Varieties of trade union protest

Höl mann, Gesine; Bo bá h, End e; Hu e , Swen
A icle — Published Ve sion
Va ie ies o ade union p o es
Socio-Economic Re iew
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
WZB Be lin Social Science Cen e
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Höl mann, Gesine; Bo bá h, End e; Hu e , Swen (2025) : Va ie ies o ade union
p o es , Socio-Economic Re iew, ISSN 1475-147X, Ox o d Uni e si y P ess, Ox o d, Vol. 23, Iss. 1, pp.
75-96,
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A icle
Va ie ies o ade union p o es
Gesine H€
ol mann
1,
�, End e Bo b�
a h
2
and Swen Hu e
1
1
F eie Uni e si €
a Be lin & WZB Be lin Social Science Cen e , Be lin, Ge many and
2
Rup ech -
Ka ls-Uni e si €
a Heidelbe g & WZB Be lin Social Science Cen e , Be lin, Ge many
�Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac
The a icle examines a ie ies o ade union p o es ac oss indus ial ela ions
egimes, using p o es e en da a o 27 Eu opean coun ies be ween 2000 and
2021. We p esen a la ge-n analysis o how he le el and ‘mo emen cha ac e ’ o
union p o es co a ies wi h he s eng h and ins i u ional se ings o union mo e-
men s ac oss egimes. We show ha unions emain impo an p o es ac o s and
ha union p o es in he public sphe e no ably ou weighs wo kplace- ela ed s ikes.
Fu he mo e, we ind an in e se ela ionship be ween union ins i u ionaliza ion and
he ‘mo emen cha ac e ’ o union p o es : While s ong union mo emen s in
highly ins i u ionalized egimes display a s ike-hea y epe oi e, weake union
mo emen s in con ex s o low ins i u ionaliza ion ely hea ily on p o es ac ions be-
yond he wo kplace s ike. Wi h hese indings, we p o ide a no el empi ical as-
sessmen o wha unions do in he p o es a ena and how ins i u ional se ings can
be conduci e o s ike-hea y e sus p o es -hea y union ac ics.
Key wo ds: ade unions, social mo emen s, indus ial ela ions, s ikes, ci il socie y, Eu ope
1. In oduc ion
T ade unions ha e la gely depa ed om hei social mo emen o igins and ha e become
inside s h oughou he 20 h cen u y: They ha e been ecognized as nego ia ing pa ne s by
bo h go e nmen and business, g an ed igh s and p i ileges in wage ba gaining and gained
in luence in social policymaking (S eeck and Hassel, 2003; Hyman, 2015). Howe e , his
de elopmen has no p og essed o he same ex en ac oss Eu opean democ acies. Hyman
(2001, p. 2) iden i ies h ee ade union ideologies anging be ween he poles o ma ke ,
class and socie y: (a) ‘Business unionism’, whe e unions ac p ima ily as in e es g oups and
a e mainly conce ned wi h labou ma ke issues and collec i e ba gaining; (b) unions as
‘schools o wa ’ and agen s o class con lic , whe e p o es ia ex a-ins i u ional channels is
he p ima y mode o ac ion; and las ly (c) ‘social pa ne ship’, whe e unions ac as economi-
cally s abilizing o ces in socie y and ad oca e o social jus ice mo e gene ally. While none
© The Au ho (s) 2024. Published by Ox o d Uni e si y P ess and he Socie y o he Ad ancemen o Socio-Economics.
This is an Open Access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion License (h ps://
c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/), which pe mi s un es ic ed euse, dis ibu ion, and ep oduc ion in any
medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed.
Socio-Economic Re iew, 2025, Vol. 23, No. 1, 75–96
h ps://doi.o g/10.1093/se /mwae056
Ad ance Access Publica ion Da e: 24 Sep embe 2024
A icle
o hese ideologies exis oday in hei ideal- ypical o m, ade unions ac oss Eu ope can be
ound on his spec um, balancing nego ia ion and mili ancy, as well as wo ke s’ in e es s
and b oade socie al issues.
This balancing ac be ween in e es g oup and social mo emen ac o in ade unions’
epe oi es has been neglec ed by he social mo emen and indus ial ela ions li e a u es.
Indus ial ela ions schola s place a s ong ocus on declining s ike le els and la gely dis e-
ga d unions’ p o es epe oi e beyond he wo kplace s ike (Kelly, 2015a). While indi id-
ual case s udies ha e begun o examine whe he o he o ms o union p o es migh be
displacing wo kplace s ikes in Sweden (Jansson and Uba, 2023) and in he UK (Gall and
Ki k, 2018), Jansson and Uba (2023) no e ha ‘ he li e a u e lacks a sys ema ic in es iga-
ion o unions’ b oade p o es epe oi e’ (p. 256). The social mo emen li e a u e, on he
o he hand, has mainly ocused on union ac i i ies beyond he classical s ike, including li -
e a u e on social mo emen unionism as a s a egy o union e i aliza ion (G o e and
Wagemann, 2018; Ches a e al., 2019; Pila i and Pe a, 2020, 2022; Po os and Della
Po a, 2020), case s udies on union mo emen s in indi idual coun ies (Ches a e al., 2019;
Pila i and Pe a, 2020, 2022) and in pa icula momen s in ime, such as he aus e i y p o-
es s in he wake o he G ea Recession (Po os and Della Po a, 2020).
