Fo sy h, An hony; McC ys al, Shae
Wo king Pape
Collec i e ba gaining and collec i e ac ion in he pla o m
economy: A 2024 upda e o de elopmen s in legisla ion,
case law and collec i e ag eemen s
ILO Wo king Pape , No. 143
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
In e na ional Labou O ganiza ion (ILO), Gene a
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Fo sy h, An hony; McC ys al, Shae (2025) : Collec i e ba gaining and collec i e
ac ion in he pla o m economy: A 2024 upda e o de elopmen s in legisla ion, case law and
collec i e ag eemen s, ILO Wo king Pape , No. 143, ISBN 978-92-2-041988-5, In e na ional Labou
O ganiza ion (ILO), Gene a,
h ps://doi.o g/10.54394/EMDS2473
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XCollec i e ba gaining and collec i e
ac ion in he pla o m economy:
A 2024 upda e o de elopmen s in legisla ion, case law and
collec i e ag eemen s
Au ho s / An hony Fo sy h, Shae McC ys al
July / 2025
ILO Wo king Pape 143
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A ibu ion – The use mus indica e i changes we e made and mus ci e he wo k as ollows:
Fo sy h, A., McC ys al, S. Collec i e ba gaining and collec i e ac ion in he pla o m economy:: A 2024
upda e o de elopmen s in legisla ion, case law and collec i e ag eemen s. ILO Wo king Pape 143.
Gene a: In e na ional Labou O ice, 2025.© ILO.
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Fo sy h, A., McC ys al, S. 2025. Collec i e ba gaining and collec i e ac ion in he pla o m econo-
my:: A 2024 upda e o de elopmen s in legisla ion, case law and collec i e ag eemen s, ILO Wo king
Pape 143 (Gene a, ILO). h ps://doi.o g/10.54394/EMDS2473
01 ILO Wo king Pape 143
Abs ac
This wo king pape was p epa ed in 2024 and e iews de elopmen s in e na ionally since 2021
ela ing o he exe cise o he igh o ba gain collec i ely and he exis ence o collec i e ag ee-
men s among wo ke s in he pla o m economy. The pape builds upon ILO Wo king Pape
80, “Realizing he Oppo uni ies o he Pla o m Economy h ough F eedom o Associa ion and
Collec i e Ba gaining” by Felix Hadwige published in Sep embe 2022. I p o ides a desc ip i e
o e iew o esea ch and de elopmen s since 2021 in he e ec i e ecogni ion o he igh o
pla o m wo ke s o ba gain collec i ely and assesses he ex en o de elopmen s in law and
p ac ice ela ing o collec i e ba gaining in e na ionally since ha ime.
The pape ci es ecen collec i e ag eemen s and o he ou comes o collec i e nego ia ions co -
e ing pla o m wo ke s. I also explo es de elopmen s conce ning case law, e ec i e ecogni ion
o collec i e ba gaining o sel -employed wo ke s as well as some ecen de elopmen s in com-
pe i ion egula ion. O e all, while he e ha e been de elopmen s in some ju isdic ions ela ing
o collec i e ac ion o he e ec i e ecogni ion o collec i e ba gaining o pla o m wo ke s, i
has no been geog aphically widesp ead and emains concen a ed in he deli e y/ ood deli -
e y sec o s. Fu he mo e, despi e some ad ancemen s, i emains ha case ha mos pla o m
economy wo ke s globally do no enjoy e ec i e ecogni ion o he igh o collec i e ba gaining.
Abou he au ho s
An hony Fo sy h in his capaci y as a Dis inguished P o esso in he School o Law, RMIT Uni e si y,
Melbou ne, Aus alia. His main a eas o esea ch include collec i e ba gaining, ade unions, la-
bou hi e and gig wo k. He is P esiden o he Aus alian Labou Law Associa ion and au ho o
The Fu u e o Unions and Wo ke Rep esen a ion: The Digi al Picke Line (Ha , 2022).
Shae McC ys al is P o esso o Labou Law a he Uni e si y o Sydney Law School, Sydney,
Aus alia. He esea ch ocuses on he egula ion o collec i e ba gaining and indus ial ac ion,
including he impac o compe i ion laws on he igh s o wo ke s o ac collec i ely. Shae is
co-au ho o S ike Ballo s, Democ acy and Law (Ox o d Uni e si y P ess, 2020) and co-edi o o
The Camb idge Handbook o Labo in Compe i ion Law (Camb idge Uni e si y P ess, 2022). Shae is
Vice-P esiden o he Aus alian Labou Law Associa ion, and an edi o o he Aus alian Jou nal
o Labou Law.
