Maciejewski, Linda; Ha de , Niklas
A icle — Published Ve sion
Immig an Single Mo he s in Ge many: An In e sec ional
Pe spec i e on a G oup a Risk
Jou nal o In e na ional Mig a ion and In eg a ion
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Sp inge Na u e
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Maciejewski, Linda; Ha de , Niklas (2025) : Immig an Single Mo he s in
Ge many: An In e sec ional Pe spec i e on a G oup a Risk, Jou nal o In e na ional Mig a ion and
In eg a ion, ISSN 1874-6365, Sp inge Ne he lands, Do d ech , Vol. 26, Iss. 3, pp. 1511-1546,
h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s12134-025-01232-6
This Ve sion is a ailable a :
h ps://hdl.handle.ne /10419/330221
S anda d-Nu zungsbedingungen:
Die Dokumen e au EconS o dü en zu eigenen wissenscha lichen
Zwecken und zum P i a geb auch gespeiche und kopie we den.
Sie dü en die Dokumen e nich ü ö en liche ode komme zielle
Zwecke e iel äl igen, ö en lich auss ellen, ö en lich zugänglich
machen, e eiben ode ande wei ig nu zen.
So e n die Ve asse die Dokumen e un e Open-Con en -Lizenzen
(insbesonde e CC-Lizenzen) zu Ve ügung ges ell haben soll en,
gel en abweichend on diesen Nu zungsbedingungen die in de do
genann en Lizenz gewäh en Nu zungs ech e.
Te ms o use:
Documen s in EconS o may be sa ed and copied o you pe sonal
and schola ly pu poses.
You a e no o copy documen s o public o comme cial pu poses, o
exhibi he documen s publicly, o make hem publicly a ailable on he
in e ne , o o dis ibu e o o he wise use he documen s in public.
I he documen s ha e been made a ailable unde an Open Con en
Licence (especially C ea i e Commons Licences), you may exe cise
u he usage igh s as speci ied in he indica ed licence.
h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/
Jou nal o In e na ional Mig a ion and In eg a ion (2025) 26:1511–1546
h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s12134-025-01232-6
Immig an Single Mo he s in Ge many: An In e sec ional
Pe spec i e on a G oup a Risk
Linda Maciejewski1·Niklas Ha de 2
Accep ed: 11 Janua y 2025 / Published online: 3 Feb ua y 2025
© The Au ho (s) 2025
Abs ac
The isk o po e y is no e enly dis ibu ed in he Ge man popula ion, and immig an s
and single mo he s a e pa icula ly a isk. Acco ding o he Family S ess Model,
po e y can impac all amily membe s and hei ela ionships. We use he AID:A
2019 da ase on young amilies and apply an in e sec ional pe spec i e o s udy he
si ua ion o immig an single mo he s and hei child en. We ocus on how single
mo he s and in pa icula immig an single mo he s di e om mo he s in wo-pa en
amilies and non-immig an s in e ms o po e y isk, epo ed li e sa is ac ion, and
mo he - epo ed psychosocial di icul ies (SDQ) o hei child en. Ou esul s show
ha immig an single mo he s, especially i s -gene a ion non-na u alized immig an
mo he s, ace he highes isk o economic s ess and lowe li e sa is ac ion. This
suppo s he Family S ess Model. Howe e , con a y o he ex ended Family S ess
Model, child en o immig an single mo he s a e no mo e likely o show mo he -
epo ed psychosocial di icul ies han hei pee s om wo-pa en o non-immig an
amilies. Following an in e sec ional pe spec i e, we do no assume ha he easons
o hese di e ences necessa ily lie only in he indi iduals. Ins ead, we also in e p e
he e ec s o social posi ions as e ec s o he poli ical and social dynamics c ea ing
hese social posi ions and hus discuss he Ge man ins i u ional se ings ha migh
explain ou esul s.
Keywo ds Single mo he s ·Mig a ion ·Quan i a i e in e sec ionali y ·Gende ·
Family S ess Model
BNiklas Ha de
[email p o ec ed]
Linda Maciejewski
linda.macieje[email p o ec ed]
1Ins i u e o Sociology, Leipzig Uni e si y, Bee ho ens aße 15, 04107 Leipzig,
Saxony, Ge many
2Ab . In eg a ion, Ge man Cen e o In eg a ion and Mig a ion Resea ch (DeZIM e.V.), Maue s aße
76, 10117 Be lin, Ge many
123
1512 L. Maciejewski, N. Ha de
In oduc ion
In 2021, 15.8% o he popula ion in Ge many ea ned less han 60% o he median
income and hus ell below he po e y h eshold (S a is isches Bundesam , 2022). The
po e y a e is especially high among single pa en s (41%), who a e mos ly mo he s,
and immig an s (29%), which makes hem wo o he op h ee g oups a isk o li ing
in po e y (S a is isches Bundesam , 2021a).1These wo dimensions o po e y ha e
been s udied in ensi ely (see, e.g., Algan e al., 2010; Amo-Agyei, 2020; G abka and
Göble , 2020; Hübgen, 2020b; Ingwe sen and Thomsen, 2021; K ings, 2021; Le anon
e al., 2019; Zucco, 2019), ye he e is e y li le esea ch on hei in e sec ion. Tha
is, i is no known whe he single pa en hood and immig an s a us a e isk ac o s ha
ampli y each o he o c ea e a speci ic po e y isk. I is also no known i he isk is
simila o all immig an s o i he isk di e s acco ding o legal s a us o coun y o
o igin. Fu he mo e, i is unclea how li ing wi h an immig an single pa en a isk
o po e y a ec s child en.
The sha e o o eign ci izens in Ge many ose om 4.5% in 1970 o 13.1% in 2021
(Bundesins i u ü Be ölke ungs o schung, 2023). In 2022, 24.3% o he Ge man
popula ion we e ei he immig an s o had a leas one immig an pa en (S a is isches
Bundesam ,2023).2Ge manycan husbeseenas ap o o ypical exampleo anindus i-
alized, Wes e n coun y wi h a compa a i ely sho mig a ion his o y ha is p esen ly
expe iencing an in lux o immig an s and acing he u gency o apid in eg a ion due
o a dwindling bi h a e and labo sho ages (Geis-Thöne, 2021,2022; Klinge &
Fuchs, 2020). A he same ime, Ge many boas s a s ong economy and a compa a-
bly well-es ablished social wel a e sys em. In es iga ing why ce ain segmen s o he
popula ion seem no o bene i om he coun y’s p ospe i y o he same deg ee as
o he segmen s is impo an o ensu ing he long- e m unc ioning and success o he
social wel a e sys em.
Po e ydi ec lyimpac sape son’sabili y obuild hei li eandpa icipa ein socie y
(Jahoda, 1981; Pohlan, 2019; Spannnagel & Zucco, 2022). Especially in he case o
amilies, howe e , he impac o po e y goes beyond his immedia e e ec . Acco ding
o he Family S ess Model (Conge & Conge , 2002; Conge e al., 2010), po e y as
one sou ce o s ess can impac all amily membe s and hei ela ionship dynamics.
I can lead o emo ional dis ess in a pa en , which may a ec hei ela ionship wi h
hei child en. He e, he s ess can exp ess i sel in he o m o nega i e pa en ing
beha io , which in u n can lead o s ess in he child en.
The ac o mig a ing om one coun y o ano he o en has he po en ial o s ain
o agmen immig an amilies (Boyle e al., 2008; Mans eld, 2023). The e o e, i is
impo an o conside amily o m when examining he economic and social si ua ions
o immig an s. Fo immig an single pa en s, indi idual ac o s such as educa ion and
language p o iciency can explain a ia ions in hei economic and psychological si -
1The hi d g oup in he op h ee a e people wi h only gene al elemen a y educa ion and no p o essional
deg ee.
2Fo eigne s a e de ined as indi iduals wi h o eign ci izenship (S a is isches Bundesam , 2023)Incom-
pa ison, he e m “mig a ion backg ound” e e s no only o he pe son’s own ci izenship, bu also o ha o
hei pa en s. A pe son has a mig a ion backg ound i hey we e bo n wi h o eign ci izenship o i a leas
one o hei pa en s was (S a is isches Bundesam , 2023).
123
Immig an Single Mo he s 1513
ua ions (Ca lsson e al., 2023; OECD, 2023; Mui e al., 2007; Be nal e al., 2022).
Howe e , ins i u ional ac o s such as legal s a us o legal bene i s o ma ied couples
migh equally play a ole (Hainmuelle e al., 2017; Johnson e al., 2024; Aleg ía e al.,
2017). Explici analysis o he in e play o ins i u ional and indi idual ac o s in de e -
mining an indi idual’s social and economic posi ion is a he hea o he in e sec ional
app oach (C enshaw, 1991). F om an in e sec ional pe spec i e, immig an s a us and
single pa en hood a e social posi ions ha can be in e ela ed and in e sec ing (C en-
shaw, 1991; Cle on & Scuzza ello, 2024; Scuzza ello & Mo o¸sanu, 2023). Social
posi ions (e.g., being a woman and/o being black) exis h ough and a e de ined by
p ocesses o powe , disc imina ion, p i ilege, and opp ession, such as sexism and/o
acism (C enshaw, 1991). These ac o s can in e ac when social posi ions in e sec .
They may ampli y and mode a e each o he , and hence, he ci cums ances o people
in such social posi ions may a y a di e en in e sec ions. Thus a , howe e , i has
been mo e common o hese social posi ions o be examined sepa a ely (see Angelo
e al., 2016; England e al., 2016; Lundbe g e al., 2016; Schmiede and W ohlich,
2021; Ingwe sen and Thomsen, 2021; Schmid, 2023; Klein and on dem Knesebeck,
2018).
In his pape , we examine how he inc eased p obabili y o po e y in luences he
li es o immig an single mo he s. To a oid o e looking he in e sec ing social posi-
ions and he in e play o indi idual and ins i u ional ac o s, we es ou hypo heses
using app oaches guided by in e sec ionali y as a esea ch pa adigm (Hancock, 2013).
We unde s and his pape o be In e sec ional in h ee ways: Fi s , we aim o s udy
he phenomenon o in e es —immig an single-mo he households—along a se o
de ailed social posi ions. Second, we ollow an in e ca ego ical app oach (McCall,
2005) and ad ice by Hancock (2007); Baue (2014), and Bowleg and Baue (2016),
modeling he in e sec ions o social posi ions using in e ac ion e ms ins ead o es i-
ma ing mul iple main e ec models o addi i e e ec s (Else-Ques & Hyde, 2016).
Thi d, when we analyze po en ial disad an ages along ce ain social posi ions, we do
no assume ha he cause o disad an age lies in he indi iduals in hese posi ions.