In his a icle, we wan o shed a new ligh on unions as p o es ac o s by uni ing he in-
dus ial ela ions and social mo emen pe spec i es: We ask how union mo emen s balance
wo kplace s ikes and p o es beyond he wo kplace, and how his a ies wi h he s eng h
o union mo emen s and ins i u ional se ings ac oss indus ial ela ions egimes. We be-
lie e ha by join ly conside ing wo kplace s ikes and p o es beyond he wo kplace as in e-
g al pa s o he union p o es epe oi e, we can lea n unde wha ci cums ances unions
p ima ily a ge employe s and challenge wo king condi ions (wo kplace s ikes), and when
hey challenge he poli ical and public ealm (p o es beyond he wo kplace). This adds a
new dimension o he deba e on declining s ike a es by empi ically con as ing s ikes
wi h all o he union ac i i ies in he p o es a ena (e.g. Gall and Ki k, 2018; Jansson and
Uba, 2023). By showing how he s uc u al and his o ical se ing o he indus ial ela ions
egimes a ec s unions’ epe oi es in posi ions o s eng h e sus weakness, we con ibu e
o ongoing deba es on when and unde wha ci cums ances unions mobilize mo e gene ally
(Ko pi and Shale , 1979; B andl and T axle , 2010; Bacca o e al., 2003; Lind all, 2013)
and when hey eso o mo emen ac ics mo e speci ically (Della Po a, 2006;
Fai b o he , 2008).
We se ou o desc ibe (a) how o en unions engage in p o es ac i i ies ela i e o o he
ac o s in he p o es a ena (le el o union p o es ), (b) o wha ex en unions engage in clas-
sical s ikes e sus union p o es beyond he wo kplace (wha we call he mo emen cha ac-
e o union p o es ) and (c) how he le el and mo emen cha ac e o union p o es a y
wi h he s eng h o he union mo emen and hei ins i u ional se ings ac oss indus ial
ela ions egimes. We do so by d awing on a la ge-n da ase o p o es e en s o 27
Eu opean coun ies and he yea s 2000–2021, coded based on English-language newswi es.
We make an empi ical con ibu ion by in oducing a no el indica o o unions’ mo emen
cha ac e , which se s in ela ion classical s ikes and o he union p o es beyond
he wo kplace.
We ely on he indus ial ela ions egimes p oposed by Visse (2009) and Ebbinghaus
and Visse (1997) as ou main analy ical lens and dis inguish be ween co po a is , social
pa ne ship, s a e-cen ed, libe al and he he e ogenous ansi ional egimes ( om he e
76 G. H€
ol mann e al.
on: Cen al and Eas e n Eu opean (CEE) egimes). Combining hese egimes wi h heo ies
on union mobiliza ion (powe - esou ce hypo hesis and ins i u ional-access hypo hesis), we
o mula e expec a ions as o how p esen unions a e in he p o es a ena (le els o union
p o es ) and he ex en o which hey engage in p o es beyond s ike a he wo kplace
(mo emen cha ac e o union p o es ) ac oss he di e en egimes.
O e all, we ind ha unions a e pa o , on a e age, a hi d o all p o es e en s ac oss
he egimes examined. No ably, o all bu one indus ial ela ions egime, wo kplace-
ela ed s ikes make up a mino i y o all union mobiliza ion in he p o es a ena. While we
ind li le a ia ion ac oss indus ial ela ions egimes when i comes o he ela i e p esence
o unions in he p o es a ena, he egimes do play a signi ican ole in explaining he a y-
ing mo emen cha ac e o union p o es . We ind ha while he mos powe ul unions in
he co po a is egimes a e leas likely o eso o p o es ac ion beyond he wo kplace, he
s uc u ally weakes unions o he CEE egimes display he s onges mo emen cha ac e .
By con as , ou esul s demons a e a su p isingly s ong con e gence be ween he social
pa ne ship, libe al and s a e-cen ed egimes, which all display in e media e le els o mo e-
men cha ac e . We he e o e p esen ini ial e idence ha he mo emen cha ac e o union
p o es is in e sely ela ed o he s eng h o he union mo emen and i s ins i u ional ac-
cess: in o he wo ds, s onge union mo emen s wi h high ins i u ional access ely mo e
hea ily on s ikes o e o he o ms o p o es , whe eas weake union mo emen s in con-
ex s o low ins i u ional access p ima ily mobilize ou side o he wo kplace.
2. Theo e ical amewo k
2.1 T ade unions as p o es ac o s: uni ing pe spec i es om social mo emen
and indus ial ela ions li e a u e
The ole o ade unions as p o es ac o s has ecei ed li le a en ion in bo h he social
mo emen and indus ial ela ions li e a u e. Wi h he eme gence o new social mo emen s
and he demise o he ‘social ques ion’, ade unions ha e inc easingly disappea ed om so-
cial mo emen esea ch. Only ecen ly, in he wake o he G ea Recession, ha e social
mo emen schola s edisco e ed ade unions as p o es ac o s: The ole o unions in an i-
aus e i y p o es s since he onse o he global inancial c isis has led o a call o e-embed
unions in social mo emen esea ch (e.g. Ches a e al., 2019; Pila i and Pe a, 2020, 2022;
Po os and Della Po a, 2020). O e all, hese case s udies obse e mo e and mo e labo mo-
biliza ion om posi ions o s uc u al weakness and wi h a eo ien a ion owa ds mo e-
men ac ics (Po os and Della Po a, 2020). Ches a e al. (2019) desc ibe wo ke
mobiliza ion in he p eca ious gig economy, Pila i and Pe a (2020) show ha union mobili-
za ion was especially success ul whe e unions main ained alliances wi h social mo emen
ac o s, and Pila i and Pe a (2022) poin o he agmen a ion o labo in e es s in he
s ee s be ween adi ional unions, non-wo king g oups and p eca ious wo ke s.
The indus ial ela ions li e a u e on he o he hand has a na owe , almos exclusi e o-
cus on s ikes and union mobiliza ion a he wo kplace (Kelly, 2015a; Jansson and Uba,
2023). This b anch o esea ch documen s a con inuous decline in s ike ac ion since he
1980s (Piazza, 2005; Gall and Allsop, 2007; Kelly e al., 2013; Kelly, 2015b). Howe e ,
o e he same pe iod, he numbe o gene al s ikes di ec ed a go e nmen s has emained
s able and e en inc eased in ce ain coun ies (Gall and Allsop, 2007, pp. 62–65; Kelly
e al., 2013). This has led Kelly (2015a,b) o sugges ha ‘ he collapse in s ike ac i i y [ … ]
T ade union p o es 77
may signi ican ly unde s a e he con inuing abili y o unions o mobilize membe s and ci i-
zens in an i-go e nmen p o es s and campaigns’ (p. 538, also see Hamann e al., 2013).