02 ILO Wo king Pape 143
Abs ac 01
Abou he au ho s 01
Ac onyms 04
XIn oduc ion 05
X1 No el esea ch on a eas ha impac he de elopmen o collec i e ba -
gaining and collec i e ac ion 06
Empi ical esea ch in o pla o m economy collec i e o ganizing and ac ion 06
Resea ch on wo ke classi ica ion and he in e sec ion o labou law and compe i ion egu-
la ion 07
Resea ch on o ganizing app oaches and s a egies wi hin he pla o m economy 08
X2 Legisla i e de elopmen s ela ing o e ec i e ecogni ion o he igh o col-
lec i e ba gaining o pla o m wo ke s 10
Aus alia 10
Chile 13
China 13
Eu opean Union 14
F ance 16
Singapo e 17
New Zealand 18
X3 Collec i e ag eemen s and o he ou comes o collec i e nego ia ion o pla -
o m wo ke s 20
Comp ehensi e collec i e ag eemen s 21
I aly 21
Spain 22
Swi ze land 24
Ag eemen s dealing wi h limi ed aspec s o he pla o m-wo ke ela ionship 26
Aus ia 26
Colombia 26
Cyp us 27
F ance 27
Ky gyzs an 28
No way 28
Sweden 28
Table o con en s
03 ILO Wo king Pape 143
Volun a y union ecogni ion ag eemen s 29
Uni ed Kingdom 29
O e a ching acco ds ou lining p inciples o ag eemen 30
Aus alia 30
Belgium 30
X4 De elopmen s impac ing he in e sec ion be ween labou law and com-
pe i ion law in ela ion o sel -employed pla o m wo ke s 31
Aus alia 31
Eu opean Union 33
X5 Li iga ion on he pe sonal scope o labou laws and e ec i e ecogni ion
o he igh o collec i e ba gaining o pla o m wo ke s 36
XConclusion 37
Summa y o highe le el cou decisions 38
Uni ed Kingdom 38
Ne he lands 39
New Zealand 39
Republic o Ko ea 41
Re e ences 42
04 ILO Wo king Pape 143
Ac onyms
ACCC Aus alian Compe i ion and Consume Commission
ARPE Au o i é des ela ions sociales des pla e o mes d'emploi (Au ho i y o Social
Rela ions o Labou Pla o ms) (F ance)
CAC Cen al A bi a ion Commi ee (Uni ed Kingdom)
ECHR Eu opean Con en ion on Human Righ s
ER Ac Employmen Rela ions Ac 2000 (New Zealand)
EU Eu opean Union
FWC Fai Wo k Commission (Aus alia)
IWGB Independen Wo ke s Union o G ea B i ain
MOU memo andum o unde s anding
MSO minimum s anda ds o de
SIW Ac Sc een Indus y Wo ke s Ac 2022 (New Zealand)
VTC oi u e de anspo a ec chau eu
05 ILO Wo king Pape 143
XIn oduc ion
A i s 349 h Session (Oc obe –No embe 2023), he ILO’s Go e ning Body endo sed he ILO in-
eg a ed s a egy o he p omo ion and implemen a ion o he igh o collec i e ba gaining
(ILO 2023). This s a egy ollowed he de elopmen ou yea s ea lie o a Re ised plan o ac ion
on social dialogue and ipa ism o he pe iod 2019–23 gi ing e ec o he 2018 conclusions
adop ed by he In e na ional Labou Con e ence (ILO 2019).
This wo king pape p o ides an o e iew o de elopmen s in e na ionally in his a ea since
2021. I builds upon ILO Wo king Pape No. 80 – “Realizing he Oppo uni ies o he Pla o m
Economy h ough F eedom o Associa ion and Collec i e Ba gaining” – published in Sep embe
2022 (Hadwige 2022). The pu pose o his wo king pape is o p o ide a desc ip i e o e iew o
esea ch and de elopmen s since 2021 in he e ec i e ecogni ion o he igh o ba gain collec-
i ely and o he collec i e ac ion o pla o m wo ke s and o assess he ex en o which law and
p ac ice ha e de eloped since hen.
