Elsheikh, Wadah e al.
A icle — Published Ve sion
Replacemen o soy by mealwo ms o li es ock eed
- A compa a i e e iew be ween soy and mealwo ms
conside ing en i onmen al aspec s
En i onmen , De elopmen and Sus ainabili y
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Elsheikh, Wadah e al. (2024) : Replacemen o soy by mealwo ms o li es ock
eed - A compa a i e e iew be ween soy and mealwo ms conside ing en i onmen al aspec s,
En i onmen , De elopmen and Sus ainabili y, ISSN 1573-2975, Sp inge Ne he lands, Do d ech ,
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REVIEW
Replacemen o soy bymealwo ms o li es ock eed ‑
Acompa a i e e iew be weensoy andmealwo ms
conside ing en i onmen al aspec s
ShahidaAnushaSiddiqui1,2 · WadahElsheikh3· İlknu Ucak4· Muza a Hasan5·
Ze linaClean haPe li a6· Ba aYudhis i a7
Recei ed: 7 Feb ua y 2024 / Accep ed: 1 Ap il 2024 / Published online: 2 May 2024
© The Au ho (s) 2024
Abs ac
The u gen need o sus ainable al e na i es o con en ional li es ock eed has p omp ed
esea ch in o no el p o ein sou ces. This e iew pape sys ema ically e alua es he p ospec
o eplacing soy wi h mealwo ms in li es ock eed, ocusing on comp ehensi e compa i-
sons o nu i ional con en and en i onmen al conside a ions. The nu i ional p o iles o
soy and mealwo ms a e analyzed in e ms o amino acid composi ion and diges ibili y. The
o al essen ial amino acids in mealwo ms a e 26.02g/100g while in mealwo ms o al EAA
is 31.49g/100g. The p o ein con en in mealwo m is high (51.93g/100g) in compa ison
o soy meal (44.51g/100g). En i onmen al aspec s, including de o es a ion, pes icide use,
wa e consump ion, land use, and g eenhouse gas emissions, a e sc u inized o bo h soy
cul i a ion and mealwo m a ming.One kg o mealwo m meal yields 141.3MJ ene gy use,
3.8kg CO2 equi alen o clima e change, 25.6g SO2 equi alen o acidi ica ion, 15.0g
PO4 equi alen o eu ophica ion, and 4.1 m2 land use. I ’s mo e po en pe kg o p o-
ein han soybean o ish meal. Feasibili y, scalabili y, and economic conside a ions a e
explo ed o unde s and he p ac ical implica ions o li es ock a me s. Consume pe cep-
ion and egula o y amewo ks a e also add essed, highligh ing po en ial challenges and
s a egies o accep ance. The pape concludes by syn hesizing key indings and o e ing
ecommenda ions o s akeholde s in e es ed in he sus ainable in eg a ion o mealwo ms
in o mains eam li es ock ag icul u e. This compa a i e e iew p o ides a holis ic unde -
s anding o he po en ial en i onmen al bene i s and challenges associa ed wi h eplacing
soy wi h mealwo ms in li es ock eed.
Ex ended au ho in o ma ion a ailable on he las page o he a icle
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S.A.Siddiqui e al.
G aphical abs ac
Keywo ds Li es ock meal· P o ein· En i onmen · Soybean· Edible insec s
Abb e ia ions
GHG G eenhouse gas
LCA Li e cycle assessmen
NSP Non-s a ch polysaccha ides
ANF An i-nu i ional ac o s
PUFA Polyunsa u a ed a y acids
MJ Megajoule
FCR Feed con e sion a e
SBM Soybean meal
MWL Mealwo ms la ae
MWM Mealwo m meal
CP C ude p o ein
AA Amino acid
CFU Colony o ming uni s
LAB Lac ic acid bac e ia
GGT Gamma glu amyl ans e ase
Eq Equi alen
ADG A e age daily gain
ADFI A e age daily eed in ake
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Replacemen o soy bymealwo ms o li es ock eed ‑ Acompa a i e…
FBW Final body weigh
WG Weigh gain
BSF Black soldie ly
DHR D ied ho el esidues
CAGR Compound annual g ow h a e
DFW Dehyd a ed ood was es
DM D y ma e
GOT Glu amic-oxaloace ic ansaminase
ANFs An i-nu i ional ac o s
IgA Immunoglobulin A
IgM Immunoglobulin M
1 In oduc ion
Sus ainable p oduc ion o heal hy ood o a g owing global popula ion, in he ace o
he unce ain ies o clima e change, ep esen s a majo challenge o he coming decade.
The UN Food and Ag icul u al O ganiza ion (FAO) es ima es ha he wo ld will ha e o
p oduce 70% mo e ood by 2050 (T uong e al., 2019). In he ace o human popula ion
g ow h, inc eased longe i y, and he unce ain ies o clima e change, he abili y o sus ain-
ably p oduce su icien ood o eed he wo ld is o inc easing conce n. Conce ning animal
p o ein p oduc ion, he In e na ional Feed Indus y Fede a ion belie es ha he p oduc ion
o mea (poul y, swine, and bee ) will e en double (Veldkamp & Bosch, 2015). Li es ock
p o ide ood wi h high nu i ional alue bu a e equen ly ed on human-edible c ops and
a e associa ed wi h signi ican p oduc ion o g eenhouse gases (GHG). This poses se e e
challenges o he global capaci y o p o ide enough animal eed. Feed is a key pilla in he
jou ney o imp o ing he p oduc i i y o li es ock p oduc ion o inc ease he con ibu ion
o his sub-sec o o he o e all economic g ow h. To imp o e he p oduc i i y o li es ock
unde smallholde a me s’ condi ions, quali y eed is he main de e minan ac o . Cu -
en ly, impo an p o ein ing edien s o animal eed a e ish meal, p ocessed animal p o-
eins and soybean meal (Sánchez-Mu os e al., 2016). S ill, eed quali y and sa e y a e he
big ques ions e en in he comme cial eed sec o due o he high p ice o ing edien s and
compound eeds (Kassymbek e al., 2023). Soybean meal se es as he p ima y p o ein
sou ce in animal p oduc ion. None heless, i is hampe ed by an i-nu i ional ac o s like
ypsin inhibi o s and an igen p o eins, which diminish i s nu i ional quali y and hinde
animal p oduc ion (Yuan e al., 2017). The cu en p oduc ion sys ems o li es ock a e
an unsus ainable use o na u al esou ces; animals a e o en ed on c ops ha a e edible
by humans and ha equi e a high p opo ion o he plane ’s wa e esou ces, as well as
p oducing a signi ican p opo ion o global GHG emissions. In ecen yea s, insec s ha e
a ac ed inc easing a en ion as bo h a human ood and an animal eed ing edien . They a e
equen ly conside ed o be a ich sou ce o essen ial nu ien s ha can be g own on low-
alue eeds and ha e a low ca bon oo p in .
Insec s a e such an al e na i e animal p o ein sou ce because hey can sus ainably
be ea ed on o ganic side s eams and hey ha e a a ou able eed con e sion e iciency
(Veldkamp e al., 2012), likely because hey a e cold blooded. Insec s iden i ied as mos
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S.A.Siddiqui e al.
p omising o indus ial p oduc ion in he Wes e n wo ld a e he black soldie ly (He -
me ia illucens), common house ly (Musca domes ica), and yellow mealwo m (Teneb io
moli o , TM). Recen ly, he e is an in e es in he u ilisa ion o insec s such as black soldie
ly la ae, maggo meal, ea hwo m and mealwo m as po en ial eplacemen o soya-bean
and ishmeal as p o ein sou ce in poul y a ion (Van Huis e al., 2013; Khan e al., 2016).
E en hough mealwo ms ha e many bene i s, i ’s c ucial o emembe ha he choice o
insec o p oducing eed is dependen on a numbe o a iables, such as he a ge animals’
unique nu i ional needs, cos -e ec i eness, and geog aphical a ailabili y. Fu he insigh s
and ad ances in he use o di e en insec species o animal eed may also be e ealed by
con inuing s udy in he ield o insec a ming. TM, well-known mealwo m, ep esen s one
o he mos in e es ing edible insec s s udied as eed and ood as i can be easily ea ed and
main ained a ea ly s ages and also due o i s la al size (Ghaly & Alkoaik, 2009; Mo ales-
Ramos e al., 2012). The edible la ae o he common pes insec TM (yellow meal- wo m;
YMW) dis ibu ed wo ldwide a e a good sou ce o p o ein, a , i amins, and mine als
(Kim e al., 2014). YMWs con ain high-quali y p o ein (Shockley & Dossey, 2014), and
con ain mo e essen ial amino acids han soybeans (Yi e al., 2013). In addi ion, hey ha e
highe unsa u a ed a y acid con en han mea , and a e ela i ely ich in i amin A and
i on (Rumpold & Schlü e , 2013). Meal-wo ms ha e been g own on d ied and cooked
was e ma e ials om ui s, ege ables, and ce eals in a ious combina ions (Ramos-Elo -
duy e al., 2002). Fo u u e u iliza ion o insec s as sus ainable animal eed ing edien s, i
is impo an o g ow hem om sou ces ha canno be included di ec ly in eed o pigs o
poul y. Mealwo ms a e he la ae o wo species o da kling bee les o he Teneb ionidae
amily: he yellow mealwo m bee le (YMB) (Teneb io moli o L.), and he smalle and less
common da k o mini mealwo m bee le (Teneb io obscu us Fab icius). Mealwo ms a e
easy o b eed and eed, and ha e a aluable p o ein p o ile. Fo hese easons, hey a e p o-
duced indus ially as eed o pe s and zoo animals, including bi ds, ep iles, small mam-
mals, ba achians, and ish. They a e usually ed li e, bu hey a e also sold canned, d ied,
o in powde o m (Veldkamp e al., 2012). Mealwo ms a e use ul o hei high p o ein
con en . They a e also used as ishing bai . They a e comme cially a ailable in bulk and a e
sold in con aine s o b an o oa meal. In 2015, i was disco e ed ha mealwo ms a e capa-
ble o deg ading polys y ene in o usable o ganic ma e a a a e o abou 0.35–0.40mg/day
(Finke & Winn, 2004).