The e is hus eason o belie e ha p o es in he s ee s beyond ou ine s ikes emains an
impo an —i no inc easing—pa o he con empo a y epe oi e o ade union mobiliza-
ion. This so-called displacemen heo y has been examined in wo case s udies on Sweden
(Jansson and Uba, 2023) and he UK (Gall and Ki k, 2018), which bo h ind ha , on he
whole, he decline in s ikes does no seem o be compensa ed by a ise in o he o ms o
union p o es (Gall and Ki k, 2018; Jansson and Uba, 2023).
In his a icle, we se ou o p esen a no el pe spec i e on ade unions as p o es ac o s
by aking a la ge-n compa a i e pe spec i e on union p o es ac i i ies and pain ing a di e -
en ia ed pic u e o union p o es beyond wo kplace s ikes. In doing so, we answe he call
o social mo emen schola s o e-embed unions in he p o es a ena and o examine union
p o es no jus in momen s o economic c isis (Po os and Della Po a, 2020). We also seek
o ex end he pe spec i e o indus ial ela ions schola s o he ealm o union p o es be-
yond he wo kplace s ike (Kelly e al., 2013; Jansson and Uba, 2023) and by asking how
indus ial ela ions se ings a ec unions’ p o es epe oi es.
2.2 The mo emen cha ac e o union p o es : balancing s ikes e sus o he
union p o es
T ade unions ha e a ious channels and modes o ac ion o choose om (Bacca o e al.,
2003; Sil e , 2003; Pila i and Pe a, 2020). F om he pe spec i e o unions as in e es
g oups, S eeck and Hassel (2003, p. 344) a ibu e h ee main ins i u ional channels o in-
luence o ade unions—p e e en ial pa y linkages (his o ically mainly wi h le is pa -
ies), quasi-s a e ins i u ions ha concede a ying le els o social policy in luence o unions,
and ipa i e councils. In some cases, unions ha e e en launched hei own candida es in
elec ions o mobilized in di ec democ a ic campaigns (e.g. in Swi ze land) (Ebbinghaus and
Visse , 2000, p. 6).
Howe e , when hese ins i u ional channels ail, s ikes a e unions’ classical o m o ac-
ion. Unions a e he only p o es ac o s wi h he powe ul le e age o commanding wo k
s oppages (Ebbinghaus and Visse , 2000, p. 14). A he same ime, unions’ ac ion epe oi e
in he ex a-ins i u ional ealm goes a beyond he classical s ike. T ade unions a e adi-
ionally p esen in he p o es a ena, egula ly mobilizing o b oade socie al issues beyond
jus labou in e es s: Amongs o he s, unions ook o he s ee s in he name o in e na ional
peace and abo ion igh s, agains he wa in I aq in he ea ly 2000s, and, mos ecen ly,
played an impo an ole in he an i-aus e i y mo emen s in he wake o he global inancial
c isis (e.g. S eeck and Hassel, 2003; Acco ne o and Ramos Pin o, 2015; Della Po a, 2015;
Pe e son e al., 2015; Hunge and Lo enzini, 2020).
The li e a u e on social mo emen unionism also emphasizes ha unions’ an i-
ins i u ional s uggle includes engaging o b oade socie al issues and beyond one’s imme-
dia e cons i uency (Baccca o e al., 2003; D€
o e, 2008; Fai b o he , 2008). Fai b o he
(2008) sugges s ha he ou dis inguishing elemen s o social mo emen unionism a e (a)
encompassing g ass oo s mobiliza ion, (b) building alliances wi h o he socie al ac o s, (c)
emb acing b oade emancipa o y claims and ans o ma i e socie al isions and (d) spon-
so ing collec i e ac ion beyond s ikes o mobiliza ion a he wo kplace (p. 214).
Focusing in pa icula on his las elemen o social mo emen unionism, we wan o
d aw a concep ual dis inc ion be ween wo kplace s ikes on he one hand, and o he o ms
78 G. H€
ol mann e al.

o union p o es on he o he hand. We sugges ha a cen al di iding line be ween s ikes
and o he o ms o union p o es lies in whe he unions p ima ily add ess employe s—in
he o m o wo kplace s ikes—o whe he hey also add ess he s a e and he public,
h ough p o es ac ion beyond he wo kplace on public economic, poli ical and o he socie-
al issues. While wo kplace s ikes a e he p ima y ac ion o m o add ess g ie ances wi h
employe s, demons a ions and o he p o es o ms beyond he wo kplace may be be e
sui ed o gain he a en ion o elec ed decision-make s and he gene al public, especially
when demands a e ela ed o b oade economic o socie al issues (B andl and T axle ,
2010; Pe e son e al., 2012).
We hus p opose o de ine he ex en o which unions main ain a ‘mo emen cha ac e ’
in e ms o p o es o ms and issues ha go beyond ‘classical’ s ikes a he wo kplace. In
ou analysis, we he e o e dis inguish be ween wo kplace s ikes on he one hand e sus
union ac ions beyond he wo kplace (such as gene al s ikes, demons a ions, blockades o
symbolic p o es o ms) on he o he hand. To wha ex en unions engage in s ike e sus
o he p o es o ms e eals whe he unions p ima ily ocus on con lic s wi h employe s
(s ike-hea y) o on con lic s wi h go e nmen , socie y and he economy a la ge (p o es -
hea y). In he ollowing, we discuss how his balance may depend on he ins i u ional s uc-
u es ha unions a e embedded in.
2.3 Theo ies o union mobiliza ion: when do unions mobilize o s ike and
o he o ms o p o es ?