The ocus o his pape is on legisla i e changes and case law de elopmen s ela ing o access
o he abili y o ba gain collec i ely and o he collec i e ac ion o pla o m wo ke s, d awn om
coun ies, including Aus alia, Chile, China, New Zealand, Singapo e and se e al Eu opean ju-
isdic ions. Examples o he conclusion o collec i e ag eemen s co e ing pla o m wo ke s a e
also highligh ed in he b ie ing pape . I will be seen ha in some ju isdic ions he e has been an
expansion in access o collec i e ba gaining o pla o m wo ke s, and in o he ju isdic ions pla -
o m wo ke s can access p ocesses o nego ia ion which do no all wi hin “collec i e ba gaining”
as unde s ood in ILO e ms. Howe e , he exis ence o collec i e ag eemen s is no geog aphi-
cally widesp ead and is concen a ed mainly in he deli e y/ ood deli e y sec o s.
12 ILO Wo king Pape 143
A nego ia ing en i y o a collec i e ag eemen may apply o he FWC in ela ion o a dispu e abou
he making o he ag eemen , wi h he o he pa y’s consen . The FWC mus deal wi h he dis-
pu e h ough concilia ion, media ion o o he me hods – bu no a bi a ion.14 I a leas 30 days
ha e passed since he las consul a ion no ice was gi en o an employee-like wo ke abou he
p oposed ag eemen , a nego ia ing en i y can eques he o he pa y o sign he ag eemen .15
The ag eemen is made when bo h nego ia ing en i ies sign i .16 Ei he nego ia ing en i y can
hen apply o he FWC (wi h he o he pa y’s consen ) o egis e he ag eemen .17 An ag ee-
men can only ake e ec i i is egis e ed.18 The FWC mus egis e he collec i e ag eemen i
he equi emen s o Fai Wo k Ac sec ions 536MR–536MS a e sa is ied,19 including he public
in e es es :20 he FWC mus be sa is ied ha he ag eemen is no con a y o he public in e -
es , aking in o accoun he objec i e s a ed in sec ion 536MJ ( o p o ide a simple, lexible and
ai amewo k o ag eemen s o be made by consen o employee-like wo ke s). Fo hese
pu poses, he concep o “public in e es ” is b oade han he in e es s o he nego ia ing pa -
ies. Rele an ac o s he FWC can conside include whe he he ag eemen would es ablish ai
e ms and condi ions o people in eme ging o ms o wo k, o (ins ead) would ad e sely a ec
compe i ion in a pa icula ma ke o indus y, o esul in en i ies engaging in conduc subs an-
ially lessening compe i ion.21 Collec i e ag eemen s (and MSOs) ha e he same legal e ec as
awa ds and en e p ise ag eemen s unde he Fai Wo k Ac (i.e. hey a e en o ceable unde he
legisla ion’s ci il emedy p o isions).22
Collec i e ba gaining conduc o ag eemen -making ha is engaged in pu suan o he p o i-
sions is speci ically au ho ised o he pu poses o exemp ions om he an i-compe i i e con-
duc and ca el p ohibi ions in he Compe i ion and Consume Ac 2010 (C h) by sec ion 539JT
o he Fai Wo k Ac .23 As a esul , p o ided ha he conduc alls wi hin he scope o egula ed
conduc wi hin he Fai Wo k Ac and does no include a boyco ( ha is, s ike ac ion), he con-
duc will no be in b each o compe i ion p ohibi ions.
The 2024 amending legisla ion also es ablished a body known as he Digi al Labou Pla o m
Consul a i e Commi ee (DLPCC) as a commi ee o he Na ional Wo kplace Rela ions Consul a i e
Council. The DLPCC is o p o ide a egula and o ganized means in he public in e es o ep-
esen a i es o he Fede al Go e nmen , digi al labou pla o m ope a o s, wo ke s pe o m-
ing digi al pla o m wo k and o he pa ies o consul wi h each o he on ma e s a ec ing his
o m o wo k.24
14 Fai Wo k Ac , sec ion 536MP. The FWC can dismiss an applica ion o deal wi h a ba gaining dispu e i sa is ied he e a e no eason-
able p ospec s o he nego ia ing en i ies eaching ag eemen .
15 Fai Wo k Ac , sec ion 536MQ(1)–(2), e ec i ely imposing a minimum 30-day nego ia ing pe iod o hese collec i e ag eemen s.
16 Fai Wo k Ac , sec ion 536MQ(3).
17 Fai Wo k Ac , sec ion 536MR, which also de ails he in o ma ion ha mus be p o ided o he FWC in suppo o he applica ion (such
as, how employee-like wo ke s we e in o med o he e ms o he ag eemen and hei e ec ; con i ma ion ha no pa y o wo ke
was subjec o any o m o du ess in making he ag eemen ; and so on).