Va ious ypes o was e gene a ed in he en i onmen a e p ima ily ca ego ized as
o ganic, plas ic, ag icul u al, and indus ial was e. Consequen ly, a ange o s a egies,
including pho o ca alysis o o ganic was e, a e employed o add ess was e issues and mi i-
ga e associa ed isks (Zina loo-Ajabshi e al., 2019). U ilizing g een echnologies o con-
e oxic o ganic was e in o aluable sal s is one o he mos p e alen me hods o coun e
en i onmen al haza ds and p o ec human heal h (Taba abaeinejad e al., 2021; Zina loo-
Ajabshi & Sala a i-Niasa i, 2016; 2019, 2020). Likewise, employing g een echnologies
such as insec ea ing shows signi ican p omise in ans o ming hese was es in o high-
alue p oduc s o consump ion, bene i ing bo h human heal h and he en i onmen . The
mealwo m is e y e icien a bio con e ing o ganic was e. Fo his eason, his species
is ecei ing inc easing a en ion, as hey could collec i ely con e 1.3 billion ons o bio-
was e pe yea (Veldkamp e al., 2012). Figu e1 is b ie ly explaining he mechanism o
con e sion o ag icul u al and o he was es in o use ul by-p oduc s h ough he mealwo m.
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Replacemen o soy bymealwo ms o li es ock eed ‑ Acompa a i e…
2 Di e en combina ions o mealwo ms andsoy inli es ock eed
o di e en pu poses
2.1 Combina ion o mealwo ms andplan s
Chokebe y is p ima ily g own in he eas e n and sou he n egions o Eu ope as an
indus ial c op, while i has a his o ical adi ion o medicinal use in No h Ame ica
(Koko kiewicz e al., 2010; Seidemann, 1993). Chokebe y se es as a key componen
in he p oduc ion o juices, wines, jams, and unc ions as bo h a colo ing agen and
a nu i ional supplemen (Kulling & Rawel, 2008). Chokebe ies con ain ca bohyd a e
(15%), p o ein (1%), a (1%), die a y ibe (7%), and also o e a signi ican amoun
o i amin C. They con ain a mode a e quan i y o i amin K, and boas a weal h o
an ioxidan s, such as an hocyanins, que ce in, and es e a ol. None heless, he manage-
men o chokebe y was e p esen s a signi ican en i onmen al challenge. The p ocess
o pelle ing chokebe y by-p oduc (CBP) meal no only minimizes ood was e bu also
con ibu es o ecycling wi hin he poul y indus y, p o iding a sus ainable solu ion o
he p oblem o chokebe y was e disposal. In his ega d, he inco po a ion o pelle ed
Teneb io moli o (TM) powde along wi h CBP meal ep esen s a means o enhance
Fig. 1 A concise explana ion o he mechanism o con e ing ag icul u al and plas ic was e using meal-
wo ms
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S.A.Siddiqui e al.
poul y p oduc ion and mea quali y by educing eed was age (Jeong 2022) (Fig.2).
Choi (2023) explo ed he impac o inco po a ing pelle ed TM powde and CBP meal
in o he die on he g ow h cha ac e is ics and mea quali y o Pekin ducks. Au ho s
ound he signi ican di e ence in inal body weigh (FBW), weigh gain (WG) and
eed con e sion a io (FCR) (p < 0.05). Fu he mo e, he inco po a ion o up o 3% pel-
le ed TM powde alongside CBP meal in he duck die s enhanced g ow h p oduc ion
and an ioxidan a ibu es in he quali y o duck mea . The au ho s sugges ed ha he
imp o ed g ow h pe o mance and mea quali y migh be a ibu ed o he e ec s o pel-
le ing, which esul s in highe diges ibili y and a well-balanced nu ien supply (Abdol-
lahi e al., 2019), as well as he in e ac ion o bioac i e compounds, such as he phenolic
cons i uen s ound in TM powde and CBP meal (Kulling & Rawel, 2008).
Pa k e al. (2023), in es iga ed he e ec o eeding combina ion die o mealwo m
p o ein hyd olysa e (MWPH) and c anbe y ui ex ac (CFE) on mouse g ow h. The
au ho s no ed ha adding MWPH and CFE o he egimen enhanced hei an i-in lam-
ma o y e ec s h ough he egula ion o cy okine ac i a ion, lowe ed he exp ession o
IL-1, imp o ed immune unc ion, educed he popula ion o ha m ul gu bac e ia, and
inc eased he le els o an ioxidan enzymes in he se um.
Fig. 2 Illus a ing he in eg a ion o mealwo ms and plan was e in enhancing bo h poul y p oduc ion and
mea quali y
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Replacemen o soy bymealwo ms o li es ock eed ‑ Acompa a i e…
2.2 Combina ion o soy andalga o bac e ia ( e men ed soy eed)
In a s udy conduc ed by Wang e al., 2018), he impac o supplemen ing sow die s wi h
e men ed mixed eed (FMF) du ing lac a ion on he pe o mance o bo h sows and hei
o sp ing was examined. The au ho s obse ed ha co- e men a ion o co n and soybean
meal (SBM) mixed eed wi h Bacillus sub ilis ZJU12 and En e ococcus aecium had a
posi i e impac on nu ien a ailabili y and u iliza ion. This ea men also led o imp o e-
men s in milk yield and milk IgA con en . The au ho s p oposed ha du ing co- e men a-
ion, Bacillus sub ilis ZJU12 e ec i ely educed ypsin inhibi o and o he an i-nu i ional
ac o s (ANFs), while inc easing he c ude p o ein and small pep ide con en (Seo & Cho,
2016). Fu he mo e, he FMF p o ided sows wi h a ich sou ce o li e Bacillus sub ilis
ZJU12 and En e ococcus aecium cells, along wi h hei me aboli es, including lac ic acid
and enzymes.
Yuan e al., (2017) subs i u e he plasma p o ein (PP) and soybean p o ein concen-
a e (SBPC) wi h e men ed soybean meal (FSBM) in swine eed. The au ho s adminis-
e ed he pigle s wi h e men ed SBM and s udied he e ec o e men ed SBM on pigle
pe o mance. The SBM was co- e men ed wi h Bacillus sub ilis, Hansenula anomala
and Lac obacillus casei in 2:1:2 a ios. The esul s showed ha 10% e men ed SBM
imp o ed a e age daily gain (ADG), and eed con e sion a io (FCR). The subs i u-
ion wi h e men ed SBM in pigle die had imp o ed nu ien diges ibili y and also
imp o ed gu mic o lo a (Fig.3). Repo s indica e ha u ilizing FSBM in pigle die s
Fig. 3 Fe men ed soybean meal (FSBM) o animal eed. a The ole o e men a ion in SBM con e sion
in o nu i ious and unc ional SBM, b he ad an ageous ou comes o consuming FSBM
29112
S.A.Siddiqui e al.
wi h Bacillus sub ilis can se e as a highly diges ible p o ein sou ce (Nam e al., 2012).
This is a ibu ed o he signi ican p o ein hyd olysis in o amino acids and pep ides.
Fu he mo e, he inclusion o Lac obacillus enhances in es inal unc ion, os e s nu i-
en diges ion and abso p ion, and egula es immune unc ion (Vanbelle e al., 1990;
Yuan e al., 2017). This s udy demons a ed ha e men ing SBM wi h he ideal mic o-
bial blend could subs an ially educe ypsin inhibi o and an igen p o ein le els while
inc easing soybean pep ide con en six- old. These esul s su pass hose ob ained om
single mic obial e men a ion, as epo ed p e iously (Hachmeis e & Fung, 1993; Mi al
& Ga g, 1990).