While esea ch discussing he ac o s ha de e mine he occu ence and o e ime decline o
wo kplace s ikes is ex ensi e, he e is e y li le wo k when i comes o explaining o he
o ms o union mobiliza ion. Excep ions a e o example B andl and T axle (2010), who
ha e w i en abou ac o s de e mining he occu ence o s ike and lockou s as well as
Lind all (2013) and Kelly e al. (2013) who ha e examined ac o s de e mining poli ical
s ike. We he e o e d aw on heo ies ha explains wo kplace and poli ical s ike and hy-
po hesize how hey migh a el o union p o es mo e gene ally.
As Kelly (2015a) w i es, he ac o s ha lead o s ikes can be g ouped in o economic,
poli ical and ins i u ional ac o s. He e, we ocus on ins i u ional ac o s, because we a e in-
e es ed in c oss-coun y pa e ns a he han changes o e ime. F om an ins i u ional pe -
spec i e, how equen ly unions mo e in o he p o es a ena is a ec ed by hei
associa ional powe on he one hand (powe - esou ce hypo hesis) and hei access o ins i-
u ions on he o he hand (access hypo hesis) (B andl and T axle , 2010). Associa ional
powe in he o m o union membe ship (union densi y) is hough o p o ide unions wi h
he basic capaci ies and esou ces o mobiliza ion (Shale , 1992; Piazza, 2005; Lind all,
2013; Kelly, 2015a; Yang and Kwon, 2019). In con as , ins i u ional access and co po a -
is ins i u ions mo e gene ally a e hough o educe he likelihood o p o es and inc ease
he chances ha labou con lic s a e esol ed by nego ia ion (Ko pi and Shale , 1979;
B andl and T axle , 2010). This can ma e ialize in e ms o high ba gaining le els o s uc-
u es ha p o ide unions wi h access o ins i u ions o in luence in he policymaking p o-
cess such as ipa i e councils. Limi ed ins i u ional and poli ical access should he e o e
make unions mo e likely o ake i o he s ee s (Della Po a, 2006; Gall and Allsop, 2007).
The e is mixed e idence in suppo o hese b oad mechanisms: B andl and T axle
(2010) ind e idence ha union densi y ela i e o business powe has a mobilizing e ec .
Fo poli ical s ikes, Kelly e al. (2013) ind union densi y o be less ele an in p edic ing
T ade union p o es 79
poli ical s ikes han unions’ inclusion in policymaking. Mo eo e , union densi y does no
necessa ily ha e a linea ela ionship wi h union mobiliza ion. Ra he , se e al s udies p o-
pose and ind a non-mono onic ela ionship: Tsebelis and Lange (1995) heo e ically in o-
duce and empi ically demons a e a cu ilinea ela ionship be ween union densi y and
s ike le els. Piazza (2005) also inds a non-mono onic ela ionship be ween union densi y
and s ike le els. Las ly, Lind all (2013) is able o ex end hese indings o he occu ence o
poli ical s ikes. His a gumen o a cu ilinea ela ionship is essen ially a syn hesis o he
powe - esou ce and access-hypo heses: Bo h in he case o e y powe ul unions ha can
gain concessions om employe s o go e nmen s by he me e h ea o s ikes (and he e-
o e do no need o eso o mili ancy), as well as in he case o weak union mo emen s
ha a e no in a posi ion o mobilize because o a lack o esou ces and membe s, poli ical
o economic s ikes a e unlikely. As a esul , union mo emen s o medium associa ional
powe should be mos likely o eso o poli ical s ikes, gi en ha he nego ia ing si ua ion
is domina ed by unce ain y abou he o he sides’ ba gaining powe (Tsebelis and Lange,
1995; Lind all, 2013). We would expec ha he cu ilinea a gumen should apply no
only o he equency o economic and poli ical s ikes, bu also o he le el o union p o es
o e all. We would he e o e expec ha bo h e y s ong and e y weak union mo emen s
should ha e he lowes p esence in he p o es a ena, while union mo emen s o in e medi-
a e powe should mobilize mos equen ly.
Howe e , would we also expec his in e play be ween esou ces and ins i u ional access
when i comes o he mo emen cha ac e o union p o es ? I is impo an o no e ha his
indica o cap u es no he le el, bu he composi ion o union p o es : in o he wo ds, he
balance be ween engaging in s ikes e sus o he o ms o p o es in he s ee s. We a gue
ha while he le el o union p o es is e y much ela ed o a combina ion o esou ces and
ins i u ional access, he composi ion o union p o es should no necessa ily be ela ed o
union esou ces. I is no a ques ion o how many p o es s a union can s age, bu whe he i
ocuses on a s ike-hea y o a p o es -hea y epe oi e. Re u ning o he a gumen s abou
powe esou ces and ins i u ional access, we expec he deg ee o ins i u ional access o play
he cen al ole o he composi ion (mo emen cha ac e ) o union p o es s.
We a gue ha p ecisely because hey lack access o he ins i u ional channels necessa y
o add ess hei g ie ances, weake union mo emen s may need o engage in non-s ike mo-
biliza ion and mo emen -o ien ed ac ions o expand hei membe ship and de elop c oss-
sec o al solida i y. By con as , i unions a e sa ely embedded in an indus ial se ing ha
p o ides hem wi h su icien ins i u ional access, such as access o policymaking, high ba -
gaining powe and co e age, he incen i e o eso o b oad mobiliza ion o mili ancy
should be s ongly educed. We he e o e expec o ind he lowes mo emen cha ac e
(s ike-hea y epe oi e) in se ings in which unions a e s ongly ins i u ionally embedded,
while we expec a high display o mo emen cha ac e (p o es -hea y epe oi e) in se ings
which o e low ins i u ional access, o cing unions o he s ee s ins ead o he nego ia -
ing able.