18 Fai Wo k Ac , sec ion 536JN(1).
19 In addi ion o he abo e (see Fai Wo k Ac , sec ion 536MR), hese include ha he ag eemen has a dispu e se lemen e m and a
e m speci ying i s pe iod o ope a ion (sec ion 536MS(2)–(3)). Ag eemen s cease ope a ing a he end o ha pe iod, unless e mi-
na ed ea lie unde sec ion 536MW (see sec ion 536JN(2)–(3)).
20 Fai Wo k Ac , sec ion 536MS(3A).
21 Supplemen a y Explana o y Memo andum o he Fai Wo k Legisla ion Amendmen (Closing Loopholes No. 2) Bill 2023, pa a. 59.
22 Fai Wo k Ac , sec ion 536JJ (see also sec ion 536JB). No e also he p o isions ela ing o a ying and e mina ing collec i e ag ee-
men s (sec ions 536MT–536MW).
23 The Compe i ion and Consume Ac 2010 (C h), sec ion 51(1), equi es any any hing speci ied in, o speci ically au ho ized by, an Ac
o Pa liamen o be dis ega ded in de e mining whe he a pe son has con a ened he ele an an i-compe i i e conduc and ca el
p ohibi ions unde he Ac .
24 Na ional Wo kplace Rela ions Consul a i e Council Ac 2002, sec ions 12A–12B. Simila ly, in B azil, Dec ee No. 11.513 o 1 May 2023
es ablished a ipa i e wo king g oup o o mula e p oposals o “ he egula ion o he ac i i ies o p o ision o se ices, anspo
o goods, anspo o people and o he ac i i ies ca ied ou h ough echnological pla o ms” (a icle 1).
13 ILO Wo king Pape 143
Chile
The Chilean Labou Code was amended in 2022 o p o ide igh s o pla o m wo ke s (as de-
ined in he law), including hose who a e sel -employed, o o m ade unions and o engage in
collec i e ba gaining (amendmen by Law No. 21.431 o 8 Ma ch 2022). The new law ook e ec
on 1 Sep embe 2022.25 I in oduced wo ypes o con ac s: (i) hose o “dependen pla o m
wo ke s” wi h almos comple e labou p o ec ions; and (ii) hose o “independen pla o m wo k-
e s”, who emain independen con ac o s bu wi h some basic p o ec ions. The es o dis in-
guishing be ween he wo ca ego ies is whe he he key elemen s o an employmen ela ionship
a e p esen : subo dina ion and dependency. The p o ec ions applicable o bo h g oups o wo k-
e s include hose ela ing o wo king hou s, emune a ion, non-disc imina ion, da a po abili y
(al hough no algo i hmic managemen ) and collec i e labou igh s. Bo h g oups o wo ke s
can join ade unions and engage in collec i e ba gaining (a no el y o independen pla o m
wo ke s) – al hough only by u ilizing an un egula ed collec i e ba gaining p ocedu e unde a -
icle 314 o he Labou Code,26 wi h no p o ec ions o wo ke s om dismissal o o he o ms o
e alia ion agains collec i e ac ion and no igh o s ike.
China
The T ade Union Law o China was amended in 2021 o p o ide wo ke s in “new o ms o em-
ploymen ” (including pla o m wo k) he abili y o pa icipa e in and o ganize ade unions (wi h-
in he amewo k o accep ance as an a ilia e o he All-China Fede a ion o T ade Unions). The
amendmen cla i ied ha pla o m wo ke s, e en wi hou he s a us o employee, can es ablish
and join ade unions and exe cise collec i e igh s, including collec i e ba gaining (Xie 2022).
In No embe 2023, he Gene al O ice o he Minis y o Human Resou ces and Social Secu i y
issued new Guidelines o he P o ec ion o Righ s and In e es s o Wo ke s in New Fo ms o
Employmen .27 They a e in ended o assis Human Resou ces and Social Secu i y Depa men s
in all p o inces, municipali ies and egions o publicize, in e p e and “guide en e p ises o law-
ully egula e employmen , and p o ec he igh s o wo ke s in new o ms o employmen in
acco dance wi h law, and uly p o ec he basic igh s and in e es s o wo ke s in new o ms o
employmen ”.28 The Guidelines a e in h ee pa s:
1. Res and Remune a ion Guidelines, p o iding guidance on wo king hou s, es and emu-
ne a ion;29
2. Labou Rules Guidelines, dealing wi h o he “labou ules”;30 and
25 The ollowing summa y is d awn om Fai wo k (2022, 17–18). Fu he de ails on he minimum wo king condi ions o pla o m wo k-
e s unde he Chilean law a e se ou in ILO (2024) a pages 58, 66, 69–72, 74, 76, 80 and 91.
