G aham, Ma k e al.
A icle — Published Ve sion
P essu e and p aise as an ac ion esea ch me hodology:
The case o Fai wo k
En i onmen and Planning A: Economy and Space
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
WZB Be lin Social Science Cen e
Sugges ed Ci a ion: G aham, Ma k e al. (2025) : P essu e and p aise as an ac ion esea ch
me hodology: The case o Fai wo k, En i onmen and Planning A: Economy and Space, ISSN
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AEconomy and Space
P essu e and p aise as an ac ion
esea ch me hodology: The case
o Fai wo k
Ma k G aham
Ox o d In e ne Ins i u e, Uni e si y o Ox o d, Ox o d, UK
Oğuz Alyanak
Ox o d In e ne Ins i u e, Uni e si y o Ox o d, Ox o d, UK
Alessio Be olini
Ox o d In e ne Ins i u e, Uni e si y o Ox o d, Ox o d, UK
Pa ick Feue s ein
Resea ch G oup Globaliza ion, Wo k and P oduc ion, WZB Be lin Social Science Cen e , Ge many
Tobias Ku le
Resea ch G oup Globaliza ion, Wo k and P oduc ion, WZB Be lin Social Science Cen e , Be lin, Ge many
Funda Us ek Spilda
Depa men o Digi al Humani ies, King’s College London, London, UK
Jonas Valen e
Ox o d In e ne Ins i u e, Uni e si y o Ox o d, Ox o d, UK
Abs ac
In pla o m-media ed sec o s such as ide-hailing, deli e y, ca e wo k and cloudwo k, gig wo ke s o en lack
essen ial employmen p o ec ions such as minimum wage and social secu i y. Misclassi ica ion o wo ke s,
opaque algo i hms, exploi a ion o legal loopholes and lobbying by pla o ms agains p o ec i e legisla ion u he
exace ba es inequali ies and disc imina ion. The Fai wo k p ojec a he Uni e si y o Ox o d and WZB Be lin,
in collabo a ion wi h a global ne wo k o pa ne s, aims o imp o e condi ions in he pla o m economy h ough
ac ion esea ch. Using a p inciples-based amewo k, he p ojec e alua es and sco es pla o ms agains uni e sal
s anda ds o ai ness – ai pay, ai condi ions, ai con ac s, ai managemen and ai ep esen a ion. The ac ion-
Co esponding au ho :
Ma k G aham, Ox o d In e ne Ins i u e, Uni e si y o Ox o d, 1 S Giles, Ox o d OX1 3JS UK.
Email: [email p o ec ed]
1336893EPN0010.1177/0308518X251336893EPA: Economy and SpaceG aham e al.
esea ch-a icle2025
Exchanges
2 EPA: Economy and Space 00(0)
esea ch me hodology combines da a iangula ion and s akeholde engagemen o ensu e pla o m e alua ions
a e objec i e and impa ial, while seeking o hold pla o ms accoun able and ad oca ing o be e labou s anda ds
in he gig economy. This a icle explo es Fai wo k as an ac ion esea ch me hodology ha has es ablished posi i e
eedback loops, d i ing pla o ms owa ds p o-wo ke policy changes. We hope his discussion encou ages o he
poli ically engaged social scien is s o adop ac ion esea ch app oaches in hei own wo k.
Keywo ds
Pla o m wo k, pla o m economy, digi al labou , gig economy, ac ion esea ch, digi al capi alism, esea ch
me hods
Wha is a s ake o wo ke s in he gig economy?