Ins ead, we in e p e he e ec s o social posi ions as e ec s o he poli ics and social
dynamics c ea ing hese social posi ions (Hancock, 2013).
Mo e speci ically, we es hypo heses de i ed om he Family S ess Model and
he ex ended Family S ess Model (Conge & Conge , 2002; Conge e al., 2010),
which hold ha inancial di icul ies may a ec no only pa en s bu indi ec ly also
hei child en. Hence, we un sepa a e models on he household, mo he , and child
le el. This b oadens ou unde s anding o how powe ela ions a he in e sec ion
o gende , amily ype, and mig a ion ( i s - o second-gene a ion mig an ) mani es
hemsel es a di e en uni s o analysis and o di e en ou comes. He e, we ollow
sugges ions by Bowleg and Baue (2016) o ope a ionalize In e sec ionali y by using
in e ac ion e ec s. We also di e en ia e immig an s a us by ci izenship and gene a-
ion. This allows a mo e de ailed look han he umb ella e m “mig a ion backg ound”
(Mig a ionshin e g und) ha is commonly used in s udies on immig an s in Ge many.
We pe o med ou analysis using mic o-le el da a om he AID:A 2019 and he
AID:A Mig+ su eys (Kuge e al., 2020,2022). The AID:A su eys a e household
su eys ha con ain in o ma ion on all household membe s and also collec ex ensi e
123
1514 L. Maciejewski, N. Ha de
da a on household and amily s uc u es. The da a allows us o examine di e en
ou comes a di e en uni s o analysis wi hou changing he households in ou sample.
Resul s show ha compa ed o wo-pa en and/o non-immig an households,
he p obabili y o li ing below he po e y line is subs an ially highe o all i s -
gene a ion immig an single-mo he households. A close look a i s -gene a ion
immig an single mo he s also shows ha hey epo signi ican ly lowe o e all li e
sa is ac ion han o he mo he s. Looking mo e closely a gene a ion s a us and ci i-
zenship, i s -gene a ion non-EU ci izen households and single mo he s a e mos a
isk o po e y and lowe li e sa is ac ion compa ed o all o he g oups, ye exhib-
i ed no g ea e isk o mo he - epo ed psychosocial di icul ies o hei child en. The
g ea e isk o nega i e ou comes diminishes in he second gene a ion. Wi h ega d o
mo he - epo ed psychosocial di icul ies and amily s uc u e, we ind small di e -
ences o non-immig an and second-gene a ion immig an child en bu no di e ences
o i s -gene a ion child en when compa ing child en in wo-pa en and single-mo he
amilies by gene a ion s a us.
Ou esul s highligh he need o In e sec ional analyses and ca e ul in e p e a ion
o e ec s assigned o social posi ions. Fu he mo e, we a gue ha in o de o apply an
in e sec ional esea ch pa adigm in quan i a i e analyses, in e sec ing social posi ions
mus be conside ed e en be o e da a is collec ed.
Backg ound and Theo e ical Pe spec i es
In e sec ionali y
The in e sec ional pa adigm poin s ou ha social posi ions, such as being a woman o
Black, a e usually conside ed and s udied sepa a ely, o e looking ha mul iple ac o s
will ine i ably apply o some people, as hey a e inhe en o all o hese socially
cons uc ed posi ions (S einme z, 2020;Bowleg,2008). The social posi ion ha a
pe son holds can lead o (dis-)ad an ages in socie y h ough powe ela ions such as
laws o ax ad an ages o speci ic g oups. This leads o inequali ies o some g oups.
The social posi ions a e mu ually in e ela ed and he e o e he di e ences en ailed
by one social posi ion canno simply be added o hose o ano he social posi ion. To
assume he e is a double disad an age would all sho in his ega d (Bowleg, 2008).
The in e sec ional pa adigm is o iginally oo ed in Black eminis heo y bu has
long been applied in many o he disciplines as well (C enshaw, 1989,1991; Collins,
1990; Combahee Ri e Collec i e, 1977; Pa e son e al., 2022; Res i o e al., 2023;
Wilkins, 2022). I conside s di e en social posi ions and looks a how hei in e ela-
ion can ein o ce social powe ela ions and hie a chies (S einme z, 2020). The basic
assump ion is ha di e en powe ela ions c ea e and sus ain each o he and hus
o m sys ems o opp ession (Collins, 1998). He e, in e sec ionali y is a ool o show
how hese powe ela ions s uc u e socie y and whe e hey con lic and in e sec . The
in e sec ional pe spec i e explici ly highligh s he he e ogenei y o socie y and e eals
social s uc u es shaped by socie al ins i u ions.
In e sec ionali y was ini ially in oduced o a icula e a phenomenon ha nei he
eminis heo y no legal amewo ks could adequa ely add ess. The e m was o igi-
123
Immig an Single Mo he s 1515
nally in ended o desc ibe he unique expe iences o women o colo , whose opp ession
could no be unde s ood solely h ough he lenses o ace o gende independen ly.
In e sec ionali y has since e ol ed in o a c i ical amewo k o analyzing how mul i-
ple, in e sec ing social posi ions—such as ace, gende , immig an s a us, and amily
o m—con ibu e o complex sys ems o opp ession and p i ilege. Today, in e sec ion-
ali y is widely employed in esea ch o acknowledge and add ess hese o e lapping and
in e ac ing axes o inequali y, emphasizing how powe ela ions shape he li ed expe-
iences o ma ginalized g oups. Nume ous s udies ha e demons a ed ha inequali ies
do no exis in isola ion bu a e compounded h ough he in e play o a ious social
posi ions, unde sco ing he alue o adop ing an in e sec ional pe spec i e in bo h
esea ch and p ac ice (Scuzza ello & Mo o¸sanu, 2023; Naza i, 2024; Tunçe , 2024).
As i was o iginally no mean o esea ch, a consensual ope a ionaliza ion o in e sec-
ionali y in quan i a i e esea ch is missing (Bowleg & Baue , 2016). McCall (2005)
sugges s h ee di e en me hodological app oaches o s udy in e sec ionali y: an i-,
in a-, and in e ca ego ical. An an ica ego ical app oach ejec s ixed ca ego ies, as
hese a e seen as simplis ic ep esen a ions o eali y. In he in aca ego ial app oach,
ca ego ies a e ecognized, bu he app oach c i icizes he ac ha he he e ogenei y
wi hin he ca ego ies is no ep esen ed. The e o e, his app oach ocuses on spe-
ci ic social g oups in o de o e eal di e si y wi hin hese g oups. The an i- and
in aca eco ical app oaches a e used in quali a i e esea ch. The las app oach, he
in e ca ego ical app oach, assumes ha ca ego ies a e necessa y o show inequali ies
and he e o e compa es in e sec ing ca ego ies wi h one ano he . In his pape , we
s udy gende , amily o m, and immig an s a us using an in e ca ego ical app oach.
In e sec ionali y and Ins i u ions
A majo challenge o quan i a i e in e sec ionali y is in e sec ionali y’s ocus on he
ole o ins i u ions. Es ima ing he e ec o ins i u ions is no o iously di icul when
using quan i a i e app oaches as i would p esuppose some o m o a ia ion in ins i-
u ions. In single-coun y s udies such as his one, he e is o en li le o no ins i u ional
a ia ion du ing he obse a ion pe iod and wi hou a ia ion, i is impossible o es i-
ma e an e ec . Va ia ion in he ins i u ional se ing can be achie ed in c oss-coun y
s udies. Howe e , he e, he a ia ion in ins i u ions o en co ela es wi h o he ac o s
ha se coun ies apa , and i is hus unclea whe he he es ima ed e ec eally ep-
esen s he in luence o ins i u ions o o o he unobse ed ac o s ha di e be ween
coun ies.
Howe e , he inabili y o es ima e a p ecise e ec o ins i u ional in luence does no
mean ha powe ela ions in socie y a e no shaped and ansmi ed by ins i u ions.
Conside ing he case o single mo he s in Ge many, he e is ample eason o belie e
ha hei economic si ua ion is signi ican ly s uc u ed by ins i u ions. La ge pa s o
he s ill exis ing Gende Pay Gap (G abka & Göble , 2020; S a is isches Bundesam ,
2021b; Zucco, 2019) a e mos likely explained by he long-s anding gende -speci ic
di ision o labo ha was upheld by Ge man law (e.g., un il 1977 acco ding o §1356
BGB a woman was only allowed o wo k i his was compa ible wi h he du ies in
ma iage and amily). This is also e iden in a labo ma ke ha is seg ega ed by
123
1516 L. Maciejewski, N. Ha de
gende , wi h a highe p opo ion o women in lowe -s a us jobs (W ohlich & Zucco,
2017).
Today, he Gende Pay Gap is especially la ge o mo he s and is known as he
“mo he hoodpenal y” (Budig e al., 2012; Hübgen, 2020a). Again,ins i u ional ac o s
such as ax ad an ages o a adi ional amily model in he di ision o labo o
ma ied couples (“Ehega enspli ing”) and a lack o su icien childca e con ibu e
o his si ua ion (Be ghahn, 2012). The lack o su icien childca e is pa icula ly
di icul o he labo ma ke pa icipa ion o single pa en s—90% o hem mo he s
(Bundesminis e ium ü Familie, Senio en, F auen und Jugend, , 2021).
In he Ge man labo ma ke , women o en wo k only pa - ime and/o in low-wage
sec o s. This pu s single mo he s, who a e p ima y ca egi e s and solely esponsible
o he household income, a a pa icula isk (Neube ge e al., 2019). In addi ion,
he lack o lexible wo king hou s makes i di icul o single mo he s o s ay in
he labo ma ke a all (Lenze, 2021). Some 38% o single pa en s ecei e social
bene i s, al hough single pa en s a e mo e o en in employmen han pa en s in o he
amily o ms (Neube ge e al., 2019). Fu he , compa ed o ma ied couples, hey
a e excluded om ce ain wel a e bene i s, and as he du a ion o alimony paymen s
(“Ehega enun e hal ”) has been sho ened, hey a e o ced o en e he labo ma ke
mo e quickly (Lenze, 2021). Ano he p oblem is ha he esponsibili y o he non-
esiden pa en o pay child suppo is a ely en o ced by he s a e. Hence, many single
pa en s ge li le o no child suppo a all om he non- esiden pa en , which u he
exace ba es hei economic si ua ion (Hube e al., 2020).
Immig an s ace legal ba ie s compa ed o Ge man ci izens, and hei access o
he labo ma ke is only pa ially equi alen , as is he claim o social bene i s. Those
holding an EU passpo ha e mo e igh s han non-EU ci izens, which hie a chizes
he g oups. A epo by he OECD (2022) shows ha di e ences in labo ma ke
ou comes be ween EU and non-EU ci izens exis , al hough his gap is na owing.