Simila ly Feng e al., (2007) eed he b oile chicks wi h Aspe gillus o yzae e men ed
SBM and obse ed ha FSBM supplemen ed b oile s achie ed high ADG and ADFI
(P < 0.05) in compa ison o SBM eeded. FSBM also enhanced he le el o phospho us
and IgM in he se um. Fe men a ion changed he physical and nu i ional cha ac e is ics
o soybean meal. Se e al s udies ha e been epo ed ha a e e men a ion o SBM c ude
p o ein, d y ma e , c ude a inc eased, and ca bohyd a e con en dec eased. In addi ion,
a ious epo ed showed ha e men ed SBM imp o ed weigh gain; eed e iciency, phos-
pho us bioa ailabili y in b oile chicks (Chah e al., 1975; Hi abayashi e al., 1998; Zamo a
& Veum, 1979) and simila ly in pigs (Kie s e al., 2003). Chah e al. (1975) sugges ed ha
he enhanced g ow h-p omo ing e ec s o e men ed soybeans p ima ily esul ed om an
inc eased p o ision o essen ial amino acids and po en ially i amins syn hesized by he
ungi. Fe men ed soy-based p oduc s o e high diges ibili y and nu i ional alue, p o id-
ing essen ial nu ien s such as calcium, as well as Vi amins A and B, while also possessing
unc ional p ope ies. In addi ion, employing Aspe gillus o yzae in he e men a ion p o-
cess can enhance he nu i ional quali y o soybeans and soybean meal. This unde sco es
he po en ial o u ilizing FSBM wi h educed ypsin inhibi o le els and an inc eased
concen a ion o small-size pep ides as a p omising al e na i e o animal-de i ed p o ein
ing edien s in young animal die s (Hong e al. (2004).
The p esence o an i-nu i ional ac o s (ANFs) in SBM signi ican ly impac s bo h oxi-
da i e balance and immune esponses in ish. The Aspe gillus awamo i e men ed SBM
signi ican ly educed he con en s o ANFs in SBM, including a inose (− 98.8%), s achy-
ose (− 80%), ypsin inhibi o s (− 80%), glycinin (− 98.5%), and β-conglycinin (− 97.4%).
The FSBM also enhanced he heigh o en e ocy e and mic o illi in u bo ish (Scoph hal-
mus maximus L.) (Li e al., 2019). Wu e al. (2020), used high empe a u e Bacillus s ea o-
he mophillus FSBM and an ibio ic g ow h p omo e s (AGP) ee eed as die a y supple-
men s o b oile chicks o in es iga e he e ec on g ow h pe o mance. Au ho s ound ha
he a o emen ioned die a y supplemen imp o ed he in es inal gu mic o lo a, inc eased
he weigh o hymus and bu sa o Fab icius, and also enhanced glu amic-oxaloace ic
ansaminase (GOT) le el in se um. Simila ly, Lac obacillus plan a um FSBM was used
as die a y supplemen o u key which imp o ed he his ology o he small in es ine and
s imula ed he an ioxidan and immune sys em (Chachaj e al., 2019a, 2019b). His omo -
phological examina ions had e ealed ha subs i u ing a po ion o soybean meal wi h
e men ed soybean meal in u key die s led o an ele a ion in illus heigh and he il-
lus heigh /c yp dep h a io. Fu he mo e, i ’s no ewo hy ha he e men a ion o soybean
meal no ably educes he le els o alle genic p o eins such as glycinin and β-conglycinin.
The enhanced mo phological cha ac e is ics o he in es ine acili a ed inc eased nu i-
en abso p ion and led o highe body weigh gains in he bi ds, along wi h an imp o ed
eed con e sion a io (FCR) (Chachaj e al., 2019a, 2019b). In hei s udy, Cheng e al.,
(2019) examined he op imal condi ions o he mixed solid-s a e e men a ion (SSF) o
soybean meal using p o ease and p obio ics, and assessed he impac o FSBM on b oile s.
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Replacemen o soy bymealwo ms o li es ock eed ‑ Acompa a i e…
g ains. One o he main con ibu o s o he an i-nu i ional e ec s o soybeans is hei p es-
ence o he mo-s able an i-nu i ional componen s, which include non-s a ch polysaccha-
ides (NSP) and oligosaccha ides. The insoluble NSP is made up o cellulose polyme s and
ce ain hemicelluloses. Monogas ic animals ely on bac e ial e men a ion o diges ion
because hey lack he enzymes needed o hyd olyze hese suga s (Bueno e al., 2018). The
majo ca ego y o an i-nu i ional ac o s (ANF) ound in aw beans is ypsin inhibi o s.
Hea inac i a es his ANF, allowing highe quan i ies o soy beans o be used in animal
eed. Hea , on he o he hand, enhances he occu ence o Mailla d eac ions, lowe ing he
diges ibili y o he soy bean (Ibáñez e al., 2020). Pigs ha e a limi ed abili y o diges phy ic
acid, which is associa ed wi h phospho us in soy p oduc s (Degola e al., 2019).
Many s udies ha e linked economically impo an ea u es o soybean p oduc ion,
including p oduc i i y and oil o p o ein con en (Bueno e al., 2018). Gene ally, soybean
seeds con ain 5.6 o 11.5% wa e , 32 o 43.6% c ude p o ein, 15.5 o 24.7% a , 4.5 o 6.4%
c ude ash, 10.9 o 14.9% neu al de e gen ibe , 9.1 o 11.1% acid de e gen ibe , and 31.7
o 31.8 pe cen ca bohyd a es on a d y ma e basis (Banaszkiewicz, 2011). The p o ein
and a con en o soybeans is high. Soybeans a e used as a sou ce o p o ein and a all
o e he wo ld in eed. Soybean o e s he highes le el o c ude p o ein and he ideal bal-
ance o amino acids o any legume seed. Compa a i ely o o he ege able meals wi h high
p o ein con en s, he aw ibe con en (app oxima ely 6%) is lowe in soybeans. Due o
his, hey a e employed in he p ocess o making soybean oil, which is hen u ilized o
make a e y desi able animal eed. Soybeans ha e a good amino acid p o ile in addi ion
o being abundan in p o ein. Soybean p o ein con ains enough amino acids o supplemen
g ain p o ein and sa is y he demands o animals. Howe e , yp ophan and sul u ic amino
acids a e unsa is ac o y in soybeans. Soybean p o ein has he highes le el o lysine and
me hionine diges ibili y (Degola e al., 2019). Soybean oil is equen ly used as a eed-
g ade a in b oile chicken a ions o inc ease he ene gy densi y o eeds and inc ease eed
u iliza ion e iciency (Saleh e al., 2021). This is due o he need o c ea e high-ene gy die s
o mode n b eeds, as well as he oil’s high diges ibili y and me abolisable ene gy con-
en . Se e al a iables, including clima e changes, gene ics, e ain, and soil quali y, impac
he chemical makeup o soybeans, pa icula ly he con en o amino acids (Degola e al.,
2019). The amoun o a in soybeans is ano he c ucial quan i a i e aspec o nu i ion.
Soybeans a composi ion ha is app oxima ely 10%–15% sa u a ed a y acids, 19–41%
monounsa u a ed a y acids, and 46%–62% polyunsa u a ed a y acids (PUFA). Soybean
oil has a high ene gy alue. Abou 99% o he iglyce ides in he lipid ac ion o soybean
seeds a e polyunsa u a ed a y acids (linoleic and linolenic) and unsa u a ed oleic acid,
bo h o which a e abundan in he lipid ac ion (Messina, 2016). The quali y o soybean oil
is de e mined by he a y acid makeup. Because oleic, linoleic, and linoleic acids, among
o he unsa u a ed a y acids, a e abundan in soy bean oil, i has a high nu i ional alue.
The high PUFA con en o soybean oil has been connec ed o linoleic acid’s unc ion in
ep oduc ion and appea s o ha e an ene gy-independen e ec on enhancing ep oduc i e
heal h in dai y ca le. A signi ican ood and eed ing edien is soybeans. Only ma ginally
did ni ogen e ilize a ec he a y acid makeup o he di e en soybean ypes. The soy-
bean is a good sou ce o se e al i amins and mine als, pa icula ly po assium (Messina,
2016).
The seed ype, en i onmen al ci cums ances du ing bean g ow h, ha es , and s o age,
as well as he me hod used o ex ac he oil, all has an impac on he chemical composi-
ion, p o ein quali y, and nu i ional alue o comme cial soy beans (Ibáñez e al., 2020).
Acco ding o Szos ak e al., he gene ic cha ac e is ics o he a ie y as well as ag o- ech-
nical elemen s, pa icula ly ni ogen e iliza ion, a ec he p o ein con en o legumes.
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S.A.Siddiqui e al.