The e a e millions o wo ke s in he ‘gig economy’, who unde ake sho - e m pla o m-media ed
jobs like ood deli e y, d i ing, cleaning and ca e wo k.1 P oponen s o he gig economy o eg ound
he lexibili y and au onomy ha can be enjoyed by i s wo ke s; howe e , in many ways, pla o m
wo k p esen s cha ac e is ics o adi ional empo a y and casualised wo k, such as low pay, ins abil-
i y and limi ed employmen p o ec ion (Woodcock and G aham, 2020). As mos pla o m wo ke s a e
classi ied as sel -employed, hey end o all ou side he scope o mos employmen igh s and p o ec-
ions, including minimum wage legisla ion, wo king ime egula ion and heal h and sa e y p o ec ion
(F edman e al., 2021). The opaque algo i hmic managemen o pla o m wo ke s, wi h algo i hms
gene ally ope a ing as a ‘blackbox’, wi h no anspa ency o accoun abili y (Aneesh, 2009; Muldoon
and Raeks ad, 2023), lea es wo ke s in a subo dina e posi ion when ying o make claims agains
pla o ms o he S a e (Ku le , 2023). The use o opaque algo i hms can also d i e gende , acial and
class disc imina ion based on cus ome a ings (Teng e al., 2023) and can compel low-income and
mino i ised wo ke s o accep low wages (Dubal, 2023). Va iable and changing bonus sys ems and
gami ica ion ools u he inc ease he isks o o e wo k and excessi e isk- aking on he job
(Vasude an and Chan, 2022). Pla o ms also ha es as amoun s o da a om wo ke s, o en o
comme cial pu poses, wi h limi ed ex e nal sc u iny o accoun abili y ( an Doo n and Badge , 2020).
Finally, because o he a omised and isola ed na u e o pla o m wo k, wo ke s o en ind i di i-
cul o build collec i e powe and o ind a collec i e oice (Alyanak e al., 2023; Be olini and Dukes,
2021). The es ablishmen o o mal and s uc u ed collec i e ba gaining ini ia i es has been slow, and
while wo ke o ganising has aken place, p ecious ew ic o ies ha e been won (Alyanak and Ka lıdağ,
2022; Bonhomme e al., 2024; Howson e al., 2020) and he signi ican powe imbalance be ween
pla o ms and wo ke s has hampe ed conce ed in e en ions di ec ed a hese companies, aiming o
be e wo king condi ions and paymen s (Lopez e al., 2024).
Al hough he e a e es ablished amewo ks o decen wo k, mos no ably he ILO’s Decen Wo k
Agenda, hey do no add ess he speci ici ies o pla o m wo k, especially in he absence o es ablished
legal amewo ks. Many schola s ha e highligh ed ha , in mos ju isdic ions, pla o m egula ion has been
inadequa e o ine ec i e (Be olini, 2024; Collie e al., 2017; Makó e al., 2022; S ewa and S an o d,
2017), wi h a b oad coali ion o economic, poli ical and academic s akeholde s, as well as ci il socie y
o ganisa ions, no ing he powe imbalances in he ela ionship be ween pla o m i ms and wo ke s.
Pla o ms ha e also in es ed s agge ing sums in lobbying o de egula ion o egula o y change in hei
a ou (G omis, 2021; MOVE EU, 2021, also Naumo and Kei h, 2023). The ‘Ube Files’ in es iga ion
conduc ed by a conso ium o media ou le s e ealed he s a egies employed by Ube o co-op au ho i ies
and lobby o ensu e he passing o pla o m- iendly egula ions a ound he wo ld (Co po a e Eu ope
Obse a o y, 2022). In he US, pla o ms spen o e $200 million in hei igh agains he bill in Cali o nia
ha aimed o eclassi y pla o m wo ke s as employees, unde aking wha Shapi o (2023) e e ed o as
‘pla o m sabo age’. Simila ly, in 2023, he Es onian-based ide-hailing pla o m Bol lobbied he Es onian
G aham e al. 3
go e nmen o ejec he legal p esump ion o employmen in he EU Di ec i e on Imp o ing Wo king
Condi ions in Pla o m Wo k (Bou ge y-Gonse, 2024; EUObse e , 2024). Al hough a comp omise e -
sion o he Di ec i e was passed e en ually in Ma ch 2024, i is hough ha lobbying ac i i y unde aken
by pla o ms signi ican ly weakened i s con en (Co po a e Eu ope Obse a o y, 2024).