The e can be many easons o his, anging om lowe educa ional le els and g ea e
cul u al and language ba ie s o a highe isk o disc imina ion and lowe ecogni ion
o quali ica ions a ained in he home coun y o non-EU ci izens compa ed o EU
ci izens (OECD, 2022). Especially because o he cumbe some ecogni ion p ocess
o oca ional and educa ional quali ica ions, many immig an s a e o e quali ied o
he jobs hey hold o a e unable o ind wo k a all (Bundesminis e ium ü Bildung
und Fo schung, , 2020). This is pa icula ly e iden among immig an s who en e ed
Ge many unde he amily euni ica ion p og am (Böhme e al., 2020; Maciejewski
& Ha de , 2022). The esul is a labo ma ke seg ega ed no only by gende bu also
by immig an s a us: jus like women, immig an s wo k mo e o en in he low-wage
sec o and ha e lowe wages (K ings, 2021; Ingwe sen & Thomsen, 2019). To u he
complica ema e s,many i s -andsecond-gene a ionimmig an s acedisc imina ion,
o example, in he housing and labo ma ke s (El-Ma aalani, 2017).
In 2020, an es ima ed 11.4 million o eign ci izens li ed in Ge many. A ound 5.1
million o hem we e ci izens o ano he EU coun y, 2.5 million we e om a non-EU
coun y bu had pe manen esidence s a us, 1.4 million had some kind o humani a ian
p o ec ion s a us, 800,000 had a isa o amily euni ica ion, and 500,000 had a isa
o wo k o educa ion. The emainde we e ei he in he p ocess o ob aining a o m o
legal s a us o had ano he empo a y legal s a us (S a is isches Bundesam , 2021b). To
123
Immig an Single Mo he s 1517
accoun o he di e en legal ci cums ances o immig an s in Ge many, ou analyses
will conside EU and non-EU ci izens sepa a ely.
Combining he ins i u ional ba ie s aced by women, single mo he s, and immi-
g an s aises he ques ion o whe he immig an single mo he s a e he mos
disad an aged g oup. In ou analysis, we wan o explo e i and how hey di e om
heo he g oups. To do so, we analyze ou di e en g oups:non-immig an wo-pa en
amilies, non-immig an single-mo he amilies, immig an wo-pa en amilies, and
immig an single-mo he amilies. Whe e he numbe o obse a ions allows, we u -
he dis inguish immig an g oups by EU and non-EU ci izenship o accoun o he
g oup’s he e ogenei y and o ob ain a mo e nuanced pic u e.
An In e sec ional App oach o he Family S ess Model
Acco ding o he Family S ess Model (Conge & Conge , 2002; Conge e al., 2010),
mul iple s esso s, such as po e y, socioeconomic s a us, o ma i al con lic , can esul
in amily s ess ha can po en ially impac an indi idual. This s ess leads o p essu e
ha can esul in inc eased emo ional dis ess and beha io al p oblems o a lowe sense
o well-being (Conge e al., 2010). Fu he , he emo ional s ess o pa en s can impac
mul iple amily membe s and hei ela ionships. Family s ess can esul in con lic
be ween pa en s and can also impac hei child en, as he pa en al s ess can mani es
i sel in nega i e pa en ing beha io (Conge e al., 2010). Due o s ess, pa en s migh
be emo ionally una ailable o engage in ha sh pa en ing beha io ha can igge
he child en so ha hey become s essed as well. This can lead o psychological
di icul ies in child en (Conge e al., 2010; Hainmuelle e al., 2017). Wi h ega d
o immig an single pa en s, o he s udies show ha single pa en s and immig an s
ace mul iple s ess ul si ua ions, such as po e y, unemploymen , disc imina ion, and
legal obs acles, and a e he e o e a g ea isk o amily s ess (Milewski e al., 2018;
Böhme e al., 2020). Acco ding o he in e sec ional pa adigm, he powe ela ions
ha exis o speci ic g oups and he a o emen ioned ins i u ional ba ie s lead o
disad an ages o women, single pa en s, and immig an s. I can be assumed ha
immig an single pa en s ace mul iple and mo e equen s esso s, such as a g ea e
isk o po e y combined wi h challenges due o hei immig an s a us, pa icula ly
wi h ega d o en e ing he labo ma ke . This can lead o mo e s ess in pa en s
and can a ec hei li e sa is ac ion. S udies show ha s ess and li e sa is ac ion
a e nega i ely co ela ed, while income and li e sa is ac ion a e posi i ely co ela ed
(Walsh & Mu phy, 2021; Masuda e al., 2021; Jachimowicz e al., 2022). Fu he ,
he li e sa is ac ion o he pa en s can impac hei child en, which migh lead o
psychosocial di icul ies. Acco ding o he Family S ess Model, po e y is he ele an
a iable on he household le el, li e sa is ac ion on he mo he ’s le el and psychosocial
di icul ies on he child’s le el. These a e he h ee le els o ou analysis, om which
we ha e de i ed h ee hypo heses. Ou i s hypo hesis is a he household le el and
examines po e y isk in o de o examine whe he immig an single mo he s a e
ac ually exposed o he g ea es isk o po e y, which can lead o amily s ess. Based
on in e sec ionali y, we p opose ha compa ed o wo-pa en amily households and
non-immig an households, immig an single-pa en households ace he highes isk:
123
1518 L. Maciejewski, N. Ha de
H1: Immig an single-mo he households ha e he highes p obabili y o li ing
below he po e y line.
Ou second hypo hesis is based on he le el o he mo he . We assume ha he
emo ional s ess due o po e y dec eases he li e sa is ac ion o he mo he . Following
an in e sec ional pe spec i e, we assume ha compa ed o wo-pa en amilies and
non-immig an mo he s, immig an single mo he s ha e he lowes li e sa is ac ion:
H2: Immig an single mo he s ha e he highes s ess le el due o a highe isk
o li ing below he po e y line, which is e lec ed in hei li e sa is ac ion.
Ou hi d hypo hesisisa hele elo he child.Following heex endedFamilyS ess
Model and an in e sec ional pe spec i e, we assume ha compa ed o child en in wo-
pa en amilies and non-immig an child en, child en o immig an single mo he s
ha e a highe isk o showing psychosocial di icul ies. This is due o a highe po e y
isk and he e o e mo e s ess in mo he s:
H3: Child en o immig an single mo he s ha e he highes p obabili y o show-
ing psychosocial di icul ies.
Empi ical E idence on Immig an Single Pa en s
The exis ing s udies on immig an single pa en s indeed show in e sec ional ela ions
be ween gende , amily o m, and immig an s a us. A s udy om Swi ze land ha
in es iga ed labo ma ke pa icipa ion inds ha immig an single mo he s a e mo e
disad an aged han non-immig an single mo he s (Milewski e al., 2018). Especially,
i s -gene a ion single mo he s we e a g ea e isk o being unemployed. On he o he
hand, di e ences be ween non-immig an s and second-gene a ion immig an s we e
no signi ican . When he esea che s looked mo e closely a he ype o employmen ,
i s -gene a ion immig an s we e mo e o en unemployed bu also mo e likely o wo k
ull- ime. Fo second-gene a ion immig an single mo he s, he igu es we e smalle
bu di e ences be ween non-immig an s and second-gene a ion immig an s emained.
The coun y o o igin did no play a key ole in addi ion o immig an s a us.
Incon as , as udy om he Uni edS a es ha analyzed acial di e encesin e ms o
amily s uc u e and child en’s educa ional pe o mance came o a di e en conclusion
(C oss, 2020). The analysis showed ha socioeconomic s ess in pa icula , bu also
ex ended amily embeddedness, weakened he e ec o amily s uc u e on child en’s
educa ion and could explain he gap be ween wo-pa en and single-pa en amilies.
The esul s showed ha o Black child en, spending a longe ime wi h a single
mo he is less de imen al han o whi es ega ding on- ime high school comple ion.
The s udy showed no di e ence be ween whi e and Hispanic child en. The au ho s
in e p e ed his inding as suppo o he socioeconomic s ess hypo hesis, acco ding
o which li ing in a single-pa en amily has a lesse impac on Blacks as hey a e
al eady socioeconomically disad an aged.
Suppo ing his, o icial s a is ics om Ge many desc ibe a simila pic u e: Single
pa en s wi hou a mig a ion backg ound ha e a po e y isk ha is six imes highe
han ha o wo-pa en amilies wi hou a mig a ion backg ound (34% s. 6%; Böhme
123
Immig an Single Mo he s 1525
Table 1 con inued
(Full sam-
ple)
(Two-
pa en
amily)
(Two-
pa en
amily)
(Two-
pa en
amily)
(Two-
pa en
amily)
(Two-
pa en
amily)
(Single
mo he s)
(Single
mo he s)
(Single
mo he s)
(Single
mo he s)
(Single
mo he s)
Full sam-
ple
non-
immig an
1. Gen.
(GER)
1. Gen.
(EU)
1. Gen.
(non-EU)
2. Gen. non-
immig an
1. Gen.
(GER)
1. Gen.
(EU)
1. Gen.
(non-EU)
2. Gen.
Pa ime 0.45 0.51 0.40 0.34 0.17 0.50 0.41 0.44 0.34 0.22 0.31
(0.497) (0.500) (0.491) (0.475) (0.377) (0.501) (0.492) (0.501) (0.482) (0.420) (0.466)
Full ime 0.37 0.30 0.44 0.47 0.76 0.37 0.28 0.35 0.37 0.71 0.37
(0.482) (0.459) (0.497) (0.501) (0.429) (0.484) (0.452) (0.483) (0.490) (0.458) (0.487)
Age o
mo he
39.00 39.49 37.98 36.87 36.14 38.59 40.08 40.41 40.09 37.44 40.85
(7.613) (7.359) (7.314) (7.517) (7.059) (8.157) (8.393) (6.943) (7.582) (7.956) (9.283)
Age o
younges
child
6.45 6.42 5.97 5.70 4.69 6.15 8.41 8.12 8.03 6.49 8.11
(5.027) (5.043) (4.921) (4.857) (4.225) (5.014) (4.982) (4.304) (5.322) (4.625) (5.563)
Numbe o
child en
1 child 0.27 0.25 0.23 0.30 0.19 0.27 0.40 0.39 0.34 0.36 0.32
(0.444) (0.436) (0.424) (0.459) (0.396) (0.445) (0.491) (0.492) (0.482) (0.484) (0.471)
2 child en 0.47 0.52 0.45 0.41 0.40 0.42 0.38 0.31 0.37 0.24 0.47
(0.499) (0.500) (0.498) (0.493) (0.490) (0.495) (0.486) (0.466) (0.490) (0.435) (0.504)
3 child en
o mo e
0.26 0.22 0.32 0.29 0.41 0.31 0.22 0.31 0.29 0.40 0.21
(0.436) (0.415) (0.465) (0.456) (0.492) (0.461) (0.413) (0.466) (0.458) (0.495) (0.409)
Obse a ions 4193 2431 380 191 289 321 399 49 35 45 53
Shown a e means wi h s anda d de ia ion in pa en heses
123
1526 L. Maciejewski, N. Ha de
Mul iple Reg ession Resul s
Household Model: Po e y Risk
The s udies o Hein z-Ma in and Langmeye (2020) and Böhme e al. (2020)show
ha (immig an ) single mo he s a e a he highes isk o li ing below he po e y
line. Howe e , Böhme e al. (2020) and C oss (2020) ind ha he di e ence be ween
amily ypes is weake o immig an s and hei child en han o non-immig an
amilies.