Fu he mo e, gene ic di e ences in Glycine soybean bio ypes ha e been ound, sugges ing
ha hei chemical con en s may di e . Soybean p oduc s in non- uminan die s can p o-
ide accep able pe o mance only i die s a e p ope ly p epa ed o an i-nu i i e elemen s
a e elimina ed. Nu ien con en , bioa ailabili y, and an i-nu i i e cha ac e is ics, as well
as hei impac on he pe o mance o animals, when soybean p o eins a e exposed o a i-
ous p ocessing s eps, hei quali y inc eases (Dei, 2011; Ibáñez e al., 2020).The me hods
in ol ed ei he minimizing o emo ing he ANFs in he beans, signi ican ly imp o ing he
die a y alue o all animal species. The phases o he p ocessing can ha e an impac on he
p o ein’s quali y, depending on he ci cums ances. The hea used in p ocessing has been
ound o be he single mos c i ical elemen in luencing quali y o he p o ein in soybean
meal. P o eins and amino acids a e nega i ely impac ed by high p ocessing empe a u es
o oilseeds because dena u a ion o he p oduc ion o Mailla d eac ion p oduc s occu s
(Dei, 2011). Soybean ag icul u e alone consumes he majo i y o he a ea equi ed o ani-
mal p oduc p oduc ion (S ein e al., 2013). The soluble ca bohyd a es in de a ed lakes a e
aken ou o p oduce soy p o ein concen a e. Ei he e hanol ex ac ion o enzyma ic deg a-
da ion can be used o achie e his. Soybean p o ein concen a e is help ul as a s a e eed
o pigle s and as a milk eplacemen eed o cal es. This is because i only has a e y li le
amoun o an igenic subs ances and hea -s able oligosaccha ides. I may eplace d ied skim
milk, whey powde , and ishmeal in pig s a e eed, and i has i ually eplaced d y skim
milk in milk eplace eed (Degola e al., 2019; Dei, 2011).
The e was a need o look o al e na i es since soybean meal is expensi e and because
ag icul u al p ojec s and hei p oduc ion a e in luenced by he clima ic and inancial con-
di ions o he na ions ha p oduce soybeans. This sugges s ha he e is a p essing need o
iden i y esh, a o dable p o ein sou ces o animal p oduc ion ha can p o ide he same
nu ien s as soybean and ish meal. One sou ce ha migh be exploi ed is insec s. Insec s
p o ide a iable p o ein al e na i e ha is sui able o use in bo h ood and eed due o hei
high p o ein con en . Insec s a e pa icula ly in iguing o he p oduc ion o ood and eed
because o hei nu ien makeup and simplici y o upb inging. Fo ins ance, he yellow
mealwo m, Teneb io moli o L., has he po en ial o ake he place o equen ly used p o-
ein sou ces in li es ock die s. Mealwo ms a e easy o g ow and don’ need a lo o oom
o p oduc ion (Selaledi e al., 2020). Such ising demand o li es ock p oduc s can be me
by iden i ying and u ilizing al e na i e animal eeding op ions, which will be c i ical in
de eloping he animal p oduc ion sec o (Pino i e al., 2021). Va ious insec species ha e
been ecognized as possible al e na i es and mo e sus ainable eed componen s o ca le in
ecen yea s due o hei capaci y o ans o m by-p oduc s in o p oduc s ich in p o ein and
o he i al nu ien s (Adhika i e al., 2021).
Insec s a e ex ensi ely used as ood and eed h oughou Asia, A ica, and he Ame i-
cas, while en omophagy is uncommon in Eu ope. On he o he hand, du ing he pas en
yea s, he use o insec s as ood and eed has inc eased. The e has been a lo o in e es
in insec s as a ood sou ce e e since 2015, when hey we e ecognized as such in he
Eu opean Union. One o he insec s ha a e mos o en p oduced in Eu ope o eed and
ood is he yellow mealwo m (Bo diean e al., 2020). Mealwo ms a e a g ea al e na i e
o con en ional li es ock eed because o hei iden ical essen ial amino acid con en and
nu i ional p o ile o ha o ish and soybean meal. Acco ding o a ious esea ches on he
die s o hens, he whole o pa ial subs i u ion o ish o soybean meal wi h mealwo ms
led o equi alen o e en sligh ly imp o ed g ow h pe o mance and diges ibili y (To iho
& Bá sony, 2022). Acco ding o se e al s udies, i was disco e ed ha adding 10% d y
mealwo ms o d y ma e a he beginning o he b oile die had no nega i e e ec s on eed
in ake, body weigh gain, o eed e iciency. Mealwo ms a e e y pala able and can ake he
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Replacemen o soy bymealwo ms o li es ock eed ‑ Acompa a i e…
place o base eed, especially ish meal and soybean meal, acco ding o se e al s udies. The
egg a io p oduced by he usage o d y mealwo ms was 2.4%, which was highe han ha
o o he basal die s (Makka e al., 2014). Nume ous insec meals ha e been in es iga ed
as possible al e na i es o ishmeal in animal die s. As compa ed o insec - ee die s, die-
a y insec meals signi ican ly a ec ed g ow h pe o mance, diges ibili y, and mea quali y,
no ably he a y acid p o ile o ed ish (Gasco e al., 2019). Yellow mealwo m has been
s a ed o be one o he mos ecognized insec s as a iable subs i u e p o ein due o i s a ail-
abili y and low cos (T an e al., 2021). P o ein, lipid, and ni ogen- ee ex ac s o yellow
mealwo m ha e been shown o con ain be ween 47.2% and 66.3%, 14.9% o 43.1%, and
2.8% o 3.4%, espec i ely. In o de o show he link be ween keywo ds when c ea ing a
bibliome ic map o he mealwo m o he yea s 2013–2023, Pubmed was used o colla e
he da a (Fig.4). Whe e he la ge ci cles in he igu e ep esen he e ms ha he au ho s
mos equen ly employ, including "Teneb io moli o ," "animal," "animal nu i ion," and
"yellow mealwo m”. Based on his bibliome ic mapping, we could ca ego ize he e ms
in o i e dis inc se s. Animal, eed, Teneb io moli o , and nu ien alue we e among he
keywo ds in he i s g oup ( ed). Chicken, die , insec meal, and g ow h pe o mance
make up some o g oup 2’s (g een) componen s. Insec p o eins, biomass, and en omology
make up ce ain pa s o G oup 3 (blue). Yellow mealwo m, la ae, and die a y p o ein
made up g oup 4 (yellow). Mealwo ms, poul y, and animal nu i ional physiology made
up se e al o G oup 5 (pu ple). Fu he mo e, he yellow mealwo m is ich in i amins,
mine als, and o he biologically bene icial subs ances (Nowak e al., 2016). Depending on
he en i onmen ’s empe a u e, pho ope iod, ela i e humidi y, and o he ac o s, yellow
mealwo ms ha e a li e cycle ha las s be ween 280 and 630days (Makka e al., 2014).
Insec s may ans o m o ganic byp oduc s, esul ing in economic gains by lowe ing ash
gene a ion and en i onmen al con amina ion. Insec s can use was e as a sa e eeds ock and
Fig. 4 A bibliome ic map o mealwo ms in animal eed
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S.A.Siddiqui e al.
bio-con e i in o high-quali y goods wi h li le help om o he esou ces (Bo diean e al.,
2020; Makka e al., 2014). Yellow mealwo m can success ully eplace ish o soymeal
in li es ock o ishe ies. Plan p o ein diges ion can be di icul o ca ni o ous ish spe-
cies; howe e , mealwo m la al meal and oil can be an e icien and nu ien -dense die a y
esou ce. Mealwo ms can also be ed o chickens and o he domes ic bi ds o enhance hei
die s (G au e al., 2017). The chemical composi ion o mealwo ms is high in c ude p o-
ein (47–60%) and lipid (31–43%). F esh la ae ha e a wa e con en o abou 60%. They
ha e a low ash con en (5% d y ma e ) and, like o he insec s, a e y low Ca: P a io. I
should be no ed ha die has an in luence on he composi ion, which is highly a iable.
The amoun o essen ial amino acids in he meal is su icien . Mealwo m ood has ce -
ain a y acid composi ions wi h house ly maggo meal and house c icke meal. In com-
pa ison o black a my ly la ae, mealwo m la ae had much highe le els o linoleic acid
and signi ican ly lowe le els o lau ic acid, espec i ely (Makka e al., 2014). In gene al,
insec s con ain less me hionine and cys eine and mo e lysine and h eonine, wo amino
acids ha a e insu icien in he ou mos o en consumed ce eals: whea , ice, cassa a,
and maize. Mealwo m la ae a e also low in calcium bu ich in phospho us; ne e heless,
when compa ed o la ae and bee les, he exc e a and exu ium componen s had he high-
es calcium concen a ion (Ra zanaadii e al., 2012). A calcium de iciency and symp oms
o me abolic bone disease can occu om eeding mealwo ms solely o chickens. As a
esul , calcium supplemen a ion o mealwo ms is sugges ed (Selaledi e al., 2020). Table3
lis s a ew o he nega i e and posi i e e ec s o mealwo ms ela ed o hei nu i ional
alue in animal nu i ion. Compa ed o mo e common p o ein sou ces like soy bean meal,
mealwo m manu ac u ing may be less expensi e. Addi ionally, mealwo ms imp o e he
g ow h pe o mance and eed u iliza ion e iciency o poul y die s (Hussain e al., 2017).
