain adop ion in Thailand’s
ag icul u e. AU-GSB e-Jou nal, 17, 73–84.
Juszczyk, O., & Shahzad, K. (2022). Blockchain echnology o enewable ene gy:
P inciples, applica ions and p ospec s. Ene gies, 15(13), 4603.
Kassen, M. (2024). Blockchain and public se ice deli e y: A li e ime c oss- e e enced
model o e-go e nmen . En e p ise In o ma ion Sys ems, 18, A icle 2317175.
Kayani, U., & Hasan, F. (2024). Un eiling c yp ocu ency impac on inancial ma ke s
and adi ional banking sys ems: Lessons o sus ainable blockchain and
in e disciplina y collabo a ions. Jou nal o Risk and Financial Managemen , 17, 58.
Khal an, M., Azizi, N., Haass, O., Maqsood, T., & Ahmed, I. (2022). Blockchain
echnology: Po en ial applica ions o public sec o e-p ocu emen and p ojec
managemen . Sus ainabili y, 14, 5791.
Kos e , F., & Bo gman, H. S. (2020). New kid on he block! unde s anding blockchain
adop ion in he public sec o . In P oceedings o he 53 d Hawaii In e na ional
Con e ence on Sys em Sciences (HICSS).
Kusi, S. Y., Shahzad, K., & Dan, S. (2024). Blockchain echnology, leade ship
compe encies, and o ganiza ional change: A concep ual explo a ion and u u e
esea ch agenda. T us and a i icial in elligence (pp. 10–25). Rou ledge.
Li, L., Wu, J., & Cui, W. (2023). A e iew o blockchain c oss-chain echnology. IET
Blockchain, 3, 149–158.
Llano, E. A., Hu melinna-Laukkanen, P., & Haapanen, L. (2024). Blockchain o he
ci cula economy: Implica ions o public go e nance. In e na ional Jou nal o Public
Sec o Managemen .
Lus enbe ge , M., Maleˇ
se i´
c, S., & Spychige , F. (2021). Ecosys em eadiness: Blockchain
adop ion is d i en ex e nally. F on ie s in Blockchain, 4.
Mahula, S., Tan, E., C omp oe s, J., & Timme s, P. (2025). Wha mo i a es public sec o
o ganisa ions o use blockchain? In e na ional Jou nal o Public Sec o Managemen , 38
(1), 118–138.
Malik, S., Chadha , M., Che y, M., & Va anasakdakul, S. (2022). Adop ion o blockchain
echnology: Explo ing he ac o s a ec ing o ganiza ional decision. Human Beha io
and Eme ging Technologies, 1–14.
Manzoo , R., Sahay, B. S., & Singh, S. K. (2022). Blockchain echnology in supply chain
managemen : An o ganiza ional heo e ic o e iew and esea ch agenda. Annals o
Ope a ions Resea ch, 1–48.
MAXQDA. (2024). MAXQDA o Windows and Mac [Compu e so wa e]. h ps://www.
maxqda.com/download-now.
Mus a a, G., Ra iq, W., Jhama , N., A shad, Z., & Rana, F. A. (2024). Blockchain-based
go e nance models in e-go e nmen : A comp ehensi e amewo k o legal,
echnical, e hical and secu i y conside a ions. In e na ional Jou nal o Law and
Managemen , 67, 37–55.
Nakamo o, S. (2008). Bi coin: A Pee - o-Pee Elec onic Cash Sys em. A ailable h ps://bi c
oin.o g/bi coin.pd .
Osbo ne, S. P. (2006). The new public go e nance? Public Managemen Re iew, 8(3),
377–387.
Rahman, M. H., Yeoh, W., & Pal, S. (2024). Explo ing ac o s in luencing blockchain
adop ion’s e ec i eness in o ganiza ions o gene a ing business alue: A sys ema ic
li e a u e e iew and hema ic analysis. En e p ise In o ma ion Sys ems, 18, A icle
2379830.