In con as o p e ious s udies (Böhme e al., 2020), ou models include in e ac ion
e ms as well as con ol a iables (see Appendix Sec ion A.3 Table 5). S ill, hese
models suppo p e ious indings. P edic ed p obabili ies wi h con ol a iables se
o hei mean show ha i s -gene a ion non-EU single-mo he households ha e he
highes p obabili y o li ing below he po e y line (see Fig.1 igh panel). Compa ed
o wo-pa en amilies, he p obabili y o li ing in po e y inc eases o single mo he s
in all g oups. In e es ingly, he change in p obabili y is highes o non-immig an and
i s -gene a ion EU households (see Fig.1le panel). Ou esul s show ha amily
ype (single mo he o wo-pa en amily) is associa ed wi h a subs an ial di e ence
ega ding he isk o li ing in po e y. The es ima ed coe icien o amily ype is
consis en ly subs an ial and signi ican , bu no signi ican ly di e en be ween g oups.
Fig. 1 The le panel shows he ma ginal e ec o amily ype (i.e., single-mo he household) on po e y isk
by immig an s a us. The igh panel shows he p edic ed p obabili y o li ing below he po e y h eshold
o each combina ion o amily ype and immig an s a us. The esul s a e aken om he ull model, which
includes all discussed con ol a iables. N=3743
123
Immig an Single Mo he s 1527
Howe e , he di e ence be ween amily ypes ( wo-pa en amily s. single mo he s)
is smalles o he g oup wi h he highes po e y isk o e all amily ypes ( i s -
gene a ion non-EU households). Simila pa e ns ha e been ound by o he s udies
(see C oss, 2020; Böhme e al., 2020).
Mo he Model: O e all Li e Sa is ac ion
The s udy o Hein z-Ma in and Langmeye (2020) shows ha single pa en s a e mos
a isk o eeling subjec i e inancial s ain. I was p e iously no ed ha a lowe income
has been co ela ed wi h lowe li e sa is ac ion. As lowe li e sa is ac ion is closely
ela ed o s ess, we used he o e all li e sa is ac ion o he mo he s o indica e he
impac o s ess. He e, single mo he s in all g oups ha e a highe isk o being less
sa is ied.
Wi h ega d o ci izenship and immig an gene a ion in wo-pa en amilies, li e
sa is ac ion is highes o i s -gene a ion non-EU immig an mo he s (see Fig.2),
while li e sa is ac ion is lowes o non-immig an mo he s. When looking a single
mo he s, howe e , he o de is e e sed: Li e sa is ac ion is lowes o i s -gene a ion
immig an single mo he s wi h non-EU ci izenship, ollowed by i s -gene a ion single
mo he s who a e EU ci izens. Family ype—whe he a wo-pa en amily o single
mo he —de e mines he g ea es di e ence in li e sa is ac ion o i s -gene a ion non-
Fig. 2 The le panel shows he ma ginal e ec o amily ype (i.e., single-mo he household) on he li e
sa is ac ion o mo he s by immig an s a us. The igh panel shows he p edic ed li e sa is ac ion o each
combina ion o amily ype and immig an s a us. Lowe alues signi y highe li e sa is ac ion. The esul s
a e aken om he ull model, which includes all discussed con ol a iables. N=3556
123
1528 L. Maciejewski, N. Ha de
EU mo he s. Ou indings suppo he Family S ess Model: he g oup wi h he highes
isk o li ing below he po e y line also has he highes likelihood o being less
sa is ied (see Appendix Sec ion A.3 Table 6). To in es iga e whe he inancial dis ess
is esponsible o he di e ences be ween he g oups, we an ano he model in which
we emo ed income as a con ol a iable. This did no change he o e all esul s, bu
looking a p edic ed p obabili ies o li e sa is ac ion, we ind sligh ly highe alues o
dissa is ac ion in mos g oups, especially o single mo he s (see Appendix Sec ion
A.3 Table 9).
Child Model: Psychosocial Di icul ies
The child model es ima es he isk o child en showing psychosocial di icul ies as
epo ed by hei mo he s (see Appendix Sec ion A.3 Table 7). Compa ed o he models
discussed abo e, we ind much smalle di e ences a he in e sec ion o amily ype
and immig an s a us (see Fig.3). In wo-pa en amilies, he isk o mo he - epo ed
psychosocial di icul ies does no a y by immig an s a us. Compa ing child en in
wo-pa en amilies wi h child en in single-mo he households, we only ind small
di e ences in non-immig an and second-gene a ion child en. This indica es ha he
economic e ec s o single pa en hood a e much mo e p onounced han he po en ial
psychological ha m om s essed amily li e. In con as o o he s udies (Hein z-
Fig. 3 The le panel shows he ma ginal e ec o amily ype (i.e., single-mo he household) on mo he -
epo ed psychosocial di icul ies by gene a ion s a us. The igh panel shows he p edic ed p obabili y o
showing psychosocial di icul ies o each combina ion o amily ype and gene a ion s a us. The esul s
a e aken om he ull model, which includes all discussed con ol a iables. N=2678
123
Immig an Single Mo he s 1529
Ma in & Langmeye , 2020), we did no ind a di ec connec ion be ween amily ype
and mo he - epo ed psychosocial di icul ies. Howe e , he o he s udy used sel -
epo ed measu es, whe eas we examined mo he - epo ed psychosocial di icul ies.
As he case numbe s we e oo small, we we e unable o b eak he esul s down by
gene a ion o ci izenship.
Discussion
The ecen displacemen c isis o Uk ainian e ugees highligh s how mig a ion can
agmen amilies (Rock & Yana¸smayan, 2024) and shows ha mig a ion and single
pa en hood a e o en in e ela ed phenomena. This s udy used c oss-sec ional da a o
examine he ela ionship o amily s uc u e, immig an gene a ion, and ci izenship
wi h he isk o po e y, o e all li e sa is ac ion o mo he s, and mo he - epo ed psy-
chosocial di icul ies o child en. We applied an in e sec ional pe spec i e o guide
ou esea ch and es hypo heses de i ed om he Family S ess Model. Ou analy-
sis shows ha immig an single mo he s ha e he highes isk o po e y, o , mo e
p ecisely, ha i s -gene a ion non-na u alized single mo he s a e mos a isk. Wi h
ega d o gene al li e sa is ac ion, immig an single mo he s a e less sa is ied han non-
immig an s and he leas sa is ied a e i s -gene a ion non-EU single mo he s. Despi e
hese e ec s on po e y and li e sa is ac ion, we ind ha child en o immig an single
mo he s a e no mo e likely o show mo he - epo ed psychosocial di icul ies han
child en om wo-pa en amilies. I any hing, he mo he - epo ed psychosocial di -
icul ies o child en om non-immig an single mo he s a e sligh ly mo e se e e han
hose o hei pee s om wo-pa en amilies. Fu u e s udies should also examine sel -
epo edpsychosocial di icul ies,ass udiesshow ha pa en - epo ed sco es a e be e
a de ec ing beha io al p oblems in hei child en, whe eas child- epo ed measu es
a e be e a de ec ing emo ional p oblems (Aebi e al., 2017; Theunissen e al., 2019).
The e o e, bo h measu es should be included when s udying psychosocial di icul ies
in child en. Looking a di e ences be ween wo-pa en amilies and single-mo he
households, he di e ence in po e y isk be ween hose wo amily o ms is in ac
g ea es among non-immig an amilies and i s -gene a ion EU ci izens, wi h single
mo he s in bo h cases being compa a i ely a much g ea e isk o po e y. O e all,
non-immig an amilies s ill ha e he lowes po e y isk. Fi s -gene a ion non-EU
amilies, on he o he hand, ha e a signi ican ly highe po e y isk. Howe e , his
isk di e s only sligh ly be ween wo-pa en amilies and single-mo he households.
In e es ingly, o e all li e sa is ac ion among mo he s is lowe in non-immig an wo-
pa en amilies han in immig an wo-pa en amilies. This changes wi h amily ype,
howe e : Non-immig an single mo he s a e mo e sa is ied han hei immig an pee s.
I should be no ed ha while he o e all le els o po e y and li e sa is ac ion all
in line wi h he idea o he accumula ion o disad an ages, as pos ula ed by in e sec-
ionali y (C enshaw, 1989,1991), he compa a i ely la ge e ec o amily ype on he
po e y le els o non-immig an single mo he s also suppo s he socioeconomic s ess
hypo hesis (McCubbin & McCubbin, 1993). This heo y assumes ha al eady disad-
an aged g oups ha e be e coping s a egies, so ha single pa en hood has a lesse
123
1530 L. Maciejewski, N. Ha de
impac on immig an s as hey a e al eady acing mul iple disad an ages (McCubbin
& McCubbin, 1993;C oss,2020).
O e all, ou s udy e eals in e sec ional ela ions be ween gende , mig a ion, and
amily o m. Ou indings a e impo an o gaining a be e unde s anding o he
ela ionships among hese h ee social posi ions, and hey demons a e ha single
mo he s a e a pa icula ly ulne able g oup, e en mo e so i hey ha e mig a ion
expe ience.
The esul s show why i is so impo an o apply an in e sec ional pe spec i e and o
ocusonmo e han one social posi ion. Only hen can policyimplica ions be a icula ed
and he needs o speci ic g oups add essed app op ia ely.