2.4 Va ie ies o union p o es ac oss indus ial ela ions egimes
Now ha we ha e discussed he ins i u ional ac o s ha shape union mobiliza ion, we in-
oduce he indus ial ela ions egimes and o mula e expec a ions o he le el and mo e-
men cha ac e o union p o es in each. We op o a egime pe spec i e because he
indus ial ela ions egimes bundle se e al a iables o ins i u ional union se ings, bu also
80 G. H€
ol mann e al.
because hey cap u e a ce ain his o ical pa h dependency o union mo emen s, which we
deem highly ele an o unde s anding unions’ p o es beha io . Fo he same easons, he
social mo emen li e a u e o en examines p o es pa e ns om a egional pe spec i e (e.g.
Bo b�
a h and Gessle , 2020; K iesi e al., 2020a).
Cap u ing di e en se ings o union densi y, ba gaining le els and ins i u ional access,
Visse (2009) based on Ebbinghaus and Visse (1997) sugges s i e indus ial ela ions
egimes: o ganized co po a ism (Scandina ia/No he n Eu ope); social pa ne ship egimes
(Con inen al Eu ope); s a e-cen ed egimes (Sou he n Eu ope including F ance); libe al
egimes (Anglo-Saxon coun ies); and he CEE egimes (Cen al-Eas e n Eu ope).
Combining he indus ial ela ions ypology wi h he powe - esou ce and ins i u ional-
access hypo heses, we can o mula e expec a ions as o (a) he le el and (b) he mo emen
cha ac e o union p o es .
The egimes can oughly be placed on a scale anging om high o low le els o union
mo emen s eng h. While he o ganized co po a ism o he Scandina ian coun ies cham-
pions he highes le els o union densi y, ba gaining le els and ins i u ional access o his
day, he he e ogenous egimes o Cen al and Eas e n Eu ope can be placed on he low end
o his scale. The social pa ne ship, s a e-cen ed and libe al egimes lie in be ween hese
wo ex emes, whe e he social pa ne ship coun ies sha e mo e simila i ies wi h o ganized
co po a ism han he la e egimes.
S a ing wi h ou expec a ions o he le el o union p o es , we expec a cu ilinea p o-
es pa e n whe e bo h e y s ong and e y weak union mo emen s display low le els o
union p o es , while union mo emen s o in e media e s eng h should be mos likely o en-
gage in p o es . We would he e o e expec ha he high le els o ins i u ional access, highe
union densi ies and a s ong coope a i e ela ionship wi h employe s should encou age ela-
i e labou quiescence in he co po a is and social pa ne ship egimes. The s a e-cen ed
and libe al egimes, by con as , a e cha ac e ized by espec i ely lowe union densi y (pa -
icula ly in he libe al egimes) and less ins i u ional access (such as sec o al o company-
le el ba gaining o lowe ba gaining co e age), making con lic ual labou ela ions mo e
likely. Especially in sou he n Eu ope’s s a e-cen ed egimes, ade unions ha e, despi e low
membe ship numbe s, ‘shown a emendous capaci y o mobilize people in s ikes and p o-
es s well beyond he anks o hei own membe ship’, a p ime example being F ance, wi h
e y low union densi y bu e y high ba gaining co e age (Kelly, 2015b, p. 538). Las ly,
union mo emen s in he he e ogenous egimes o Cen al and Eas e n Eu ope sco e e y
low in e ms o all o hese indica o s, wi h ba gaining p ac ices desc ibed as ‘acquiescen ’
(Visse , 2009, p. 49). Gi en he s uc u al weakness o unions in he CEE egimes, we he e-
o e expec unions’ p esence in he CEE p o es a ena o be especially low.
Mo ing on o ou expec a ions on he mo emen cha ac e o union p o es , we expec
he decision o engage in p o es ac ions beyond he wo kplace o be linked mainly o a lack
o ins i u ional access, as a gued in Sec ion 2.3. He e, we would hypo hesize ha s onge
union mo emen s wi h mo e ins i u ional access a e less likely o eso o mo emen ac ics
han unions in weake indus ial ela ions se ings wi h less ins i u ional access. In
No he n Eu ope, and unde o ganized co po a ism we obse e he s onges ins i u ional
access o all he indus ial ela ions egimes: In ha con ex , unions almos ully ely on he
poli ical p ocess o each hei ends (S eeck and Hassel, 2003, p. 345), o he ex en ha
hey a e some imes e e ed o as ‘labou ma ke pa ies’ (Hyman, 2001). This le el o ins i-
u ional access should ende mo emen -o ien ed p o es o ms a less necessa y.
T ade union p o es 81
Howe e , wi h dec easing ins i u ional access, which can mani es in e ms o lowe ba -
gaining le els, he absence o ipa i e councils o in ol emen in policymaking, we expec
o see an inc easing sha e o p o es ac ions beyond he wo kplace s ike. We he e o e ex-
pec o see a highe mo emen cha ac e in he social pa ne ship, s a e-cen ed and libe al
egimes compa ed o o ganized co po a ism. Las ly, ins i u ional access is lowes in he
CEE egimes, leading us o expec ha hey in es p ima ily in union p o es beyond he
wo kplace. This expec a ion is also in line wi h schola ship on unions’ p o es epe oi e in
he CEE egimes: Since he end o communis ule, unions ha e p ima ily o ganized agains
he s a e no agains capi al (Os , 2002) and ha e con inued o display ac ics o ien ed o-
wa ds social mo emen unionism (Va ga, 2015; Dolenec e al., 2021).
Table 1 summa izes ou expec a ions wi h ega d o he le el and he mo emen cha ac-
e o union p o es ac oss he di e en egimes.
3. Da a and me hodology
We now u n o ou empi ical ma e ial and s a egy o da a analysis. One o he p incipal
easons why he indus ial ela ions li e a u e ends o ocus on wo kplace s ikes is he lack
o publicly a ailable da ase s ha collec da a on union p o es ac ion beyond he s ike
(Kelly, 2015a). Fu he , o icial na ional s ike s a is ics su e om se ious sho comings
when analysed in a compa a i e manne : be ween coun ies, measu es o indus ial ac ion
o en di e in hei de ini ion and sou ces (B andl and T axle , 2010; Kelly, 2015a).