Rejeb, A., Rejeb, K., Z elli, I., Süle, E., & I anmanesh, M. (2024). Blockchain echnology
in he enewable ene gy sec o : A co-wo d analysis o academic discou se. Heliyon,
10, A icle e29600.
Ressi, D., Romanello, R., Piazza, C., & Rossi, S. (2024). AI-enhanced blockchain
echnology: A e iew o ad ancemen s and oppo uni ies. Jou nal o Ne wo k and
Compu e Applica ions, 225.
Rod íguez Bolí a , M. P., Scholl, H. J., Bolí a , R., & Scholl, H. J (2019). Mapping
po en ial impac a eas o blockchain use in he public sec o . In o ma ion Poli y, 24,
359–378.
Rouls on, K., & Choi, M. (2018). The Sage handbook o quali a i e da a collec ion. SAGE
Publica ions L d.
Sanda, O., Pa lidis, M., & Pola idis, N. (2022). A egula o y eadiness assessmen
amewo k o blockchain adop ion in heal hca e. Digi al, 2, 65–87.
Saunde s, B., Sim, J., Kings one, T., Bake , S., Wa e ield, J., Ba lam, B., Bu oughs, H.,
& Jinks, C. (2018). Sa u a ion in quali a i e esea ch: Explo ing i s concep ualiza ion
and ope a ionaliza ion. Quali y & Quan i y, 52, 1893–1907.
Shahzad, K. (2020). Blockchain and o ganiza ional cha ac e is ics: Towa ds business
model inno a ion. In Ad ances in C ea i i y, Inno a ion, En ep eneu ship and
Communica ion o Design: P oceedings o he AHFE 2020 Vi ual Con e ences (pp.
80–86). Sp inge In e na ional Publishing.
Shahzad, K., Dan, S., Im an, F., Hol kamp, P., Niemi, M. K., & Meye , M. (2024b). Limi s
o open inno a ion du ing he o ganiza ional change: A case s udy o a pa ne
campus. R&D Managemen , 54(5), 1063–1086.
Shahzad, K., Ha eez, S., Heimo, T., M¨
aenp¨
a¨
a, A., Muba ak, M. F., & E ans, R. (2025a).
De eloping he inno a ion capabili ies o SMEs: The ole o in e media y i ms in
knowledge ecosys ems. IEEE T ansac ions on Enginee ing Managemen , 72, 604–618.
Shahzad, K., Helo, P., Ran a, M., & Nousiainen, E. (2024a). Blockchain echnology o
ope a ional excellence and supply chain esilience: A amewo k based on use cases
and an a chi ec u e demons a ion. Technology Analysis & S a egic Managemen ,
1–18.
Shahzad, K., Im an, F., & Bu , A. (2025b). Digi al ans o ma ion and changes in
o ganiza ional s uc u e: Empi ical e idence om indus ial o ganiza ions. Resea ch-
Technology Managemen , 68(3), 25–40.
Sha ma, P., Jindal, R., & Bo ah, M. D. (2022). A e iew o blockchain-based applica ions
and challenges. Wi eless Pe sonal Communica ions, 123, 1201–1243.
M.P. Benchis e al.
Jou nal o Inno a ion & Knowledge 10 (2025) 100746
15
So sa, K., & Salmi-Tolonen, T. (2021). De egula ion and p oac i e law as egula i e
inno a ions: A case s udy om Finland. In A. Masson, & G. Robinson (Eds.), Mapping
legal inno a ion: T ends and pe spec i es (pp. 357–381). Sp inge In e na ional
Publishing.
Sousa, M. J. (2023). Blockchain as a d i e o ans o ma ions in he public sec o . Policy
Design and P ac ice, 6, 415–432.
Spanos, A., & Kan za elou, I. (2023). A blockchain-based elec onic o ing sys em:
E he Vo e.
Sung, C. S., & Pa k, J. Y. (2021). Unde s anding o blockchain-based iden i y
managemen sys em adop ion in he public sec o . Jou nal o En e p ise In o ma ion
Managemen , 34, 1481–1505.