C i ics migh a gue ha in e sec ionali y was ne e made o empi ical es ing and
simply in ol es desc ip i e s a is ics based on in e ac ion e ec s. Howe e , he ac
ha in e sec ionali y esona es wi h so many esea che s and ac i is s alike shows ha
quan i a i e esea che s ha e no ully exhaus ed he possibili ies o such a seemingly
simple app oach no did hey su icien ly communica e such indings. This migh be
because, hus a , in e sec ionali y has usually been conside ed only in he analysis
s age. Ou esea ch has shown, howe e , ha i is impo an o conside di e en social
posi ions al eady a he s age o design, pa icula ly wi h ega d o da a collec ion. In
ou case, e en da a on mo e han 4000 amilies was no su icien o analyze single
a he s no second-gene a ion immig an s o di e en ci izenship. Wi h app op ia e
a en ion o sample size and sampling s a egies, in e sec ional analysis can p o e
in aluable as a esea ch ool, opening new a enues o in es iga ion ac oss mul iple
social posi ions and e ealing mo e sub le dis inc ions in he da a collec ed.
Appendix
A.1 Gende
Table 2 Immig an gene a ion
and gende o single pa en s Gene a ion s a us Male Female To al
Non-immig an 78 402 480
16.25 83.75 100.00
1. Gen 23 159 182
12.64 87.36 100.00
2. Gen 9 55 64
14.06 85.94 100.00
To al 110 616 726
15.15 84.85 100.00
Fi s ow has equencies, and second ow has ow pe cen ages
A.2 Desc ip i e S a is ics
123
Immig an Single Mo he s 1531
Table 3 Composi ion o he pa en le el da a
(Full sam-
ple)
(Two-
pa en
amily)
(Two-
pa en
amily)
(Two-
pa en
amily)
(Two-
pa en
amily)
(Two-
pa en
amily)
(Single
mo he s)
(Single
mo he s)
(Single
mo he s)
(Single
mo he s)
(Single
mo he s)
Full sam-
ple
non-
immig an
1. Gen.
(GER)
1. Gen.
(EU)
1. Gen.
(non-EU)
2. Gen. non-
immig an
1. Gen.
(GER)
1. Gen.
(EU)
1. Gen.
(non-EU)
2. Gen.
Li e sa -
is ac ion
(mo he )
2.02 1.98 1.88 1.88 1.88 1.92 2.40 2.40 2.66 2.74 2.56
(0.888) (0.812) (0.902) (1.027) (0.897) (0.820) (0.923) (0.857) (1.413) (1.324) (1.056)
Region 0.20 0.25 0.06 0.10 0.12 0.09 0.33 0.06 0.11 0.15 0.08
(0.403) (0.433) (0.239) (0.301) (0.324) (0.289) (0.470) (0.240) (0.323) (0.363) (0.269)
Equi alen
income
(in 1000
EUR)
1.87 2.15 1.73 1.68 1.30 1.89 1.30 1.08 1.04 0.74 1.10
(1.585) (1.691) (1.018) (1.791) (1.712) (1.433) (1.153) (0.582) (0.704) (0.387) (0.494)
Educa ion
No deg ee 0.14 0.09 0.15 0.18 0.31 0.17 0.22 0.27 0.25 0.43 0.27
(0.351) (0.286) (0.354) (0.386) (0.464) (0.378) (0.416) (0.446) (0.440) (0.501) (0.448)
Some sec-
onda y
educa ion
0.31 0.32 0.31 0.17 0.11 0.30 0.40 0.35 0.22 0.11 0.42
(0.461) (0.468) (0.465) (0.381) (0.318) (0.461) (0.491) (0.481) (0.420) (0.321) (0.499)
College
deg ee
0.21 0.22 0.20 0.26 0.20 0.22 0.19 0.18 0.22 0.30 0.17
(0.410) (0.412) (0.403) (0.438) (0.400) (0.415) (0.393) (0.391) (0.420) (0.462) (0.382)
123
1532 L. Maciejewski, N. Ha de
Table 3 con inued
(Full sam-
ple)
(Two-
pa en
amily)
(Two-
pa en
amily)
(Two-
pa en
amily)
(Two-
pa en
amily)
(Two-
pa en
amily)
(Single
mo he s)
(Single
mo he s)
(Single
mo he s)
(Single
mo he s)
(Single
mo he s)
Full sam-
ple
non-
immig an
1. Gen.
(GER)
1. Gen.
(EU)
1. Gen.
(non-EU)
2. Gen. non-
immig an
1. Gen.
(GER)
1. Gen.
(EU)
1. Gen.
(non-EU)
2. Gen.
Uni e si y
deg ee
0.34 0.37 0.34 0.39 0.38 0.30 0.19 0.20 0.31 0.16 0.13
(0.473) (0.483) (0.474) (0.489) (0.485) (0.461) (0.389) (0.407) (0.471) (0.370) (0.345)
Employmen
No wo k-
ing
0.19 0.19 0.16 0.19 0.07 0.13 0.30 0.20 0.29 0.07 0.31
(0.390) (0.392) (0.369) (0.393) (0.257) (0.339) (0.461) (0.407) (0.458) (0.250) (0.469)
Pa ime 0.44 0.51 0.40 0.34 0.17 0.50 0.41 0.45 0.34 0.22 0.29
(0.497) (0.500) (0.490) (0.475) (0.379) (0.501) (0.492) (0.503) (0.482) (0.417) (0.460)
Full ime 0.37 0.30 0.44 0.47 0.76 0.37 0.29 0.35 0.37 0.72 0.39
(0.483) (0.460) (0.497) (0.500) (0.430) (0.484) (0.454) (0.481) (0.490) (0.455) (0.493)
Age o
mo he
38.83 39.30 37.93 36.88 36.14 38.35 39.96 40.58 40.09 36.98 41.08
(7.553) (7.267) (7.286) (7.536) (7.092) (8.015) (8.438) (6.978) (7.582) (7.960) (9.180)
Age o
younges
child
6.30 6.22 5.94 5.71 4.73 6.02 8.30 7.98 8.03 6.07 7.81
(4.960) (4.941) (4.923) (4.869) (4.222) (4.956) (5.004) (4.378) (5.322) (4.592) (5.524)
Numbe o
child en
1 child 0.27 0.26 0.24 0.30 0.20 0.29 0.41 0.38 0.34 0.35 0.31
(0.446) (0.438) (0.425) (0.459) (0.398) (0.456) (0.492) (0.490) (0.482) (0.482) (0.466)
123
Immig an Single Mo he s 1533
Table 3 con inued
(Full sam-
ple)
(Two-
pa en
amily)
(Two-
pa en
amily)
(Two-
pa en
amily)
(Two-
pa en
amily)
(Two-
pa en
amily)
(Single
mo he s)
(Single
mo he s)
(Single
mo he s)
(Single
mo he s)
(Single
mo he s)
Full sam-
ple
non-
immig an
1. Gen.
(GER)
1. Gen.
(EU)
1. Gen.
(non-EU)
2. Gen. non-
immig an
1. Gen.
(GER)
1. Gen.
(EU)
1. Gen.
(non-EU)
2. Gen.
2 child en 0.47 0.52 0.45 0.41 0.40 0.42 0.37 0.30 0.37 0.24 0.44
(0.499) (0.500) (0.498) (0.493) (0.490) (0.495) (0.484) (0.463) (0.490) (0.431) (0.502)
3 child en
o mo e
0.26 0.22 0.31 0.29 0.41 0.28 0.22 0.32 0.29 0.41 0.25
(0.436) (0.415) (0.464) (0.455) (0.492) (0.451) (0.413) (0.471) (0.458) (0.498) (0.437)
Obse a ions 3891 2203 378 190 286 273 378 50 35 46 52
Shown a e means wi h s anda d de ia ion in pa en heses
123
1534 L. Maciejewski, N. Ha de
Table 4 Desc ip i e s a is ics on he child en le el
Full sample Two-pa en amilies Single pa en amilies
Immig an s a us
Non-immig an 0.72 0.72 0.74
(0.448) (0.449) (0.439)
1. Gen 0.07 0.07 0.07
(0.258) (0.258) (0.257)
2. Gen 0.21 0.21 0.19
(0.404) (0.406) (0.392)
Dep essi eness (mo he )
Good mood 0.50 0.52 0.39
(0.500) (0.500) (0.489)
Okay mood 0.48 0.46 0.55
(0.500) (0.499) (0.498)
Bad mood 0.02 0.02 0.05
(0.151) (0.132) (0.225)
O he
Male 0.52 0.52 0.52
(0.500) (0.500) (0.500)
Psychosocial di icul ies 0.17* 0.15* 0.24*
Obse a ions 2949 2480 469
Shown a e means wi h s anda d de ia ions in pa en heses. *Impu ed da a
A.3 Reg ession Resul s
Table 5 Reg ession able o household models
No weigh ed Weigh ed
Po e y isk Po e y isk
Family ype
Single mo he s 0.245*** 0.255***
(0.025) (0.026)
Gene a ion and ci izenship
1. Gen.- Ge 0.075*** 0.061**
(0.024) (0.027)
1. Gen. - EU 0.179*** 0.149***
(0.035) (0.040)
1. Gen. - non-EU 0.334*** 0.337***
(0.029) (0.032)
2. Gen 0.108*** 0.103***
(0.027) (0.030)
123
Immig an Single Mo he s 1541
Acknowledgemen s The au ho s hank Magdalena Nowicka o help ul commen s on ea lie e sions o
his pape . The au ho s acknowledge unding om he Ge man Fede al Minis y o Family A ai s, Senio
Ci izens, Women and You h.
Funding Open Access unding enabled and o ganized by P ojek DEAL.
Da a A ailabili y The ull “AID:A (G owing up in Ge many) 2019” da a and he ull “AID:A Mig+” da a
a e a ailable h ough he Ge man You h Ins i u e (DJI) esea ch da a cen e . Replica ion code has been
deposi ed in he Ha a d Da a e se: h ps://doi.o g/10.7910/DVN/E1UEQI
Decla a ions
Con lic o In e es The au ho s decla e no compe ing in e es s.
Open Access Thisa icleislicensedunde aC ea i eCommons A ibu ion4.0In e na ionalLicense,which
pe mi s use, sha ing, adap a ion, dis ibu ion and ep oduc ion in any medium o o ma , as long as you gi e
app op ia e c edi o he o iginal au ho (s) and he sou ce, p o ide a link o he C ea i e Commons licence,
and indica e i changes we e made. The images o o he hi d pa y ma e ial in his a icle a e included
in he a icle’s C ea i e Commons licence, unless indica ed o he wise in a c edi line o he ma e ial. I
ma e ial is no included in he a icle’s C ea i e Commons licence and you in ended use is no pe mi ed
by s a u o y egula ion o exceeds he pe mi ed use, you will need o ob ain pe mission di ec ly om he
copy igh holde . To iew a copy o his licence, isi h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/.
Re e ences
123
Aebi,M., Kuhn,C.,Banaschewski,T.,G imme ,Y.,Pous ka, L., S einhausen,H.-C., &Goodman, R.(2017).