The ise o ac ion esea ch me hods in social sciences and economic
geog aphy
Ac ion esea che s posi ion hemsel es as ins iga o s o change – wi hin he academy, bu also in hei
ela ions wi h esea ch pa icipan s. They seek a new ela ionship be ween knowledge p oduc ion and
p ac ice and a e o en e y ocal abou hei aim o s eng hening communi ies and collec i e ac ion.
Since ac ion esea ch builds on a ange o libe al, emancipa o y and c i ical adi ions in he No h and
Sou h, o ac ion esea che s o ca e o esea ch pa icipan s and hei communi ies is no in con a-
dic ion o good esea ch p ac ice and igo ous me hodology, a he he opposi e (B adbu y, 2015;
Co nish e al., 2023; McNi and Whi ehead, 2013; Rowell e al., 2017).
Ac ion esea ch is he esul o disenchan men wi h he claims o posi i is esea ch o be objec-
i e and a ional. The e o s o social scien is s o s ay neu al ha e esul ed in he esea ch being
passi e o ques ions o p o ound social change, and also in de achmen om esea ch pa icipan s and
communi ies, leading o ques ioning o he ele ance o social sciences o human conce ns
(G eenwood, 2002; Somekh, 2003). Despi e hese sho comings o con en ional social sciences,
app oaches such as ac ion esea ch ha seek o be e lexi e and socially accoun able a e seen as
‘ isky’ o denounced as ‘ac i ism’. This is no su p ising, since posi i is wo ld iews con inue o
domina e mos social science esea ch. G eenwood (2017: 181) no es ha ‘Academic social scien is s
a e ained in, and mainly obey, he hegemonic disciplina y s uc u es in hei uni e si ies. Many o
hose employed by o in he p i a e and public sec o gene ally iew hei wo k as ee- o -se ice
analysis and ‘decision suppo ’. In bo h cases, ocking he boa wi h democ a ically-inspi ed social
c i iques o ac i ely p omo ing social e o ms [. . .] is a e and is o en punished’.
While ac ion esea ch has ended o si ou side o he mains eam o objec i is , posi i is ic Wes e n-
cen ic esea ch, in ecen decades i has made in oads in o many disciplines, including de elopmen ,
geog aphy, managemen , social wo k, sociology, an h opology, a chi ec u e, planning, heal hca e and
educa ion. In he ace o clima e change and he des uc ion o ecosys ems, bu also he unce ain ies ha
a e associa ed wi h digi a ion and AI, i is becoming inc easingly e iden ha cu en means o knowl-
edge p oduc ion and dissemina ion a e insu icien and ha ansla ion o knowledge in o p ac ice is
ailing. Hence, ac ion esea che s ha e been cons an ly pushing he academic communi y o u n owa ds
mo e ac ion-o ien ed esea ch based on expe imen al and collabo a i e lea ning, po en ially opening up
pa hways o mo e desi able u u es (B adbu y e al., 2019; Rowell and Call-Cummings, 2020).
Economic geog aphy has also expe ienced a shi o a en ion o he local scale and local ac o s. As
Bjø na Sæ he no ed in 2006, i has long been ‘ha d o ind esea che s wi hin economic geog aphy
who acknowledge ha pa icipan s co-gene a e knowledge’. Howe e , inc eased in e es in unde -
s anding inno a ion and egional de elopmen has shi ed he esea ch ocus o he local le el (Dicken,
2003), and he s udy o ne wo ks and knowledge ans e in egional de elopmen has pu a spo ligh
on he logics and pe spec i es o embedded ac o s (G abhe , 2004; Wi el, 2001).