Economic p oduc ion pa ame e s o mealwo ms include equi ing less space, ha ing com-
me cial p oduc ion capabili ies, ha ing high con e sion e iciency, and u ilising o ganic
was e as a ood sou ce in a ela i e sense (Selaledi e al., 2020). Mealwo ms ha e highe
p o ein con en (51.93%) han soy beans (44.51%), pe Bo e a e al. (2015). In compa ison
o maggo s and silkwo ms, mealwo ms a e he bes insec meal subs i u e, acco ding o
Khan e al. (2017); hey imp o e b oile pe o mance and mea quali y. The concen a-
ion o componen s inc eases as mealwo ms go h ough hei me amo phosis (Simon e al.,
2013). Compa ing mealwo ms o maggo s and silkwo ms, Khan e al. (2017) ound ha
mealwo ms a e he bes insec meal subs i u e because hey imp o e b oile pe o mance
and mea quali y. The concen a ion o essen ial mine als, including calcium, phospho us,
and zinc, is c i ical du ing he ans o ma ion s ages o mealwo ms (Simon e al., 2013).
Table4 shows a compa ison o he nu i ional composi ion o mealwo m and soymeal.
Insec s can signi ican ly aid in he sus ainable ecycling o low-g ade bio esou ces,
such as ag icul u al byp oduc s (Adhika i e al., 2021). Because he nu i ional p o iles o
mealwo m pupae and la ae a e compa able, la ae may no always bene i mo e om he
pupal s age in e ms o nu ien con en and nu ien u iliza ion. Mealwo m adul s may be a
signi ican sou ce o bioac i e subs ances ha ha e posi i e e ec s on he immune sys em
and animal heal h (Khanal e al., 2023). P e ious s udies also highligh ed ha he meal-
wo m la ae may be g own o an app op ia e size using ag icul u al by-p oduc s, including
esou ces de i ed om whea (Zhang e al., 2019). Mealwo ms may be used as a subs i u e
eed o monogas ic and uminan animals, acco ding o Khanal e al. (2023). Khanal e al.
(2023) imply ha la ae and pupae usually had a simila nu i ional p o ile, wi h c ude
ibe , c ude p o ein, and o al amino acid con en s ha we e lowe and c ude a , o al a y
acid, and g oss ene gy le els ha we e g ea e in compa ison o adul s. O e all essen ial
and non-essen ial amino acid concen a ions in la ae and pupae we e compa able o hose
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Replacemen o soy bymealwo ms o li es ock eed ‑ Acompa a i e…
Table 3 The nega i e and posi i e e ec s o mealwo ms in animal eeding
Ad an ages Disad an ages Re e ences
A g ea e immunological esponse and imp o ed disease
esis ance, because o he lowe albumin- o-globulin a io
in b oile s
Insu icien calcium and symp oms o me abolic bone disease
in poul y
Bo e a e al. (2015), Ra zanaadii e al. (2012)
A bene icial e ec on he blood chemis y measu es and
ca cass ai s o b oile s
Nega i ely a ec eed e iciency and in es inal mo phology
in poul y
Biasa o e al. (2017), Biasa o e al. (2016)
May dec ease he use o an ibio ics in he poul y indus y A de imen al impac on he nu i ional diges ibili y o
o ganic ma e and c ude p o ein
an Huis e al. (2013), Bo e a e al. (2016)
The exis ence o chi in in mealwo ms has he po en ial o
imp o e poul y heal h because i dec eases popula ions o
in es inal Esche ichia coli anddd Salmonella spp.
The cos is ela i ely expensi e Selaledi e al. (2020),
Sha ique e al. (2021)
Imp o es g ow h pe o mance in poul y die Hussain e al. (2017)
A posi i e e ec ela ed o mealwo ms u iliza ion may cause
he Gamma glu amyl ans e ase (GGT) educ ion. The high
GGT con en in bi ds is a sign o li e illness and issues
wi h bile low
Ognik and K auze (2016)
Inc eased he eed in ake, a e age daily gain, and gain- o- eed
a io in eeding weaning pigs
Jin e al. (2016)
Reducing blood u ea ni ogen and boos ing insulin-like
g ow h ac o in eeding pigs
Jin e al. (2016)
29124
S.A.Siddiqui e al.
in soybean meal sold in s o es. Howe e , in line wi h he majo i y o p e ious indings,
he soybean meal’s amino acids di e ed acco ding o he na ion o o igin (i.e., he egion
whe e he beans we e g own). Nume ous s udies ha e sugges ed ha he amoun o p o ein
in he seed has an e ec on he amino acid composi ion o he soybean meal. As a ma e
o ac , he majo i y o da a show ha when he p o ein concen a ion in he seed inc eased,
he ela i e abundance o se e al amino acids, such as lysine, me hionine, cys eine, yp-
ophan, and h eonine, which a e equen ly g ow h inhibi o s in non- uminan species,
dec eased. O e all, he da a p esen ed he e suppo he no ion ha he nu i ional alue o
soybean meal om a ious o igins should be de e mined by c ude p o ein con en while
also aking in o accoun a ia ions in he amino acid p o ile o he p o ein po ion o he
meals (Khanal e al., 2023). Figu e5 shows he con en o essen ial amino acids in meal-
wo ms (la a s age) and soymeal. The igu e makes i abundan ly e iden how compa able
he amino acid composi ions o mealwo ms and soybeans a e, as well as how mealwo ms
excel in ce ain amino acids, including alanine, y osine, glycine, aline, and his idine.
Table 4 Chemical composi ion
o mealwo m and soybean meal
in li es ock eed
a Hussain e al. (2017)
b Bo e a e al. (2015)
c Son e al. (2021)
d Ra zanaadii e al. (2012)
Nu ien Componen Mealwo m Feed Soy Feed
Ene gy, mcal/kg 2.97 a2.51
P o ein, g/100g 51.93 44.51
Ca bohyd a es, g/100g 11.45 c40
Fa , g/100g 21.57 1.84
Fibe , % 7.2 4.79
Ash, % 4.69 6.13
Calcium, % g/kg 4.3 0.33
Phospho us, % 7.1 0.735
Po assium, % 9.4 2.25
Magnesium, % 2 0.31
EAA g/100 g p o ein d
Th eonine, % 2.71 3.43
Valine, % 3.72 4.09
Me hionine, % 1.62 3.18
Phenylalanine, % 1.53 No
Isoleucine, % 4.52 4.64
Leucine, % 4.52 4.64
Lysine, % 1.68 2.83
A ginine, % 3.61 6.17
His idine, % 2.11 2.51
29125
Replacemen o soy bymealwo ms o li es ock eed ‑ Acompa a i e…
5 Li e cycle assessmen (LCA) anden i onmen al pe spec i es
o mealwo ms andsoy eed
The li es ock indus y cu en ly uses mo e han 70% o all ag icul u al land, and i is
esponsible o 15% o all g eenhouse gas (GHG) emissions p oduced. GHG emissions
and o he en i onmen al cha ac e is ics a e in luenced by people’s ea ing choices. A ec-
ommended mi iga ing echnique is o swi ch o p o eins om lowe -impac animal species
(Oonincx & De Boe , 2012). Reducing he impac o p o ein syn hesis om animal sou ces
on he en i onmen has become c ucial. As a esul , esea ch is being done on p o ein- ich
insec s as a po en ial eplacemen o adi ional p o ein sou ces, minimizing bo h en i-
onmen al ha m and die a y cos s. This is owing o insec s’ low wa e equi emen s and
he possibili y o b eeding hem on bio-was e subs a es and o ganic side s eams, as well
as hei high nu i ional alue and high lipid, mine al, and i amin con en (Makka e al.,
2014). Insec s (2–122g/kg mass g ow h) con ibu e a less o GHG emissions han bee
ca le (2850g/kg mass gain), while pigs (80–1130g/kg mass gain) con ibu e e en less.
GHG emissions and o he en i onmen al ac o s, such as he use o land o ossil uels,
mus be weighed when deciding be ween di e en sou ces o animal p o ein. Acco ding o
Oonincx and Boe (2012), he widely used me hod o LCA has been used o e alua e hese
cha ac e is ics o a ange o animal p oduc s.
LCA in es iga es he complex ela ionship be ween he en i onmen and a p oduc by
e alua ing en i onmen al cha ac e is ics as well as he possible epe cussions connec ed
wi h a p oduc ’s li e cycle. The LCA o a ce ain p oduc includes all s ages o he li e
cycle, beginning wi h he ex ac ion o aw ma e ials om na u e and con inuing wi h all
Fig. 5 Essen ial amino acid con en in mealwo ms and soymeal
29126
S.A.Siddiqui e al.
indus ial and manu ac u ing p ocesses, consump ion, and ul ima e p oduc disposal (Lap-
ola e al., 2014). In an LCA, p ede e mined me ics a e measu ed du ing he whole li e
cycle o a p oduc . Fo mealwo ms, o example, no only a e he di ec GHG emissions
om espi a ion analyzed and alloca ed o a p oduc , bu also he GHG emissions om he
manu ac u e and dis ibu ion o eed, as well as emissions om he hea ing o he clima e-
con olled aising acili y (Oonincx & De Boe , 2012). Since i consumes a lo o wa e ,
ene gy, and land and gene a es a lo o g eenhouse gases and ammonia, mass animal p o-
duc ion has a nega i e en i onmen al e ec . The p oduc ion o li es ock is esponsible o
80% o he GHG emissions p oduced in he ag icul u al sec o , including emissions om
g azing land, ene gy used o cul i a e ce eals o eed, and anspo a ion o g ain and mea
o p ocessing and sale. Mealwo ms ha e a 4341 m3/ wa e oo p in pe edible on, which
is 3.5 imes less han bee and he same as chicken mea (Miglie a e al., 2015). Al hough
p oducing 1kg o esh mealwo ms equi es abou he same amoun o ene gy as p oduc-
ing bee o pig, ca le, chicken, and po k equi e a lo mo e land (Oonincx & De Boe ,
2012). When compa ed o animals, mealwo ms p oduced much less ammonia and GHG
(CO2, N2O, and CH4). These gases a e pa icula ly signi ican because o hei nega i e
impac s on eu ophica ion, ai quali y, and he global clima e (IPCC, 2013). Mealwo ms
also equi e less a ea o p oduce 1kg o edible p o ein han animals (Nowak e al., 2016).