The con ibu ion o pa en and you h in o ma ion o iden i y men al heal h diso de s o p oblems in
adolescen s. Child and Adolescen Psychia y and Men al Heal h, 11, 23. h ps://doi.o g/10.1186/
s13034-017-0160-9
Aisa, R., La amona, G., & Pueyo, F. (2019). Po e y in Eu ope by gende : The ole o educa ion and labou
s a us. Economic Analysis and Policy, 63, 24–34. h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.eap.2019.04.009
Aleg ía, M., Ál a ez, K., & DiMa zio, K. (2017). Immig a ion and men al heal h. Cu en Epidemiology
Repo s, 4(2), 145–155. h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s40471-017-0111-2
Algan, Y., Dus mann, C., Gli z, A., & Manning, A. (2010). The economic si ua ion o i s and second-
gene a ionimmig an sinF ance,Ge manyand heUni ed Kingdom.The Economic Jou nal, 120(542),
F4–F30. h ps://doi.o g/10.1111/j.1468-0297.2009.02338.x
Amo-Agyei, S. (2020). Mig an pay gap: Unde s anding wage di e ences be ween mig an s and na ionals.
Gene a: In e na ional Labou O ice.
Angelo , N., Johansson, P., & Lindahl, E. (2016). Pa en hood and he gende gap in pay. Jou nal o Labo
Economics, 34(3), 545–579. h ps://doi.o g/10.1086/684851
Ba bie i, D., Huche , M., Janecko a, H., Ka u, M., Lumina i, D., Mada o o, Z., Paa s, M., & Reinga de, J.
(2016). Po e y, gende and in e sec ing inequali ies in he EU e iew o he implemen a ion o a ea
A: Women and po e y o he Beijing pla o m o ac ion.
Ba skanmaz, C. (2019). Rech und Rassismus. Be lin, Heidelbe g: Sp inge . h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/978-
3-662-59746-0
Baue , G. R. (2014). Inco po a ing in e sec ionali y heo y in o popula ion heal h esea ch me hodology:
Challenges and he po en ial o ad ance heal h equi y. Social Science & Medicine, 1982(110), 10–17.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.socscimed.2014.03.022
Becke , A., Woe ne , W., Hasselho n, M., Banaschewski, T., & Ro henbe ge , A. (2004). Valida ion o he
pa en and eache SDQ in a clinical sample. Eu opean Child & Adolescen Psychia y, 13 Suppl 2,
II11–6. h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s00787-004-2003-5
Be ghahn, S. (2012). Gleichbe ech igung und männliches e näh e modell. In S. Be ghahn & M. We sig
(Eds.), Gesiche e Exis enz? Gleichbe ech igung und männliches E näh e modell in Deu schland (pp.
10–50). Baden-Baden. Nomos Ve lagsgesellscha mbH & Co. KG.
1542 L. Maciejewski, N. Ha de
Be nal, D. R., Misiaszek, K. H., Ayala, J., & Kenley, N. (2022). Second-class ci izens? Subjec i e social
s a us, accul u a i e s ess, and immig an well-being. SN Social Sciences, 2(7). h ps://doi.o g/10.
1007/s43545-022-00371-2
Böhme , S., B oens, K., Niemeye , C., & Washing on, C. (2020). Geleb e iel al : Familien mi
mig a ionshin e g und in deu schland. Re ie ed Oc obe 15, 2024 om h ps://www.bm s j.
de/ esou ce/blob/116880/83c02ec19dbea15014d7868048 697 2/geleb e- iel al -- amilien-mi -
mig a ionshin e g und-in-deu schland-da a.pd
Bowleg, L. (2008). When black + lesbian + woman = black lesbian woman: The me hodological challenges
o quali a i e and quan i a i e in e sec ionali y esea ch. Sex Roles, 59(5–6), 312–325. h ps://doi.o g/
10.1007/s11199-008-9400-z
Bowleg, L., & Baue , G. (2016). In i ed e lec ion. Psychology o Women Qua e ly, 40(3), 337–341. h ps://
doi.o g/10.1177/0361684316654282
Boyle, P. J., Kulu, H., Cooke, T., Gayle, V., & Mulde , C. H. (2008). Mo ing and union dissolu ion.
Demog aphy, 45(1), 209–222. h ps://doi.o g/10.1353/dem.2008.0000
B een, R., Ka lson, K. B., & Holm, A. (2018). In e p e ing and unde s anding logi s, p obi s, and o he
nonlinea p obabili y models. Annual Re iew o Sociology, 44(1), 39–54. h ps://doi.o g/10.1146/
annu e -soc-073117-041429
B uce-Jones, E. (2015). Ge man policing a he in e sec ion: Race, gende , mig an s a us and men al heal h.
Race & Class, 56(3), 36–49. h ps://doi.o g/10.1177/0306396814556223
Budig, M. J., Mis a, J., & Boeckmann, I. (2012). The mo he hood penal y in c oss-na ional pe spec i e:
The impo ance o wo k- amily policies and cul u al a i udes. Social Poli ics, 19(2), 163–193. h ps://
doi.o g/10.1093/sp/jxs006
Bundesins i u ü Be ölke ungs o schung (2023). Ausländische be ölke ung (1970-2021). Re ie ed June
2, 2024 om h ps://www.bib.bund.de/DE/Fak en/Fak /B39-Auslaendische-Be oelke ung-ab-1970.
h ml
Bundesminis e ium ü Bildung und Fo schung (2020). Be ich zum ane kennungsgese z 2019.
Re ie ed Decembe 14, 2023 om h ps://www.bmb .de/Sha edDocs/Publika ionen/de/bmb /3/
31566_Ane kennungsgese z_2019.pd ?__blob=publica ionFile
Bundesminis e ium ü Familie, Senio en, F auen und Jugend (2012). Ausgeüb e e we bs ä igkei on
mü e n: E we bs ä igkei , e we bsum ang und e we bs olumen. Re ie ed June 15, 2024 om
h ps://www.bm s j.de/ esou ce/blob/93302/6a6368c5014a685b9 7627242c6cb0d1/ausgeueb e-
e we bs ae igkei - on-mue e n-da a.pd
Bundesminis e ium ü Familie, Senio en, F auen und Jugend (2021). Allein- und ge enn e ziehende
ö de n und un e s ü zen: Chancen und eilhabe ü amilien. Re ie ed May 17, 2024 om h ps://
www.bm s j.de/bm s j/ hemen/ amilie/chancen-und- eilhabe- ue - amilien/alleine ziehende
Bu ke, L. (2003). The impac o ma e nal dep ession on amilial ela ionships. In e na ional e iew o
psychia y (Abingdon, England), 15(3), 243–255. h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/0954026031000136866
Ca lsson,M.,E iksson,S., & Roo h,D.-O.(2023).Language p o iciencyandhi ing o immig an s:E idence
om a new ield expe imen al app oach. Re ie ed om h ps://docs.iza.o g/dp15950.pd
Cle on, L., & Scuzza ello, S. (2024). In e sec ional mig a ion esea ch: Re-cen ing go e nance s uc u es.
In e na ional Mig a ion, 62(1), 343–346. h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/01419870.2023.2171737
Collins, P. H. (1990). Black eminis hough : Knowledge, consciousness, and he poli ics o empowe men .
Bos on: Unwin Hyman.
Collins, P. H. (1998). I ’s all in he amily: In e sec ions o gende , ace, and na ion. Hypa ia, 13(3), 62–82.
Combahee Ri e Collec i e (1977). The Combahee Ri e collec i e s a emen . Re ie ed om h ps://
his o yisaweapon.com/de con1/comb i e coll.h ml
Conge , R. D., & Conge , K. J. (2002). Resilience in midwes e n amilies: Selec ed indings om he i s
decade o a p ospec i e, longi udinal s udy. Jou nal o Ma iage and Family, 64(2), 361–373. h ps://
doi.o g/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2002.00361.x
Conge , R. D., Conge , K. J., & Ma in, M. J. (2010). Socioeconomic s a us, amily p ocesses, and indi idual
de elopmen . Jou nal o Ma iage and Family, 72(3), 685–704. h ps://doi.o g/10.1111/j.1741-3737.
2010.00725.x
C enshaw, K. (1989). Dema ginalizing he in e sec ion o ace and sex: A black eminis c i ique o an idis-
c imina ion doc ine, eminis heo y and an i acis poli ics. Uni e si y o Chicago Legal Fo um,
1989(1), 139–167.
C enshaw, K. (1991). Mapping he ma gins: In e sec ionali y, iden i y poli ics, and iolence agains women
o colo . S an o d Law Re iew, 43(6), 1241. h ps://doi.o g/10.2307/1229039
123
Immig an Single Mo he s 1543
C oss, C. J. (2020). Racial/e hnic di e ences in he associa ion be ween amily s uc u e and child en’s
educa ion. Jou nal o Ma iage and Family, 82(2), 691–712. h ps://doi.o g/10.1111/jom .12625
Deu sches Jugendins i u (2023). Aid:a 2019 e gänzung mig a ion. Re ie ed om h ps://www.dji.de/
uebe -uns/p ojek e/p ojek e/aida-2019-e gaenzung-mig a ion.h ml
Die Beau ag e de Bundes egie ung ü Mig a ion, Flüch linge und In eg a ion (2019). Deu sch-
land kann in eg a ion: Po enzial ö de n, in eg a ion o de n, zusammenhal s ä ken. 12.
be ich de beau ag en de bundes egie ung ü mig a ion, lüch linge und in eg a ion.
Re ie ed June 2, 2024 om h ps://www.in eg a ionsbeau ag e.de/ esou ce/blob/1872554/
1876888/98e849dd7baa9d2358553dbc6aa1d946/lagebe ich -12-da a.pd
Downey, G., & Coyne, J. C. (1990). Child en o dep essed pa en s: An in eg a i e e iew. Psychological
Bulle in, 108(1), 50–76. h ps://doi.o g/10.1037/0033-2909.108.1.50
El-Ma aalani, A. (2017). Disk iminie ung on menschen mi mig a ionshin e g und. In Sche , A.,
Ma aalani, A. e., and Yüksel, E. G., edi o s, Handbuch Disk iminie ung, Sp inge Re e ence Sozial-
wissenscha en, pages 465–478. Sp inge VS, Wiesbaden and Heidelbe g. h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/
978-3-658-10976-9_
Else-Ques , N. M., & Hyde, J. S. (2016). In e sec ionali y in quan i a i e psychological esea ch. Psychology
o Women Qua e ly, 40(3), 319–336. h ps://doi.o g/10.1177/0361684316647953
England, M. J. and Sim, L. J., edi o s (2009). Dep ession in pa en s, pa en ing, and child en: Oppo uni ies
o imp o e iden i ica ion, ea men , and p e en ion. Na ional Academies P ess (US), Washing on
(DC). h ps://doi.o g/10.17226/12565
England, P., Bea ak, J., Budig, M. J., & Hodges, M. J. (2016). Do highly paid, highly skilled women
expe ience he la ges mo he hood penal y? Ame ican Sociological Re iew, 81(6), 1161–1189. h ps://
doi.o g/10.1177/0003122416673598
Fo schungsda enzen en de S a is ischen Äm e des Bundes und de Lände (2022). Mik ozensus 2019,
su , e sion 0. h ps://doi.o g/10.21242/12211.2019.00.00.3.1.0
Gebel, M., & Gunde , S. (2023). Changes in income po e y isks a he ansi ion om unemploymen o
employmen : Compa ing he sho - e m and medium- e m e ec s o ixed- e m and pe manen jobs.