Suwanpos i, C., Bha iase i, V., & Thanakijsomba , T. (2021). D i e s o blockchain
adop ion in inancial and supply chain en e p ises. Global Business Re iew.
Ta u o, A., Dammacco, G., & Cos a, A. (2023). A concep ual s udy on he ole o
blockchain in sus ainable de elopmen o public–p i a e pa ne ship. Adminis a i e
Sciences, 13, 175.
Tahe doos , H. (2022). A c i ical e iew o blockchain accep ance models—Blockchain
echnology adop ion amewo ks and applica ions. Compu e s, 11, 24.
Tan, E., Dan, S., & Shahzad, K. (2025). B idging he chasm be ween “wha could be” and
“wha is”: The impac o blockchain echnologies on public se ice managemen .
In e na ional Jou nal o Public Sec o Managemen , 38(1), 1–11.
Tan, E., Kleizen, B., Simono ski, A., Willem, P., & Sabbe, M. (2022b). Digi al (R)
e olu ion in Belgian Fede al Go e nmen : An open go e nance ecosys em o big
da a, a i icial in elligence, and blockchain (DIGI4FED). Da abase sys ems o
ad anced applica ions (DASFAA 2020), p i (Vol. 12112). Sp inge .
Tan, E., Mahula, S., & C omp oe s, J. (2022a). Blockchain go e nance in he public
sec o : A concep ual amewo k o public managemen . Go e nmen In o ma ion
Qua e ly, 39, A icle 101625.
To na zky, L. G., Fleische , M., & Chak aba i, A. K. (1990). The p ocesses o echnological
inno a ion. Lexing on Books.
Tou aily, E., Zalan, T., & Dhaou, S. B. (2021). A amewo k o blockchain echnology
adop ion: An in es iga ion o challenges and expec ed alue. In o ma ion &
Managemen , 58, A icle 103444.
T ipa hi, G., Ahad, M. A., & Casalino, G. (2023). A comp ehensi e e iew o blockchain
echnology: Unde lying p inciples and his o ical backg ound wi h u u e challenges.
Decision Analy ics Jou nal, 9, A icle 100344.
Upadhyay, N. (2020). Demys i ying blockchain: A c i ical analysis o challenges,
applica ions and oppo uni ies. In e na ional Jou nal o In o ma ion Managemen , 54,
A icle 102120.
Wang, Y., Singgih, M., Wang, J., & Ri , M. (2019). Making sense o blockchain
echnology: How will i ans o m supply chains? In e na ional Jou nal o P oduc ion
Economics, 211, 221–236.
Wol ond, G. (2017). A blockchain ecosys em o digi al iden i y: Imp o ing se ice
deli e y in Canada’s public and p i a e sec o s. Technology Inno a ion Managemen
Re iew, 7, 35–40.
Wong, L. W., Tan, G. W. H., Lee, V. H., Ooi, K. B., & Sohal, A. (2020). Unea hing he
de e minan s o blockchain adop ion in supply chain managemen . In e na ional
Jou nal o P oduc ion Resea ch, 58, 2100–2123.
Xan hopoulou, P. (2022). Blockchain and he digi al ans o ma ion o he public sec o :
The G eek expe ience. Technium Social Sciences Jou nal, 32, 558–570.
Xan hopoulou, P., An oniadis, I., & Sap ikis, V. (2023). Blockchain adop ion in public
sec o : A alue-d i en app oach. In Communica ions o In e na ional P oceedings.
Yan, Z., Zhao, X., Liu, Y.(Alison), & Luo, X.(Robe ) (2024). Blockchain-d i en
decen alized iden i y managemen : An in e disciplina y e iew and esea ch
agenda. In o ma ion & Managemen , 61, A icle 104026.
Zhang, Y., Ta alaei, M. M., Pa y, G., & Zhou, P. (2024). E olu ion o in olu ion? A
sys ema ic li e a u e e iew o o ganisa ions’ blockchain adop ion ac o s.
Technological Fo ecas ing and Social Change, 208, A icle 123710.
M.P. Benchis e al.
Jou nal o Inno a ion & Knowledge 10 (2025) 100746
16