Feed con e sion e iciency is ano he ac o o conside while g owing animals. Meal-
wo ms con e eed as e ec i ely as chickens and u ilize ni ogen mo e e icien ly han a-
di ional ca le when ed an app op ia e die . Fu he mo e, high-p o ein die s inc ease la al
su i al and dec ease g ow h ime (Oonincx e al., 2015). Mealwo ms may hus be aised
in a mo e ecologically iendly manne han ca le while ob aining compa able nu i ional
quali ies, hence encou aging hei usage as a p o ein sou ce o human consump ion (G au
e al., 2017). The e is li le en i onmen al LCA s udy on insec s. In o de o assess he
po en ial en i onmen al e ec s associa ed wi h he p oduc ion o kg o mealwo m p o ein,
D eye e al. (2021) examined he LCA o yellow mealwo ms as an o ganic aw ma e-
ial. Thei esea ch shows ha he en i onmen al e ec s o p oducing 1kg o edible meal-
wo m p o ein a e equal o 20.4kg CO2-eq o global wa ming po en ial, 213.66MJ-eq o
non- enewable ene gy use, 22.38 m2 o ag icul u al land occupa ion, 159.52g SO2-eq o
e es ial acidi ica ion po en ial, and 12.41g P-eq o eshwa e eu ophica ion po en ial.
This s udy con i med he po en ial o mealwo ms as a sus ainable sou ce o p o ein and
p o ided insigh s on hei en i onmen al impac in compa ison o adi ional animal p o-
duc ion sys ems (D eye e al., 2021). A compa ison o he en i onmen al pe o mance
o mealwo m and soybeans du ing he p oduc ion p ocess is p esen ed in Table5. This
indica es ha he p oduc ion o mealwo m meal has a g ea e en i onmen al impac , pa -
icula ly in e ms o ene gy usage, when compa ed o soybeans.
Table 5 Compa ison o he
en i onmen al pe o mance o
mealwo ms and soy du ing he
p oduc ion p ocess
Fac o s Mealwo ms
(Thé eno e al.,
2018)
Soy (Wil a
e al. 2016)
Land use (m2a) 6.35 4.34
Clima e change (kgCO2 eq) 5.77 4.09
Cumula i e ene gy demand (MJ) 217.37 31.17
Eu ophica ion (gPO4 eq) 23.03 16.45
Acidi ica ion (gSO2 eq) 39.38 17.61
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Replacemen o soy bymealwo ms o li es ock eed ‑ Acompa a i e…
The biological li e cycle o mealwo ms is b ie . The du a ion o he egg incuba-
ion phase is 3–9days, he la al s age is 26–76days, he nymph s age is 3–12days, and
he pupal s age is 5–17 days. Howe e , gi en ha la ae a e aised in his acili y o
11–13weeks, hese igu es appea o be unde es ima ed (Li e al. (2013).Mealwo m la al
meal’s en i onmen al pe o mance was assessed using LCA by Thé eno e al. (2018). The
esul s show ha he p oduc ion o mealwo m meal (MWM) has a bigge en i onmen al
impac han he p oduc ion o o he p o ein sou ces u ilized in animal eed, especially in
e ms o ene gy needs. The e ec s o one kg o MWM a e 141.3MJ o cumula i e ene gy
use, 3.8kg o CO2 equi alen o clima e change, 25.6g o SO2 equi alen o possible
acidi ica ion, 15.0g o PO4 equi alen o po en ial eu ophica ion, and 4.1 m2 o land u i-
liza ion. In e ms o e ec s pe kg o p o ein, hese a e mo e po en han hose o soybean
o ish meal. Mealwo m zoo echnical de elopmen s a e p ojec ed o be conside able, which
should imp o e he pe o mance o he la e in e ms o he en i onmen , acco ding o a
numbe o ecen s udies. In o de o comple ely explo e he sec o om an en i onmen al
aspec , p ospec i e and consequen ial LCAs a e equi ed, as shown by a numbe o signi i-
can challenges.
Gi en he a ie y o insec s ha may be used as sou ces o p o ein o ood and eed,
se e al s udies ha e shown ha subs i u ing some insec s o soybeans and ish meal is
a possibili y. Only a ew o he ad e se cha ac e is ics o ege able eeds ock ha limi
hei pe cen age inclusion in he die include excessi e ibe and non-s a ch polysaccha-
ide con en , inadequa e a ios o essen ial and non-essen ial amino acids, an i-nu i ional
componen s, low pala abili y, and low diges ibili y. Wi h a long his o y o cul i a ion o
ood and animal eed, soybean has become a commodi y c op wi h a a ie y o indus ial
uses, mos no ably in he li es ock sec o . In esponse o a shi in die a y p e e ences
owa d mo e animal p o ein, his business has g own d ama ically (Oli ei a & Schneide ,
2016). The huge inc ease in soybean p oduc ion and expo has had conside able nega i e
e ec s on he en i onmen since i has changed he land use and land co e in B azilian
biomes bo h di ec ly and indi ec ly (Gaspa i & de Wa oux, 2015). As a esul , he global
soybean ade is a complex human–en i onmen in e ac ion ha may be ep esen ed as a
me acoupled sys em. This concep ual pa adigm enables concu en and complemen a y
in e ac ions be ween emo e, adjacen , and local ac o s (He zbe ge e al., 2019). Signi i-
can GHG emissions may be p oduced as a esul o he de elopmen and p oduc ion o
soybeans. Howe e , e alua ing his is challenging, and he esul s migh be e y di e en .
The main con ibu ing s age o he en i onmen al consequences o his p oduc sys em
owing o nume ous inpu s and ag icul u al me hods, no ably GHG emissions, was disco -
e ed when LCA was u ilized o analyze he en i onmen al impac o soybean p oduc ion.
O he impo an sou ces o GHG include soil ni ous oxide emissions and changes in land
use. S udies ha e shown ha when changes in land use a e aken in o accoun , he e ec s
o GHG emissions a y signi ican ly (Humpenöde e al., 2013). Ag icul u e and land use
change (LUC) accoun ed o 80% o CO2 equi alen emissions in B azil in 2005. A na u-
ally occu ing GHG in he soil ha is 298 imes mo e powe ul han CO2 and associa ed
wi h he use o ni ogen e ilize s, ag icul u al was e, and LUC is ni ous oxide (Lapola
e al., 2014). Figu e6a, b show he coun ies ha use soybean and mealwo m meal as ani-
mal eed, espec i ely.
Fehlenbe g e al. (2017) showed ha , despi e he occasional local impo ance o o he
adjacen causes, de o es a ion in he Chaco appea s o be mos ly a esul o he wo ld’s
expanding soybean consump ion. Landis e al. (2007) con i med ha e ilize use, c op
cul i a ion, and ni ogen luxes inside he a m ha e an impac on ai emissions. Fu u e
li e cycle assessmen s (LCAs) o co n o soybeans as eed s ocks om he Ame ican Co n
29128
S.A.Siddiqui e al.
Bel may exclude he con ibu ion o seed p oduc ion and i iga ion, which was less han
0.002% o any o he in en o y emissions o ene gy lows. E ec -dec easing LCAs iden-
i y he p oduc ion s age (c ea ion, use, o disposal) ha is expec ed o ha e he g ea es
en i onmen al e ec and may sugges ways o educe hose impac s o e he cou se o he
p oduc ’s li e. The mos en i onmen ally iendly al e na i e may be chosen wi h he use
o compa a i e LCAs o po en ial i ems (Be a dy e al., 2015). The hea y eliance on soy-
bean meal in in ensi e uminan p oduc ion and he c op’s nega i e en i onmen al e ec s
mo i a e he ques o subs i u e, p o ein- ich meals. Fou insec s—Alphi obius diape inus,
Teneb io moli o , Zophobas mo io, and Ache a domes icus—we e he subjec o a s udy
by To al e al. (2022) o de e mine hei po en ial as subs i u e sou ces o p o ein o umi-
nan s. The indings sugges ha he ou insec s unde s udy migh se e as an al e na i e
o g ains o uminan s. No el eed componen s, such as insec s, can o ally eplace soy-
bean p oduc s, lowe ing g eenhouse gas emissions and he need o a able land o eed
p oduc ion compa ed o ypical die s designed o bo h chicken lines. I has also been dem-
ons a ed ha swi ching om adi ional die s o die s ha include new componen s can
Fig. 6 a and b: he geog aphical coun ies ha a e using soybean and mealwo ms as li es ock eed
29135
Replacemen o soy bymealwo ms o li es ock eed ‑ Acompa a i e…
Table 7 A summa y o mealwo ms and hei ole in he ansmission o diseases o humans and animals
Animal disease caused by Mealwo ms Human disease caused by Mealwo ms
Disease Pa hogen Animal hos Region’s dis ibu-
ion
Re e ence Disease Pa hogen Region’s dis i-
bu ion
Re e ence
Salmonellosis Salmonella spp. Animals Wo ldwide Jensen e al.