In his a icle, we ely on an upda ed e sion o he ecen ly published PolDem P o es
Da ase , co e ing a o al o 30 Eu opean coun ies based on he coding o 10 English lan-
guage newswi es (K iesi e al., 2020b; Lo enzini e al., 2022). Ou upda ed e sion o he
da ase allows us o co e he yea s om 2000 o 2021. The unde lying me hod, p o es
e en analysis (PEA), has been one o he main app oaches in he s udy o longi udinal and
c oss-sec ional e olu ion o p o es (Hu e , 2014). While p o es e en da a has i s own
sho comings, i has he majo ad an age o allowing us o se s ikes and o he p o es
e en s in ela ion, gi en ha hey a e d awn om he same da a sou ce and sys ema ically
collec ed in he same manne . We u he expand on ou decision o use PEA is-�
a- is o i-
cial s ike s a is ics in Supplemen a y Appendix D and p esen a compa ison o he wo
da a ypes.
In ou da ase , union sponso ship o a p o es e en includes ins ances when unions (co-
)o ganize, ake pa in and/o call o pa icipa ion in a p o es e en . We adop his b oad
unde s anding o sponso ship because, as Ruch (1998, p. 41) highligh ed some ime ago,
Table 1 Expec a ions: le el and mo emen cha ac e o union p o es by egimes
O ganized
co po a ism
(No h)
Social
pa ne ship
(Wes )
S a e-cen ed
(Sou h)
Libe al
(Anglo-Saxon)
CEE (Cen al
and Eas e n)
Le el o union p o es s Low Low High High Low
Mo emen cha ac e
o union p o es s
Low Medium Medium Medium High
82 G. H€
ol mann e al.
In he inal s ep o ou analysis, we es he e ec o he union egimes on he le el and
mo emen cha ac e o union p o es in a mul ile el logi eg ession. We do so o iden i y
he e ec s o indus ial ela ions egimes on op o c oss-na ional he e ogenei y and con ex-
ual ac o s, namely, unemploymen a es, luc ua ions in go e nmen cabine s and he i-
nancial c isis. Table 3 p esen s he esul s.
S a ing wi h he ole o he indus ial ela ions egimes in hese wo models, we ind
ha while he egimes appea o ha e no (signi ican ) associa ion wi h he ela i e p esence
o unions in he p o es a ena (DV1/Model 1), we do obse e a signi ican ela ionship be-
ween he egimes and he mo emen cha ac e o union p o es (DV2/Model 2).
Co obo a ing ou p e ious desc ip i e indings, he ma gins plo in Figu e 5 shows ha he
co po a is and CEE egimes s and apa wi h he lowes and highes mo emen cha ac e
espec i ely. The emaining egimes clus e ela i ely close oge he in he middle.
Howe e , i should be no ed ha while he e is a subs an i e di e ence in mo emen cha -
ac e be ween he s a e-cen ed and CEE egimes, his di e ence is no signi ican , sugges -
ing ha he wo egimes a e in ac simila ly mo emen o ien ed. Supplemen a y Appendix
Table A1 p o ides an o e iew o he same eg ession wi h o a ing e e ence ca ego ies.
While he e is no s ic linea ela ionship be ween he (lack o ) ins i u ional access and
mo emen cha ac e , ou indings do s ongly sugges ha in con ex s o high
Table 2 Union p o es epe oi e by indus ial ela ions egimes
Co po a ism
(No h)
Social
pa ne ship
(Wes )
S a e-cen ed
(Sou h)
Libe al
(Anglo-Saxon)
CEE
egimes
Issues
Econ P i a e 77.5 39.5 22 40 19
Econ Public 16 48.5 59 44 63.5
Poli ical/Cul u al�6 10 14.5 9.5 11.5
O he issue 1 2 5 6.5 6
Ac ion Fo ms
S ikes 79.5 58.5 52 68 38.5
Demons a ions 12 32 35.5 25.5 44
Pe i ion/symbolic 2 3 2 2.5 8.5
Con on a ions/blockades 3.5 4.5 6.5 3 6
Violen p o es 1.5 0.5 2.5 0.5 0.5
O he p o es 1.5 1.5 1 0.5 2.5
Coope a ion wi h o he p o es ac o s
Unions ‘alone’ 67 62 70 73.5 74.5
w. occupa ional social g oups 25 29 20.5 20 19
w. o he social g oups 1 1.5 2.5 1.5 1.5
w. poli ical pa ies 0.5 2 2 1.5 2.5
w. o he ac o s 2 4 2.5 2 1.5
No es:
�
The ca ego y ‘Poli ical/Cul u al’ includes issues coded by K iesi e al. (2020a,b) as poli ical, cul u ally libe al,
cul u ally conse a i e o xenophobia. Pe cen ages a e calcula ed o an a e age coun y in each egion. The
di e ence o 100% is due o ounding e o s.
T ade union p o es 89

ins i u ionaliza ion and union powe , he mo emen cha ac e o union p o es is low, while
he opposi e is he case o con ex s o e y low ins i u ional access and union powe .