Based on such a b oadening o scope, ac ion esea ch app oaches ha e been pa icula ly salien in
geog aphic de elopmen esea ch and adjacen disciplines ha s udy apid change in global alue
chains and he e ec s on local labou ma ke s. Th ough ac ion esea ch, schola s ha e wo ked wi h
local communi ies and g ass oo s o ganisa ions o expose wo ke exploi a ion and poo labou condi-
ions (Bens ead e al., 2018), while also illumina ing wo ke esis ance, o ganisa ion and empowe -
men (Fuen es, 2023). Ac ion esea ch me hodologies make accessible he knowledge and pe spec i es
o he in ol ed o a ec ed ac o s who would o he wise be o e looked in con en ional esea ch. Such
4 EPA: Economy and Space 00(0)
knowledge was p o en aluable in in o ming s a egies o hold co po a ions accoun able, os e e hi-
cal economic p ac ices in supply chains, and ad oca e o s onge in e na ional labou p o ec ions
(Hale and Wills, 2007). Dickson (2013: 134) ap ly summa ises he bene i s o ac ion esea ch, while
poin ing o he dilemma o con en ional app oaches: ‘[A]cademic esea ch is slow. [. . .] Undoub edly,
he adi ional academic esea ch is impo an [. . .] bu we need quicke ac ion. As he yea s ha e
passed while s udies ca ied ou , wo ke s ha e con inued o be exploi ed and denied hei igh s.’
Ac ion esea ch in he gig economy: The Fai wo k p ojec
The Fai wo k p ojec a he Uni e si y o Ox o d and WZB Be lin, in collabo a ion wi h a global
ne wo k o pa ne s, aims o imp o e condi ions in he pla o m economy h ough ac ion esea ch.
Since 2018, i has buil a p inciples-based amewo k o desc ibe and help add ess he isks and ha ms
wo ke s expe ience in he as -g owing pla o m economy, and he mechanisms ha pla o ms should
pu in place o gua an ee wo ke s a minimum s anda d o ai wo k. The co e idea o he Fai wo k
p ojec is ha companies can be encou aged o imp o e wo king condi ions when hey a e sco ed
agains uni e sal s anda ds o ai ness and anked agains each o he . Because ew pla o ms ac ually
employ hei wo ke s o own much in he way o ixed capi al, he idea is ha hey a e especially
ulne able o public p essu e (G aham, 2020). Consume s can ela i ely easily swi ch om one com-
pany o ano he . To deploy his so o anking and sco ing s a egy, howe e , equi es de ini ion o
uni e sal labou s anda ds, ha is, a se o h esholds which can be used o e alua e wo king condi-
ions i espec i e o he sec o wi hin which a company ope a es.
The p ojec me hodology was designed in h ee s ages: (1) de elop a amewo k o e alua e pla -
o ms agains p inciples o ai ness; (2) e alua e pla o m companies agains hose p inciples and
p o ide hem wi h an easy o unde s and sco e; (3) use he esul ing sco e o ai wo king condi ions
o compa e companies agains one ano he , and – in doing so – encou age companies o imp o e hei
sco es, and hus he ea nings and wo king condi ions o wo ke s.
To achie e he i s objec i e, in 2018 he p ojec o ganised a wo kshop a he In e na ional Labou
O ganisa ion and Uni ed Na ions Con e ence on T ade and De elopmen in Gene a, which b ough
oge he key s akeholde s om wo ke g oups, unions, academia and pla o ms (G aham e al., 2020).
In his wo kshop, i e co e p inciples o ai wo k we e de eloped: ai pay, ai condi ions, ai con-
ac s, ai managemen , and ai ep esen a ion. The p inciples we e i s e ined h ough mul is ake-
holde wo kshops in Sou h A ica, India and Ge many, and la e in sessions held globally. These
wo kshops p io i ised inpu om uno ganised wo ke s, who ep esen he as majo i y o pla o m
labou o ces.
Fi e uni e sal p inciples o Fai Wo k
Two key conside a ions we e o eg ounded in he de elopmen o he i e p inciples. Fi s , hey
needed o be ope a ionalised in e idence-based ways. Each o he i e p inciples en ails wo h esh-
olds o c i e ia ha pla o ms can be e alua ed agains , wi h pla o ms being awa ded an o e all sco e
ou o 10 (see Figu es 1–3).