(2020)
yphoid e e Salmonella spp. Wo ldwide Jensen e al.
(2020)
C yp o C yp ospo idium
spp. humans, and
animals
Wo ldwide Dixon, (2015) c yp ospo idiosis C yp ospo idium
spp. Wo ldwide Ga cía-Li ia e al.
(2020)
G ega ine
disease G ega ine spp. Molluscan The No h A lan-
ic, and he
Whi e Sea
Zaka iah e al.
(2019)
Hymenolepiasis hymenolepis
diminu a Ra s Wo ldwide Xie e al., 2017 Hymenolepiasis hymenolepis
diminu a Wo ldwide Pan i-May e al.
(2020)
Lis e iosis lis e ia monocy-
ogenes monogas ic
animals
Wo ldwide Mancini e al.
(2019)
Lis e iosis lis e ia monocy-
ogenes Wo ldwide Wang e al. (2017)
Mas i is S aphylococcus
au eus ca le, sheep,
goa s, and
ho ses
Wo ldwide Mam imin e al.
(2023)
S aphylococcal
In ec ions S aphylococcus
au eus Wo ldwide Lozano e al.
(2016)
Mas i is Se a ia ma ces-
cens Animals, in e -
eb a es and
plan s
Wo ldwide Ishii e al. (2014) Nosocomial
in ec ions Se a ia ma ces-
cens Wo ldwide Kim e al. (2015)
Pneumonia Rhodococcus
equi ho ses and oals Sub-Saha an
A ica
Vázquez-Boland
e al. (2013)
Rhodococcus
equi in ec ion Rhodococcus
spp. Wo ldwide S ewa e al.
(2019)
Dia hoea E. coli Animals Wo ldwide Alloca i e al.
(2013)
clinical in ec-
ions E. coli Wo ldwide Alloca i e al.
(2013)
Bo ulism Clos idium
bo ulinum Humans, and
a ious animals Wo ldwide Kooh e al.
(2020)
Bo ulism clos idium
bo ulinum Wo ldwide Kooh e al. (2020)
En e o oxemia Clos idium
pe ingens humans and
li es ock
Wo ldwide Lu e al. (2021) ood poisoning Clos idium
pe ingens Wo ldwide Lu e al. (2021)
29136
S.A.Siddiqui e al.
he in e io issues made oas ing ine ec i e o killing En e obac e iaceae on i s own.
This is why i was sugges ed ha , be o e oas ing, he e be a b ie blanching phase in
ho wa e . En e obac e iaceae we e also shown o be ende ed inac i e by ano he lac ic
acid e men a ion p ocedu e. Howe e , his echnique did no hing mo e han main ain a
low le el o spo e- o ming bac e ia. Al hough En e obac e iaceae can be killed by hea
ea men , spo e- o ming o ganisms could need a mo e in ensi e hea ea men me hod,
such as canning. Blanching and subsequen oas ing o a ound 10 min educed he
o e all numbe o mic oo ganisms on en i e insec s by 5 log cycles while also educing
he numbe o spo es by 2 log cycles. Following hese p ocesses, he esidual spo es can
be con ained using he igh packing and by enlis ing o he adjus men s, such as acid-
i y, along wi h cold s o age (Klunde e al., 2012; Mu ungi e al., 2019). Addi ionally,
echniques such as smoking, b ining, ying, s eaming, boiling, oas ing, oas ing, and
d ying aid in he c ea ion o sa e goods.
Acco ding o Klunde e al. (2012), in boiling samples o he house c icke (Ache a
domes ica) and mealwo m, En e obac e iaceae we e only ound in concen a ions o less
han 10 CFU/g. The samples unde wen a b ie hea ea men a e being killed by boiling
wa e , which, acco ding o he li e a u e, success ully e adica ed he en e obac e ia. Lac ic
acid bac e ia (LAB) a e widely dis ibu ed in na u e, signi ican in ood and bio echnol-
ogy, and bene icial o human heal h. LAB has posi i e e ec s p ima ily on he gu mic o-
bio a, enhancing in es inal pe is alsis and hal ing he de elopmen o dange ous bac e ia.
Addi ionally, hey ha e an impac on he immune sys em, acili a e i amin o ma ion, and
aid in he abso p ion o mine als like calcium and i on. Due o he lac ic acid bac e ia’s
ex ensi e a ailabili y in he en i onmen , a sizable numbe o hese bac e ia we e ound in
ecen ly dead insec s (Adámek e al., 2018). LAB was ound in insec s. Vandeweye e al.
(2015) analyzed ecen ly deceased insec s and disco e ed ha mealwo m la ae con ained
2.5 × 107—1.6 × 108 CFU/g. Whe eas S oops e al. (2016) disco e ed mealwo ms o ha e
1.0 × 107–4.0 × 108 CFU/g. While Adámek e al. (2018) disco e ed 2.8 × 106CFU/g in he
lesse mealwo m, nume ous insec species can collec biological o chemical pollu an s
ha migh be ha m ul o an i-nu i ional. This is aided by he p esence o na u al habi a s,
eeding pa e ns, and human ac i i y (such as mining and ag icul u e) adjacen o a eas
whe e insec s may be ga he ed. Insec s also ac as hos s o ec o s o illnesses ha a ec
e eb a es and can esul in li e- h ea ening in ec ions (Mu ungi e al., 2019). As a pa o
hei de ense s a egies, ce ain insec species elease chemicals wi h po en ially ha m ul
e ec s (Dze e os e al., 2013). In ela ion o mealwo ms, ocus has been placed on benzo-
quinones, which adul bee les elease in o hei s omach ca i y. Benzoquinones ha e been
shown o ha e haza dous consequences. The indings do no apply o mealwo m la ae
bu a he o adul insec s (bee les). Rega ding he de ense mechanisms o mealwo m la -
ae, adul mealwo ms and o he species o insec s a e a ally a ec ed by acidic me hanolic
ex ac s o mealwo m la ae (Tu ck e al., 2021). The haza ds may be educed i he insec s
we e aised in con olled su oundings and public heal h issues we e aken in o accoun
when choosing he subs a es o aising hem o when ha es ing hem om he wild.
Pos -ha es p ocessing con inues o be he sole me hod o add essing hese sa e y issues
because i is ypically impossible o ensu e he ga he ing o haza d- ee insec s (Mu ungi
e al., 2019). As a esul , i ’s essen ial o ollow p ocedu es ha elimina e o d as ically
minimize he pa hogens in insec s in o de o ensu e a sa e p oduc . Al hough insec s ha e
some special quali ies ha make hem an excellen candida e o use as an e ec i e and
en i onmen ally iendly sou ce o p o ein in animal p oduc ion, he isks associa ed wi h
hem mus be conside ed. As a esul , minimizing hese haza ds will esul in a p o ein sub-
s i u e ha is a o dable, secu e, and ecologically iendly (Be a dy e al., 2015).
29137
Replacemen o soy bymealwo ms o li es ock eed ‑ Acompa a i e…
As a esul o cul i a ing insec s in la ge numbe s o ood and eed, oxic chemicals
such as hea y me als ha a ise om con amina ed insec die s may accumula e. Tes ing
o a ange o chemical con aminan s on comme cial mealwo ms e ealed le els ha we e
ei he simila o o lowe han hose epo ed in bee (Poma e al., 2017). Bu using pol-
lu ed was e s eams as eed can encou age pes icide buildup (Houb aken e al., 2016).