Mo ing on o he speci ic cha ac e is ics o union p o es , he eg ession suppo s he
endencies p esen ed desc ip i ely: unions a e mo e likely o sponso p o es on p i a e o
public economic issues, while hey a e less likely o pa icipa e in e en s ela ed o poli ical
o cul u al issues (Model 1). Fu he , he mos likely ac ion o m o unions is he s ike, ol-
lowed by demons a ions. Impo an ly, we ind ha when unions mobilize beyond he
Table 3 Le el o union p o es (DV1) and mo emen cha ac e o union p o es (DV2)
Model 1 Model 2
Union sponso ship
o p o es (¼1)
Mo emen cha ac e
o union p o es (¼1)
Region (Re : Co po a is : No h)
Social-pa ne ship (Wes ) 0.07 (0.29) 1.95 (0.57)���
S a e-cen ed (Sou h) 0.36 (0.30) 2.04 (0.59)���
Libe al 0.18 (0.33) 1.31 (0.65)�
CEE egimes 0.13 (0.27) 2.89 (0.54)���
P o es Issues
P i a e economic (0,1) 2.25 (0.07)���
Public economic (0,1) 2.27 (0.06)���
Poli ical (0,1) −1.09 (0.07)���
Cul u al (0,1) −1.32 (0.08)���
Ac ion Fo ms
Demons a ion (0,1) 0.90 (0.06)���
S ike (0,1) 2.49 (0.07)���
P o es Ac o s
Occupa ional social g oup (0,1) −3.12 (0.06)��� −0.07 (0.09)
O he social g oup (0,1) 0.99 (0.12)��� 2.62 (0.48)���
Pa ies (0,1) −1.06 (0.09)��� 3.00 (0.52)���
Pa icipa ion a e 5.06 (0.94)��� 12.47 (3.07)���
C isis (Re : No mal Times)
Shock pe iod 0.31 (0.13)�0.73 (0.23)��
Eu o c isis −0.09 (0.11) 0.08 (0.18)
Pos -c ises yea s (a e 2015) −0.97 (0.11)��� 0.29 (0.20)
Poli ical & economic con ex
Cabine le - igh −0.03 (0.19) −0.03 (0.32)
Unemploymen (qua e ly) 0.24 (0.32) 1.89 (0.58)��
Num. obs. 25711 6638
Num. g oups: s _label 589 479
Num. g oups: iso2code 27 27
No e:
���
P<.001;
��
P<.01;
�
P<.05. The dependen a iables a e bina y and a e de ined in he ollowing way: DV1:
Le els o union p o es ; 1 ¼Union-sponso ed p o es e en s; 0 ¼All o he p o es e en s; DV2: Mo emen
cha ac e o union p o es : 1 ¼Non-s anda d union p o es ; 0 ¼Wo kplace s ikes. We use mul ile el logi
eg essions wi h andom in e cep , wi h p o es e en s nes ed in coun y�yea con ex s, nes ed in coun ies.
P o es issues and ac ion o ms appea in model 1, bu no in model 2, since he second dependen a iable is
de ined by he combina ion o ac ion o ms and p o es issues.
90 G. H€
ol mann e al.
wo kplace s ike, hey a e mo e likely o coope a e wi h non-occupa ional social g oups o
pa ies han o p o es alone (Model 2).
Explo ing he ole o addi ional con ex ual ac o s, we ind ha he poli ical o ien a ion
o he go e nmen does no play a ole o unions’ p esence in he p o es a ena, o o he
mo emen cha ac e o union p o es . Con a y o he li e a u e on he ela ionship be ween
unemploymen and union p o es , ou indings show ha unemploymen a es do no sig-
ni ican ly a ec unions’ ela i e p esence in he p o es a ena (DV1). A he same ime,
highe unemploymen seems o inc ease he likelihood o unions o mo e beyond he wo k-
place s ike and mobilize in he s ee s, e en when con olling o he c isis yea s (DV2).
Las ly, we pe o m h ee obus ness es s on ou egime e ec s. Fi s , o ensu e ha ou
esul s a e no only due o he p olonged economic c isis, we ollow K iesi e al. (2020a) in
explo ing a c isis e ec , and un a spli sample eg ession o he p e-c isis yea s (2000–
2007) e sus he c isis yea s (2008–2015) (see Supplemen a y Appendix Table B1). Second,
o s eng hen he case o ou egime a gumen , we es o wha ex en he e ec o union
egimes is obus o con olling o in a- egional he e ogenei y in indus ial ela ions
(union densi y, ba gaining le els, ipa i e councils and ou ine in ol emen ) and whe he
he e ec o hese a iables holds explana o y powe beyond he clus e s o union egimes
(see Supplemen a y Appendix Tables B2 and B3). He e we also es whe he he egime
Figu e 5 P edic ed p obabili ies o indus ial ela ions egimes on unions’ mo emen cha ac e
(Model 2; DV2).
No e: Figu e 5 p esen s p edic ed p obabili ies o he e ec o he indus ial ela ions egimes on
unions’ mo emen cha ac e . The esul s a e calcula ed based on Model 2 (DV2) in Table 3 abo e.
T ade union p o es 91
di e ences a e explained by di e en ial exposu e o he economic c isis, he so-called e u-
gee c isis o he Co ona i us disease 2019 (Co id-19) pandemic. Thi d, o accoun o pos-
sible he e ogenous o e ime and c oss-na ional cha ac e is ics, we change ou modelling
s a egy and, despi e hei limi a ion (Imai and Kim, 2021), employ a wo-way ixed e ec s
model wi h egime and yea dummies and wo-way clus e ed s anda d e o s.
S a ing wi h he spli sample eg ession, we ind ha o bo h o hese ime pe iods,
unions we e equally p esen in he p o es a ena compa ed o o he p o es ac o s (DV1).
Unions we e he e o e no disp opo ional ca ie s o p o es du ing he c isis, bu we e
also no unde ep esen ed. In a simila ein, we do no ind signi ican di e ences o he
mo emen cha ac e o he di e en union egimes (DV2) when compa ing he p e-c isis
wi h he c isis yea s (wi h he excep ion o he libe al egime as in Supplemen a y Appendix
Figu e 2B shows). In e ac ions be ween he c isis pe iods (no mal imes, shock pe iod and
Eu ozone c isis) and he union egimes do no yield signi ican esul s o ei he DV1 o
DV2. We he e o e conclude ha he egime e ec s on bo h dependen a iables a e obus
o he pe iod e ec o he Eu ozone c isis.