Social Indica o s Resea ch.h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s11205-023-03118-5
Geis-Thöne, W. (2021). In eu opa en wickeln sich die be ölke ungen im e we bs ähigen al e un e -
schiedlich. eine analyse de demog a ischen s uk u en in den 27 eu-lände n. Re ie ed June 15,
2024 om h ps://www.iwkoeln.de/ ileadmin/use _upload/S udien/Repo /PDF/2021/IW-Repo _
2021-E we bsbe %C3%B6lke ung-Eu opa.pd
Geis-Thöne, W. (2022). Die Bedeu ung de Zuwande ung ü den wi scha lichen E olg
Deu schlands: Ak uelle S and und poli ische Ges al ungsmöglichkei en, olume 151 o IW-
Analysen. Ins i u de deu schen Wi scha Köln Medien GmbH, Köln. Re ie ed June
15, 2024 om h ps://www.iwkoeln.de/ ileadmin/use _upload/S udien/IW-Analysen/PDF/2022/
Analysen_151_Bedeu ung-Zuwande ung.pd
Geisle , E., & K eyen eld, M. (2019). Why do lone mo he s a e wo se han lone a he s? Lone pa en hood
and wel a e bene i eceip in Ge many. Compa a i e Popula ion S udies, 44. h ps://doi.o g/10.12765/
CPoS-2019-09
G abka, M. M., & Göble , K. (2020). De nied iglohnsek o in deu schland: Falle ode sp ungb e
ü beschä ig e?. BS i - Be elsmann S i ung. Re ei ed June 14, 2024 om h ps://www.
be elsmann-s i ung.de/ ileadmin/ iles/BS /Publika ionen/G auePublika ionen/200624_S udie_
Nied iglohnsek o _DIW_ inal.pd
Hainmuelle , J. (2012). En opy balancing o causal e ec s: A mul i a ia e eweigh ing me hod o p oduce
balanced samples in obse a ional s udies. Poli ical Analysis, 20(1), 25–46. h ps://doi.o g/10.1093/
pan/mp 025
Hainmuelle , J., Law ence, D., Ma én, L., Black, B., Figue oa, L., Ho a d, M., Jiménez, T. R., Mendoza,
F., Rod iguez, M. I., Swa z, J. J., & Lai in, D. D. (2017). P o ec ing unau ho ized immig an mo he s
imp o es hei child en’s men al heal h. Science (New Yo k, N.Y.), 357(6355), 1041–1044. h ps://doi.
o g/10.1126/science.aan5893
Hancock, A.-M. (2007). In e sec ionali y as a no ma i e and empi ical pa adigm. Poli ics & Gende , 3(02).
h ps://doi.o g/10.1017/S1743923X07000062
Hancock, A.-M. (2013). Empi ical in e sec ionali y: A ale o wo app oaches. UC I ine Law Re iew, 3(2),
259–296.
123
1544 L. Maciejewski, N. Ha de
Hein z-Ma in, V. K., & Langmeye , A. N. (2020). Economic si ua ion, inancial s ain and child wellbeing
in s ep amilies and single-pa en amilies in Ge many. Jou nal o Family and Economic Issues, 41(2),
238–254. h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s10834-019-09653-z
Hein z-Ma in, V. K., Recksiedle , C., & Langmeye , A. N. (2022). Household deb , ma e nal well-being,
and child adjus men in Ge many: Examining he amily s ess model by amily s uc u e. Jou nal o
Family and Economic Issues, 43(2), 338–353. h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s10834-021-09777-1
Hube , S., Neube ge , F., & Somme , M. (2020). Alleine ziehend, alleinbezahlend? kindesun e hal , un e -
hal s o schuss und g ünde ü den un e hal saus all. Zei sch i ü Soziologie de E ziehung und
Sozialisa ion, 40(1), 19–38. h ps://doi.o g/10.3262/ZSE2001019
Hübgen, S. (2020). A mu s isiko alleine ziehend: Die Bedeu ung on soziale Komposi ion und ins i u-
ionellem Kon ex in Deu schland. Le e kusen-Opladen: Ve lag Ba ba a Bud ich. h ps://doi.o g/10.
2307/j.c 1sj2j
Hübgen, S. (2020). Unde s anding lone mo he s’ high po e y in Ge many: Disen angling composi ion
e ec s and e ec s o lone mo he hood. Ad ances in Li e Cou se Resea ch, 44, 100327. h ps://doi.
o g/10.1016/j.alc .2020.100327
Ingwe sen, K., & Thomsen, S. L. (2019). The immig an -na i e wage gap in Ge many e isi ed. Re ie ed
om h ps://www.diw.de/documen s/publika ionen/73/diw_01.c.669348.de/diw_sp1042.pd
Ingwe sen, K., & Thomsen, S. L. (2021). The immig an -na i e wage gap in Ge many e isi ed. The Jou nal
o Economic Inequali y, 19(4), 825–854. h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s10888-021-09493-8
Jachimowicz, J. M., F ey, E. L., Ma z, S. C., Je onimus, B. F., & Galinsky, A. D. (2022). The sha p spikes o
po e y: Financial sca ci y is ela ed o highe le els o dis ess in ensi y in daily li e. Social Psycholog-
ical and Pe sonali y Science, page, 194855062110601. h ps://doi.o g/10.1177/19485506211060115
Jahoda, M. (1981). Wo k, employmen , and unemploymen : Values, heo ies, and app oaches in social
esea ch. Ame ican Psychologis , 36(2), 184–191. h ps://doi.o g/10.1037/0003-066X.36.2.184
Johnson, A. L., Le esque, C., Lewis, N. A., & Asad, A. L. (2024). Depo a ion h ea p edic s La ino US
ci izens and nonci izens’ psychological dis ess, 2011 o 2018. P oceedings o he Na ional Academy
o Sciences o he Uni ed S a es o Ame ica, 121(9). h ps://doi.o g/10.1073/pnas.2306554121
Ka akayalı, J. (2022). K i ische assismus o schung: Theo ien, konzep e, zen ale be unde. In D. Hunold
& T. Singelns ein (Eds.), Rassismus in de Polizei (pp. 15–31). Wiesbaden: Sp inge Fachmedien
Wiesbaden. h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/978-3-658-37133-3_2
Klein, J., & on dem Knesebeck, O. (2018). Inequali ies in heal h ca e u iliza ion among mig an s and
non-mig an s in Ge many: A sys ema ic e iew. In e na ional Jou nal o Equi y in Heal h, 17(1),
160. h ps://doi.o g/10.1186/s12939-018-0876-z
Klind , K. N., Holland, A. A., Wilkinson-Smi h, A., Ka ni, C., & Clyde, A. (2024). Cau ion is indica ed when
in e p e ing beha io al a ing scales om s essed pa en s. Jou nal o Psychoeduca ional Assessmen ,
42(5), 588–595. h ps://doi.o g/10.1177/07342829241247235
Klinge , S., & Fuchs, J. (2020). E ec s o popula ion changes on he labou ma ke in Ge many IAB-
Fo um. Re ie ed June 2, 2024 om h ps://www.iab- o um.de/en/e ec s-o -popula ion-changes-
on- he-labou -ma ke -in-ge many/
Koskelainen, M., Sou ande , A., & Kaljonen, A. (2000). The s eng hs and di icul ies ques ionnai e among
Finnish school-aged child en and adolescen s. Eu opean Child & Adolescen Psychia y, 9(4), 277–
284. h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s007870070031
K ings, T. (2021). ‘Good’ bad jobs? The e olu ion o mig an low-wage employmen in Ge many (1985–
2015). Wo k, Employmen and Socie y, 35(3), 527–544. h ps://doi.o g/10.1177/0950017020946567
Kuge , S., Kal e , F., P ein, G., Nowicka, M., Langmeye , A., Ha de , N., Naab, T., S eine , C., Beigang,
S., Zimme mann, J., Ba ig, S., T an, K., Lie z, A., Ho mann-Recksiedle , C., Schie e , D., He z, A.,
He pel, M., Willems, D., Khalil, S., Be nha d , J., F anke, J., Ze le-Elsässe , C., Öz ü k, Y., Deu sches
Jugendins i u , & Deu sches Zen um ü In eg a ions- und Mig a ions o schung (2022). Aida 2019
e gänzung mig a ion (aid:a mig+). h ps://doi.o g/10.17621/aidamig
Kuge , S., P ein, G., Linbe g, A., Ho mann-Recksiedle , C., He z, A., Gille, M., Be ng ube , A., Be nha d ,
J., Pö e , U., Ze le-Elsässe , C., S eine , C., Zimme mann, J., Quellenbe g, H., Walpe , S., Rauschen-
bach, T., Maly-Mo a, H., Schickle, V., Naab, T., Guglhö -Rudan, A., Langmeye , A., T an, K., Gaupp,
N., Milb ad , B., Hein z-Ma in, V., Ge um, M., En lei ne -Phleps, C., & Deu sches Jugendins i-
u (2020). Au wachsen in deu schland: All agswel en 2019 (aid:a 2019). h ps://doi.o g/10.17621/
aida2019
123
Immig an Single Mo he s 1545
123
Lenze, A. (2021). Alleine ziehende wei e un e d uck: Beda e, ech liche egelungen und e o mansä ze.