Second, he p inciples needed o be uni e sal. One common a gumen om pla o ms in esponse
o complain s abou he quali y o he jobs hey o e is ha hey p o ide be e wo k al e na i es han
exis in much o he Global Sou h. I is also a gued ha pla o m wo k p o ides a pa hway ou o
po e y – a claim ha is ha d o subs an ia e by empi ical e idence (Anwa and G aham, 2021; Cook
and Rani, 2023; So iano and Cabañes, 2019). Al hough he au ho s ag ee ha he condi ions in he
in o mal sec o o , o ins ance, cleane s in Sou h A ica and deli e y wo ke s in India a e gene ally
poo , we main ain ha la ge co po a ions can, and should, do much mo e o p o ec he wel a e and
wellbeing o hei wo ke s.
G aham e al. 5
The Fai wo k p ojec eam has he e o e ope a ionalised he i e p inciples in such a way ha hey
apply o all pla o m wo ke s, in all sec o s and all places, unde all ypes o con ac s. This was no
easy ask.2 Following he s akeholde wo kshop a he ILO, he p inciples we e aken o in-coun y
wo kshops in India, Sou h A ica and Ge many in 2018 and 2019. Wo ke s, unions, and pla o m
manage s we e asked o discuss hei p io i ies o he p inciples and a e hei impo ance. The
esea ch eam hen syn hesised he indings in o obus minimum labou s anda ds. As he p ojec
expanded in subsequen yea s o wo king in 39 coun ies by 2024, ha ask o lis ening o di e se
s akeholde s wo ldwide – including unions, wo ke g oups, egula o s, pla o m manage s and con-
sume g oups – has g own e e mo e challenging. Regula and ex ensi e engagemen wi h hese
s akeholde s led o subsequen ounds o sys ema ic e inemen o he p inciples. The inal se o
p inciples ha is applied in Fai wo k esea ch (Fai wo k, 2025a) e lec s hese e o s o se uni e sal
s anda ds, g ounded in e y speci ic cul u al-, classed-, gende ed-, place- and economic sec o -spe-
ci ic conce ns abou job quali y and decen wo k3 (see Figu es 1–3).
Pu ing he Fai wo k p inciples in o p ac ice
The Fai wo k me hod e alua es and publicly anks pla o m companies, and as such, i mus be objec-
i e and impa ial. Poin s a e only awa ded o pla o ms when he esea ch eam inds eliable e i-
dence ha he h eshold has been me . Tha means ha a poin no awa ded o a pla o m does no
necessa ily mean ha he h eshold is no me , bu a he ha we could no ind su icien e idence
ha i was (G aham and Anwa , 2018).
Figu e 1. Fai wo k p inciples.
Sou ce. Fai wo k (2025a).
6 EPA: Economy and Space 00(0)
Figu e 2. The wo p inciple h esholds o P inciple 4 on Fai Managemen ( o Loca ion-based pla o m
wo k).
Sou ce. Fai wo k (2025b).
To assess whe he a h eshold is me , he eam iangula es da a om mul iple sou ces (Fai wo k,
2025c). The esea ch da a is collec ed h ough desk esea ch ( e iewing all in o ma ion publicly
a ailable on he pla o m, including con ac s and e ms and condi ions, insu ance policies i hey
exis , public s a emen s, e c.), in e iews o online su eys wi h pla o m wo ke s, and in e iews
wi h pla o m manage s. This app oach allows us o in eg a e di e en pe spec i es and c osscheck
he in o ma ion ecei ed om each sou ce o de elop a ho ough assessmen o he wo king condi-
ions on ha pla o m. As such, a he han a simple audi o e i y elemen s o company p ac ice and
compliance, Fai wo k c ea es a la ge eposi o y o igo ous academic esea ch on he pla o m econ-
omy.4 Needless o say, academic igou is indispensable in iangula ing he e idence and ensu ing
ha all elemen s o esea ch ollow he s ic es academic e hics guidance and ules. Fai wo k esea ch
has ecei ed e hical clea ance om he Uni e si y o Ox o d’s Depa men al Resea ch E hics
Commi ee (DREC) and seeks e hical clea ance in all he loca ions whe e i ope a es.