Tu ning o ou second obus ness es , we compa e classical ins i u ional union a iables
agains he indus ial ela ions egimes. We ind ha in se ings o decen alized ba gaining
(company and indus y) as well as wi h egula in ol emen in policymaking ( ull le els o
conce a ion), unions a e less p esen in he p o es a ena. In con as , highe union densi y
signi ican ly inc eases he p esence o unions in he p o es a ena in a linea , as opposed o a
cu ilinea ashion (DV1). In compa ison, none o he ins i u ional union a iables a e sig-
ni ican in explaining he mo emen cha ac e o union p o es un il he union egimes a e
in oduced (DV2). In conclusion, he indus ial ela ions egimes ou pe o m classical ins i-
u ional a iables in explaining he mo emen cha ac e (DV2), bu no he ela i e p es-
ence o unions in he p o es a ena (DV1). This sugges s ha he e is a (possibly cul u al)
egime e ec in explaining he mo emen cha ac e o union p o es beyond jus ins i u-
ional ac o s. Con olling o di e en ial exposu e o economic ci cums ances (unemploy-
men & GDP pe capi a), asylum seeke s o Co id-19 cases does no change he subs an i e
conclusions we d aw on he ela i e di e ences be ween he egimes in p edic ing he mo e-
men cha ac e o ade unions.
Las ly, we un ou analyses using egime and yea ixed e ec s. The esul s a e subs an-
i ely simila o he conclusions we p esen ed abo e. We ind ha he egimes only di e in
he mo emen cha ac e o unions, bu no in he le el o mobiliza ion. In e ms o he
mo emen cha ac e o union p o es (DV2), he di e ence be ween he s a e-cen ed
sou h and he CEE egime sh inks, bu he ela i e ank o de la gely ollows he
expec ed pa e n.
5. Discussion and conclusion
In his a icle, we ha e buil b idges be ween social mo emen s udies and indus ial ela-
ions esea ch by examining how he le el and mo emen cha ac e o union p o es a ies
in he con ex o di e en indus ial ela ions egimes. We make a heo e ical con ibu ion
o he social mo emen and indus ial ela ions li e a u e by ex ending heo ies on eco-
nomic and poli ical s ike occu ence o union p o es beyond he wo kplace (Ko pi and
Shale , 1979; B andl and T axle , 2010; Lind all, 2013). We make an empi ical con ibu-
ion by examining wo kplace s ikes and p o es beyond he wo kplace join ly as pa o
92 G. H€
ol mann e al.
unions’ p o es epe oi es (Jansson and Uba, 2023) and by o e ing a quan i a i e ope a-
ionaliza ion o he ‘mo emen cha ac e ’ o union p o es o deba es on social mo emen
unionism (Della Po a, 2006; Fai b o he , 2008). We also p esen he i s la ge-n compa a-
i e assessmen o union p o es ac oss indus ial ela ions egimes.
Fi s , coun e ing claims by social mo emen schola s, we a e able o show ha unions
a e s ill highly ele an p o es ac o s, accoun ing o abou a hi d o all p o es e en s,
e en independen o c isis momen s like he G ea Recession. Fu he , ou analysis shows
ha he composi ion o union p o es ac oss Eu ope is much mo e mo emen -o ien ed han
expec ed: Beyond he co po a is No h, we see ha union p o es in he public sphe e no a-
bly ou weighs union p o es a he wo kplace. Public economic, poli ical and o he issues
cha ac e ize union p o es ac ion mo e han p i a e economic issues. Con a y o wha one
migh expec in en i onmen s o high social mo emen unionism, we ind ha in he o e -
whelming majo i y o cases, unions sponso p o es on hei own and ela i ely a ely ally
wi h o he ci il socie y ac o s.
Second, we ind ha unions’ mo emen o ien a ion s ongly depends on he indus ial ela-
ions egime: To wha ex en unions eso o s ike-hea y e sus p o es -hea y epe oi es
depends on he ins i u ional se ing and he ela ed s eng h o union mo emen s. Ou eg es-
sion analyses show ha while he e is no s ic linea ela ionship, highly ins i u ionalized
union se ings end o display low le els o mo emen cha ac e , while we obse e highe
deg ees o mo emen o ien a ion in se ings wi h low ins i u ional access. I is especially no a-
ble ha hese egime e ec s on unions’ mo emen cha ac e a e obus o classical ins i u ional
union a iables as well as o he yea s o he G ea Recession and Eu ozone c isis.
Wha a e he gene al implica ions o ou indings? We obse e ema kable i ali y o
unions as p o es ac o s a he beginning o he 21s cen u y. This also sugges s ha iewing
unions as pu e in e es g oups o ocusing exclusi ely on s ike pa e ns does no do jus ice
o hei a ied mobiliza ion epe oi e. On a la ge scale, union engagemen beyond he
wo kplace may be a e lec ion o hei posi ion in a hype -globalized economy. In his con-
ex , p o es beyond s ikes may be bo h he esul o as well as a means o compensa e o
declining ins i u ional and associa ional powe . In line wi h he social mo emen unionism
li e a u e, b oade p o es ac ion can be bo h a sign o s uc u al weakness bu also a ool
and s a egy o o ganiza ion and e i aliza ion. Examining long- e m changes o e ime
wi h da a co e ing ea lie pe iods o union s eng h and subsequen decline can gi e us
mo e insigh in o whe he ou indings a e a sign o union e i aliza ion o documen a
s uggle om a posi ion o weakness.
Supplemen a y ma e ial
Supplemen a y ma e ial is a ailable a Socio-Economic Re iew jou nal online.
Funding
Funding suppo o his a icle was p o ided by he Volkswagen Founda ion (Lich enbe g
P o esso ship, g an numbe 93598).
Con lic o in e es s a emen . The au ho s epo he e a e no compe ing in e es s
o decla e.
T ade union p o es 93
Re e ences
Acco ne o, G. and Ramos Pin o, P. (2015) ‘Mild Manne ed’? P o es and Mobilisa ion in
Po ugal unde Aus e i y, 2010–2013’, Wes Eu opean Poli ics, 38, 491–515. h ps://doi.o g/
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