Be elsmann S i ung. Re ie ed May 5, 2024 om h ps://www.be elsmann-s i ung.de/ ileadmin/
iles/P ojek e/Familie_und_Bildung/S udie_WB_Alleine ziehende_wei e _un e _D uck_2021.pd
Le anon, A., Sabu o , E., Gangl, M., & B ülle, J. (2019). T ends in he demog aphic composi ion o po e y
among wo king amilies in Ge many and in Is ael, 1991–2011. Social Science Resea ch, 83, 102318.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.ss esea ch.2019.06.009
Lundbe g, S., Pollak, R. A., & S ea ns, J. (2016). Family inequali y: Di e ging pa e ns in ma iage, cohabi-
a ion, and childbea ing. The Jou nal o Economic Pe spec i es: A Jou nal o he Ame ican Economic
Associa ion, 30(2), 79–102. h ps://doi.o g/10.1257/jep.30.2.79
Maciejewski, L. and Ha de , N. (2022). Übe quali izie und un( e )beschä ig : Po enziale nachziehende
Pa ne *innen ü den deu schen A bei sma k , olume 07 o B ie ing No es+. Deu sches Zen um
ü In eg a ions- und Mig a ions o schung (DeZIM). Re ie ed om h ps://www.dezim-ins i u .de/
ileadmin/use _upload/Demo_FIS/publika ion_pd /FA-5329.pd
Mans eld, L. (2023). In e na ional mig a ion and i s sho – e m e ec on pa ne ship s abili y. Popula ion,
Space and Place, 29(4). h ps://doi.o g/10.1002/psp.2638
Masuda, Y. J., Williams, J. R., & Tallis, H. (2021). Does li e sa is ac ion a y wi h ime and income?
In es iga ing he ela ionship among ee ime, income, and li e sa is ac ion. Jou nal o Happiness
S udies, 22, 2051–2073. h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s10902-020-00307-8
McCall, L. (2005). The complexi y o in e sec ionali y. Signs: Jou nal o Women in Cul u e and Socie y,
30(3), 1771–1800. h ps://doi.o g/10.1086/426800
McCubbin, M. A., & McCubbin, H. I. (1993). Families coping wi h illness: The esiliency model o amily
s ess, adjus men and adap a ion. In C. B. Danielson, B. Hamel-Bissell, & P. Wins ead-F y (Eds.),
Families, heal h, & illness (pp. 21–64). S . Louis: Mosby.
Milewski, N., S u olino, E., & Be na di, L. (2018). Mig an s a us and lone mo he hood - Risk ac o s
o emale labou o ce pa icipa ion in Swi ze land. Li e Cou se Resea ch and Social PoliciesIn L.
Be na di & D. Mo elmans (Eds.), Lone Pa en hood in he Li e Cou se (Vol. 8, pp. 141–163). Sp inge
In e na ional Publishing: Cham. h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/978-3-319-63295-7_7
Mui, A. C., Kang, S.-Y., Kang, D., & Domanski, M. D. (2007). English language p o iciency and heal h-
ela ed quali y o li e among Chinese and Ko ean immig an elde s. Heal h & Social Wo k, 32(2),
119–127. h ps://doi.o g/10.1093/hsw/32.2.119
Naza i, S. (2024). The in e sec ional e ec s o ace, gende , and eligion on he economic in eg a ion o
high-skilledimmig an s:Ali e a u e e iew.Jou nalo In e na ional Mig a ion and In eg a ion, 25(4),
2213–2252. h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s12134-024-01171-8
Neube ge , F., Schu e , S., & P eisne , K. (2019). Einkommensun e schiede zwischen alleine ziehenden
und e hei a e enmü e n1997–2015.einede aillie ee ek -dekomposi ion.Zei sch i ü Soziologie,
48(1), 42–69. h ps://doi.o g/10.1515/z soz-2019-0004
Niemz, J., & Singelns ein, T. (2022). Racial p o iling als polizeiliche p axis. In D. Hunold & T. Singelns ein
(Eds.), Rassismus in de Polizei (pp. 337–358). Wiesbaden: Sp inge Fachmedien Wiesbaden. h ps://
doi.o g/10.1007/978-3-658-37133-3
OECD. (2022). The con ibu ion o mig a ion o egional de elopmen . OECD Regional De elopmen
S udies: OECD Publishing, Pa is. h ps://doi.o g/10.1787/57046d 4-en
OECD. (2023). Indica o s o Immig an In eg a ion 2023. Pa is: OECD Publishing. h ps://doi.o g/10.1787/
1d5020a6-en
Pa e son, E. J., Becke , A., & Balu an, D. A. (2022). Gende ed acism on he body: An in e sec ional
app oach o ma e nal mo ali y in he Uni ed S a es. Popula ion Resea ch and Policy Re iew, 41(3),
1261–1294. h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s11113-021-09691-2
Pohlan, L. (2019). Unemploymen and social exclusion. Jou nal o Economic Beha io & O ganiza ion,
164, 273–299. h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.jebo.2019.06.006
Res i o, S. J., Ryabo , I., & Ruiz, B. (2023). Race, gende , and na i i y in he sou hwes economy: An
in e sec ional app oach o income inequali y. Popula ion Resea ch and Policy Re iew, 42(3). h ps://
doi.o g/10.1007/s11113-023-09779-x
Rock,J., &Yana¸smayan,Z.(2024). Mo he hoodon hemo e:Fo cedmig an women om Uk aine.Jou nal
o Re ugee S udies.h ps://doi.o g/10.1093/j s/ eae084
Sa bo, B. (2022). Rassismus und gesellscha liche p oduk ions e häl nisse: Ein ma e ialis ische assis-
musbeg i . In E. Roldán Mendí il & B. Sa bo (Eds.), Die Di e si ä de Ausbeu ung, Analysen (pp.
37–63). Be lin: Die z.
1546 L. Maciejewski, N. Ha de
Publishe ’s No e Sp inge Na u e emains neu al wi h ega d o ju isdic ional claims in published maps
and ins i u ional a ilia ions.
123
Schmid, R. (2023). Mig a ion and wage inequali y: A de ailed analysis o Ge man me opoli an and non-
me opoli an egions. Re iew o Regional Resea ch, 43(1), 147–201. h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s10037-
023-00180-x
Schmiede , J., & W ohlich, K. (2021). Gende pay gap im eu opäischen e gleich: Posi i e zusammenhang
zwischen auene we bsquo e und lohnlücke. (DIW Wochenbe ich No. 9). h ps://doi.o g/10.18723/
diw_wb:2021-9-3
Scuzza ello, S., & Mo o¸sanu, L. (2023). In eg a ion and in e sec ionali y: Bounda ies and belonging “ om
abo e” and “ om below”. in oduc ion o he special issue. E hnic and Racial S udies, 46(14), 2991–
3013. h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/01419870.2023.2182649
Spannnagel, D., & Zucco, A. (2022). 2022. A mu g enz aus: Wsi- e eilungsbe ich . Re ie ed June 2,
2024 om ile:///C:/Use s/e 00e il/Downloads/p_wsi_ epo _79_2022-2.pd
S a is isches Bundesam (04.08.2022). Rela i es a mu s isiko in deu schland 2021 bei 15,8 %. Re ie ed
May 6, 2024 om h ps://www.des a is.de/DE/P esse/P essemi eilungen/2022/08/PD22_327_634.
h ml
S a is isches Bundesam (2021a). A mu s isiken haben sich in deu schland e es ig : Da en epo 2021
übe ungleiche lebensbedingungen und die olgen on co ona. Re ei ed May 26, 2023 om h ps://
www.des a is.de/DE/P esse/P essemi eilungen/2021/03/PD21_113_p001.h ml
S a is isches Bundesam (2021b). Gende pay gap in de eu opäischen union. Re ei ed June 2,
2024 om h ps://www.des a is.de/Eu opa/DE/Thema/Be oelke ung-A bei -Soziales/A bei sma k /
Quali ae -de -A bei /_dimension-1/07_gende -pay-gap.h ml
S a is isches Bundesam (2023). 24,3 % de be ölke ung ha en 2022 eine einwande ungsgeschich e.
Re ei ed Janua y 30, 2024 om h ps://www.des a is.de/DE/P esse/P essemi eilungen/2023/04/
PD23_158_125.h ml
S einme z, K. (2020). She coined he e m ‘in e sec ionali y’ o e 30 yea s ago. he e’s wha i means
o he oday. Time. Re ie ed Janua y 30, 2024 om h ps:// ime.com/5786710/kimbe le-c enshaw-
in e sec ionali y/
S ewa , K., Pa ick, R., & Ree es, A. (2023). A ime o need: Explo ing he changing po e y
isk acing la ge amilies in he uk. Jou nal o Social Policy, pp 1–25. h ps://doi.o g/10.1017/
S0047279422000952
S one, L. L., O en, R., Engels, R. C. M. E., Ve muls , A. A., & Janssens, J. M. A. M. (2010). Psychome ic
p ope ies o he pa en and eache e sions o he s eng hs and di icul ies ques ionnai e o 4- o
12-yea -olds: a e iew. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Re iew, 13(3), 254–274. h ps://doi.o g/
10.1007/s10567-010-0071-2
Theunissen,M.H.C.,deWol ,M.S.,&Reijne eld,S.A.(2019).Thes eng hsanddi icul iesques ionnai e
sel - epo : A alid ins umen o he iden i ica ion o emo ional and beha io al p oblems. Academic
Pedia ics, 19(4), 471–476. h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.acap.2018.12.008
Tunçe , M. (2024). An in e sec ionalli ecou se app oach o explo e he na a i es o ageing mig an women.
Jou nal o Aging S udies, 71, 101267. h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.jaging.2024.101267
Vug e een, J., de Bild , A., Theunissen, M., Reijne eld, S. A., & Timme man, M. (2021). Validi y aspec s
o he s eng hs and di icul ies ques ionnai e (sdq) adolescen sel - epo and pa en - epo e sions
among du ch adolescen s. Assessmen , 28(2), 601–616. h ps://doi.o g/10.1177/1073191119858416
Walsh, E., & Mu phy, A. (2021). Li e sa is ac ion amongs wo king pa en s: examining he case o mo he s
and a he s in i eland. In e na ional Jou nal o Social Economics, 48(4), 622–639. h ps://doi.o g/10.
1108/IJSE-05-2020-0295
Wilkins, K. (2022). In e sec ional immuni y? examining how ace/e hnici y and sexual o ien a ion combine
o shape in luenza accina ion among us adul s. Popula ion Resea ch and Policy Re iew, 41(6), 2585–
2612. h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s11113-022-09739-x
W ohlich, K., & Zucco, A. (2017). Gende pay gap a ies g ea ly by occupa ion. (DIW Weekly
Repo 43). Re ie ed om h ps://www.diw.de/documen s/publika ionen/73/diw_01.c.567699.de/
diw_econ_bull_2017-43-2.pd
Zucco, A. (2019). G oße gende pay gaps in einzelnen be u en hängen s a k mi de übe p opo ionalen
en lohnung on langen a bei szei en zusammen. (DIW Weekly Repo 10). h ps://doi.o g/10.18723/
diw_wb:2019-10-1