A se ies o manda o y p ocesses and checks has been buil in o he me hodology o alida e he
esul s and p e en subjec i e bias. Wi hin he esea ch eam, ‘coun y liaisons’ a e esponsible o
consis ency o he ope a ionalisa ion p ocess wi hin a coun y, and ‘pla o m liaisons’ a e esponsible
o he ope a ionalisa ion p ocess o pla o ms ha ope a e ac oss mul iple coun ies. These oles
we e no en isioned in he ea ly s ages o he p ojec , bu as he p ojec expanded o 41 coun ies (wi h
G aham e al. 7
Figu e 3. Fai wo k sco ing sys em.
Sou ce. Fai wo k (2025a).
o e 710 company sco ings conduc ed a he ime o w i ing), a en ion o consis ency o sco ing
became inc easingly essen ial in iew o he emendous a ie y o business models and con ex s in
which pla o ms ope a e. In e nal pee e iew by membe s o he Fai wo k ne wo k u he maxim-
ises consis ency o pla o m sco ings and he yea ly coun y epo s. As pa o he pee - e iew p o-
cess, lea nings a e eco ded in an ‘ope a ionalisa ion’ documen ha highligh s cases in he sco ing
p ocess ha do no nea ly ul il he p inciple h esholds – o example, due o unexpec ed clauses in
policies o ways o p ac icing hem. This ensu es ha p eceden s can be ollowed in u u e sco ing
ounds. Gi en he wide a ie y o pla o m models, p ac ices and policies and hei di e en applica-
ion in di e en ju isdic ions, he ope a ionalisa ion documen a ion guides he eam in ensu ing alid-
i y and eliabili y ac oss sco ing decisions.
Tu ning esea ch in o ac ion
How, hen, can hose sco es be le e aged o imp o e pay and condi ions o wo ke s in he pla o m
economy? A he onse o each annual sco ing cycle, he Fai wo k coun y eams hos wo kshops wi h
s akeholde s, including pla o m manage s, unions and wo ke o ganisa ions, o p esen he p e ious
pla o m sco ings, he Fai wo k me hodology and he esea ch ime ame and s eps (Alyanak e al., in
p ess). These e en s a e no jus abou in o ma ion sha ing bu also abou ga he ing aluable eedback
om pla o ms, unions and o he ele an s akeholde s. Du ing he esea ch p ocess, pla o ms a e
epea edly consul ed and encou aged o make p o-wo ke changes o hei p ocesses and policies.
Be o e publishing he inal sco eca ds, he p o isional sco es a e sha ed wi h he pla o m manage-
men , wi h de ailed explana ions abou how he policies and p ac ices can be imp o ed o mee he
minimum s anda ds o decen wo k as desc ibed in he Fai wo k p inciples. They a e gi en 6–8 weeks
o make addi ional changes o hei policies be o e he inal pla o m a ings a e published.
8 EPA: Economy and Space 00(0)
The inal a ings make he companies a he op and he bo om o each coun y’s sco e able easily
iden i iable. The Fai wo k eam publishes p ess eleases and con ac s media ep esen a i es and pol-
icy make s in o de o ensu e maximum dissemina ion. As a esul , pla o ms wi h low sco es a e
encou aged o posi i ely engage wi h he esea ch eam in u u e sco ing ounds. To gi e one example
o his, in India in he i s yea o esea ch in 2019 only 2 ou o 12 companies engaged wi h he
esea ch eam. By he second yea , his had isen o 4 ou o 11. In he mos ecen yea , 2024, 7 ou o
11 companies engaged wi h us (Figu e 4).
This posi i e eedback loop cen ed a ound pla o ms’ epu a ion has led o signi ican imp o e-
men s in pla o ms’ policies and p ac ices, e lec ed in hei imp o ed a ings. A he ime o w i ing
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