Main aining high le els o quali y assu ance and hygiene in he b eeding and p ocessing
o mealwo ms is c ucial due o hei high nu i ional con en , low cos , and en i onmen al
iendliness, and o ensu e ha hey a e ee o diseases and con aminan s. To educe he
isk o pa hogens and oxins and p o ide a sa e p oduc , ou ine cleaning p ocedu es and
he use o clean, uncon amina ed eed du ing mealwo m ep oduc ion can help (Be a dy
e al., 2015). Fo nume ous easons, educing in ec ions in mealwo ms is impo an o
ensu e he sa e y o he inal p oduc , as hese dange ous mic obes mus be elimina ed o
minimized. Fo ins ance, many coun ies ha e laws go e ning he secu i y o ood goods,
including insec s mean o eed o ood. To comply wi h hese laws and gua an ee ha
he p oduc passes sa e y s anda ds, mealwo ms mus ha e ewe in ec ions. The e o e,
edible insec a ming has he po en ial o g ow in o a luc a i e indus y ha signi ican ly
inc eases he o e all sus ainabili y o ood sys ems i he p ope egula ions a e pu in place
and ood sa e y s anda ds a e me . This means ha as he edible insec business g ows,
many obs acles mus be o e come. Once s ic ood sa e y egula ions a e pu in place and
en omophagy becomes mo e widely accep ed, edible insec a ming migh become a p o -
i able indus y ha suppo s he sus ainabili y o ood sys ems (Żuk-Gołaszewska e al.,
2022). Pes icides a e chemicals ha a e used o con ol a a ie y o pes s (Choudha y e al.,
2018). Despi e he ac ha hei use is c ucial o ag icul u al yield, hei excessi e use
also pollu es ou en i onmen (Hashimi e al., 2020). Respi a o y, in egumen a y, ca dio-
ascula , gas oin es inal, and neu ological issues a e some o he ad e se heal h impac s
linked o he use o a ious pes icides. Mo e han 2000 di e en pes icide poisonings due
o acu e causes occu ed in Mo occo be ween 2008 and 2014 (WHO, 2019). Cance is one
o he mo e di icul long- e m impac s o di ec ly link o pes icide usage. The ea ing o
ood con aining esidues beyond legal limi s has e ec s on one’s heal h as well (Joko e al.,
2020; Sa ka e al., 2021). Li es ock eeds a e equen ly con amina ed wi h pes icides by
a a ie y o ac o s, including en i onmen al pollu ion, insec and mic obe ac i i y, and
human handling. To imp o e he quali y and compe i i eness o animal p oduc s, animal
eed may also con ain endogenous poisons, which a e mos ly he esul o pes icide appli-
ca ion. Animals a e equen ly gi en eed and odde ha con ains pes icide esidues, which
pass h ough he body a e consump ion. These chemicals can be ob ained by animals
h ough ain ed eed and wa e . Acco dingly, because hese pes icides a e lipophilic, milk
and o he a y oods a e he main sou ces o hei buildup (Choudha y e al., 2018). The
use o pes icides has been linked o se e al ha m ul side e ec s in humans, animals, and
bi ds, including he de elopmen o cance , e a ogenici y, immunosupp ession, emb yo-
oxici y, in e ili y, and bi h abno mali ies, as well as a numbe o o he condi ions, includ-
ing hepa o oxici y, neph opa hy, mu agenici y, and hype sensi i i y (Choudha y e al.,
2018). Rep oduc i e oxican s, o endoc ine dis up e s a e e ms used o desc ibe pes i-
cide esidues ha ha e a nega i e e ec on he ep oduc i e sys em. By ac ing a se e al
places, such as he b ain, pi ui a y, and ep oduc i e o gans, hese oxins modi y o dis up
he milieu o ep oduc i e ho mones (Choudha y e al., 2018). These ha m ul subs ances
a e inges ed by people h ough hei en i onmen , including he wa e , ai , and ag icul u al
goods. Howe e , despi e he ac ha hey a e elimina ed in a ious ways o e ained in he
issues o bo h people and animals, hei nega i e e ec s con inue unaba ed. They dep ess
e e y human o gan, including he b ain, kidneys, skin, gas oin es inal sys em, li e , lungs,
29138
S.A.Siddiqui e al.
and spleen. They esul in a a ie y o illnesses, umo s, mu a ions, and dea h (Hashimi
e al., 2020). Pes icides can change he mic obiomes o a wide ange o c ea u es, om
insec s o mammals, by a ec ing a numbe o cha ac e is ics o he animal mic obiome,
including he axonomic makeup o bac e ia, bac e ial biodi e si y, and bac e ial a ios.
Animal immuni y is educed by he mic obiome al e a ions b ough on by pes icides. Pes-
icide side e ec s may be a global issue o pollina o s. Ano he po en ial d awback o pes-
icides is hei impac on he in es inal mic obio a o bees and bumblebees, which makes
he body mo e suscep ible o pa hogenic mic o lo a and ul ima ely kills insec s. Pes icides
can also ha e an impac on igo , ma e choice, and o sp ing ai s (Sy omya niko e al.,
2020). In addi ion, he massi e sp aying o pes icides se e ely supp esses animals, bi ds,
and soil o ganisms (Hashimi e al., 2020). When ag icul u al chemicals a e used co ec ly
and in acco dance wi h ins uc ions, he ad e se e ec s o pes icides on he en i onmen
a e educed (Choudha y e al., 2018).Due o all o hese ac o s, i is c ucial o ollow all
guidance and sugges ions made abou pes icides by he app op ia e au ho i ies in o de o
p ese e a sa e and heal hy en i onmen .
8 Conclusion
In ligh o global challenges such as popula ion g ow h, ood insecu i y, and en i onmen-
al s ains, inding sus ainable p o ein sou ces is impe a i e. Insec s, long emb aced as a
die a y s aple in many egions, o e a p omising solu ion due o hei e icien esou ce u i-
liza ion and nu i ional alue. Among hese, mealwo ms s and ou as a comme cially sig-
ni ican op ion o bo h ood and eed p oduc ion. Ou e iew unde sco es hei po en ial as
a cos -e ec i e and en i onmen ally iendly al e na i e o adi ional li es ock eed, wi h
lowe ammonia and GHGs. Howe e , he li e a u e highligh s conce ns ega ding insec -
bo ne illnesses, necessi a ing ca e ul managemen .
This e iew has p ac ical applica ions ac oss ag icul u al, li es ock, and en i onmen al
sec o s. I o e s insigh s in o eplacing soy wi h mealwo ms in li es ock eed, aiding a m-
e s in explo ing en i onmen ally iendly p o ein sou ces while mee ing nu i ional needs.
By assessing en i onmen al aspec s like ene gy use and emissions, i guides policymake s
and s akeholde s in e alua ing sus ainable eed op ions and shaping en i onmen al poli-
cies. Addi ionally, unde s anding he economic implica ions o mealwo m-based eed helps
decision-make s in ag icul u e and ood indus ies. Mealwo ms, po en ially sou ced om
o ganic was e, align wi h ci cula economy p inciples, suppo ing sus ainable was e man-
agemen . Ul ima ely, he e iew in o ms s akeholde s abou he en i onmen al impac o
adop ing mealwo ms, os e ing in o med decisions o sus ainable ag icul u e.
Th ough a comp ehensi e analysis, we explo ed he signi icance o mealwo ms as eed
sou ces, hei nu i ional p o ile, and hei po en ial o eplace soy in animal eed while
conside ing en i onmen al impac s. While mealwo ms o e subs an ial bene i s, op imiz-
ing p oduc ion p ocesses emains c i ical o ensu e a o dabili y and sa e y.
Recommenda ions include conduc ing addi ional compa a i e s udies o unde s and he
en i onmen al impac s o eplacing soy wi h mealwo ms in li es ock eed. These s udies
should conside a ious ac o s such as li es ock ypes and geog aphic egions o comp e-
hensi e insigh s. Encou aging pilo p ojec s can assess he p ac icali y and scalabili y o
mealwo m-based eed, while os e ing dialogue among s akeholde s is c ucial o p omo -
ing knowledge exchange and acili a ing sus ainable p ac ices.
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Replacemen o soy bymealwo ms o li es ock eed ‑ Acompa a i e…
Acknowledging limi a ions, such as da a a iabili y and he e iew’s scope, u u e
esea ch should s anda dize me hodologies and explo e addi ional en i onmen al ac o s.
Long- e m e ec s o eplacing soy wi h mealwo ms on soil heal h and ood secu i y need
moni o ing. Fu u e p ospec s in ol e in es iga ing he nu i ional quali y o li es ock p od-
uc s, echnological inno a ions in mealwo m a ming, and de eloping policy amewo ks
o suppo mealwo m-based eed in eg a ion. Add essing hese ecommenda ions, limi a-
ions, and u u e p ospec s can ad ance knowledge and p omo e he sus ainable adop ion o
mealwo m-based eed in li es ock a ming p ac ices. Fu he esea ch is needed o de elop
cos -e ec i e and eco- iendly p ocessing me hods, acili a ing he widesp ead adop ion o
mealwo ms as a sus ainable p o ein sou ce o li es ock.
Au ho con ibu ion s a emen SAS—concep ualiza ion, me hodology, alida ion, o mal analysis,
esou ces, w i ing—o iginal d a , w i ing— e iew and edi ing, isualiza ion, da a cu a ion, so wa e, p o-
jec adminis a ion, in es iga ion, unding acquisi ion, supe ision. WE—w i ing—o iginal d a , o mal
analysis, isualiza ion. IU— e iew, o mal analysis. MH—w i ing—o iginal d a , o mal analysis, isuali-
za ion. ZCP—me hodology. BY—Re iew and edi ing.
Funding Open Access unding enabled and o ganized by P ojek DEAL. The open access publishing ee
is co e ed unde he ag eemen be ween he DEAL Conso ium and Sp inge and Sp inge Na u e upon
accep ance due o Shahida Anusha Siddiqui being a ilia ed o he Technical Uni e si y o Munich.
Da a a ailabili y No da a is a ailable.
Decla a ions
Con lic o in e es The au ho s decla e ha hey ha e no known compe ing inancial in e es s o pe sonal
ela ionships ha could ha e appea ed o in luence he wo k epo ed in his pape .
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