26 A icle 314 p o ides as ollows: “any ime and wi hou es ic ions o any … na u e, olun a y, di ec nego ia ions wi hou subjec ion
o p ocedu al ules may be ini ia ed be ween one o mo e employe s and one o mo e [ ade] union o ganiza ions, o ag ee on com-
mon wo king condi ions and emune a ion, o a ce ain pe iod o ime”.
27
Minis y o Human Resou ces and Social Secu i y implemen ing guidance on “Sa egua ding he Labou Righ s and In e es s o Wo ke s
in New Fo ms o Employmen ”, 8 No embe 2023.
28 Ci cula o he Gene al O ice o he Minis y o Human Resou ces and Social Secu i y o 8 No embe 2023, p eamble.
29 The ull o mal name is he Guidelines on he P o ec ion o Righ s and In e es s o Wo ke s in New Employmen Fo ms o Res and
Labou Remune a ion. These include measu es o: assess he wo kload and labou in ensi y o wo ke s; ensu e online ime equi ed
by he pla o m is included in wo king hou s; de e mine he maximum numbe o consecu i e o de s a wo ke can ecei e; equi e
b eaks/s opping o o de s whe e necessa y; and apply ele an hou ly minimum wage and holiday pay s anda ds.
30 The ull o mal name is he Guidelines o he Publica ion o Labou Rules o Wo ke s in New Employmen Fo ms. These p o ide
guidance on he ules, egula ions, con ac clauses and algo i hmic ules de eloped by pla o m en e p ises, based on p inciples o
legali y, ai ness, jus ice, anspa ency and so on, including he disclosu e o wo ke s o how hose a ious sou ces o ules ope a e
and impac on wo ke s’ igh s ( o example, in ela ion o o de alloca ion, emune a ion, paymen , wo king hou s, es , sa e y and
se ice speci ica ions).
14 ILO Wo king Pape 143
3. Labo Dispu es Guidelines, ela ing o he esolu ion o labou dispu es, ade union igh s
and ( o a limi ed ex en ) collec i e ba gaining.31
Fo pu poses o he Guidelines, “wo ke s in new o ms o employmen ” include “wo ke s who
accep asks such as deli e y, a el, anspo a ion, and housekeeping se ices published by in-
e ne pla o ms online, p o ide pla o m online appoin men se ices in acco dance wi h he
pla o m’s equi emen s, and ob ain labou emune a ion h ough labou ”, and “en e p ises” a e
“pla o m en e p ises and pla o m employmen coope a i e en e p ises”.32 The Labo Dispu es
Guidelines a e in ended o p o ide “clea channels o igh s p o ec ion, o esol e labou dis-
pu es in ol ing new o ms o employmen in a imely, con enien and high-quali y manne … and
o p omo e he sus ained and heal hy de elopmen o he pla o m economy”.33 Va ious labou
dispu e p e en ion and esolu ion mechanisms wi hin en e p ises a e encou aged, including:
egula communica ion channels; in e nal complain and appeal p ocesses ( o example, ela -
ing o calcula ion o emune a ion, deduc ions o se ice ees); join nego ia ion wi h ade un-
ion ep esen a i es; and in e nal labou dispu e media ion commi ees.34
The igh s o wo ke s in new o ms o employmen o join ade unions and o eques ade un-
ion suppo in esol ing wo k di icul ies a e exp essly ecognized,35 including he igh o seek
ade union assis ance in esol ing labou igh s iola ions h ough a bi a ion o cou ac ion.36
T ade unions should “supe ise he pe o mance o employmen esponsibili ies by pla o m en-
e p ises” and p o ide opinions on behal o wo ke s in espec o any iola ions o laws, egu-
la ions and policies, wi h en e p ises encou aged o “s udy and espond o he opinions pu o -
wa d”.37 Finally, in ela ion o collec i e nego ia ions, a icle 13 o he Labou Dispu es Guidelines
p o ides as ollows (emphasis added):
T ade union o ganiza ions should p omo e he es ablishmen o egula communica-
ion and consul a ion mechanisms by pla o m en e p ises, ep esen ing o o ganizing
wo ke s in new o ms o employmen o communica e and nego ia e wi h pla o m en-
e p ises on ma e s in ol ing he i al in e es s o wo ke s, and o conclude collec i e
con ac s o ag eemen s. Wo ke s in new o ms o employmen ha e he igh o pa ic-
ipa e in ea nes mee ings, collec i e ba gaining, and o he ac i i ies o ganized by ade
unions and en e p ises, and pla o m en e p ises and pla o m employmen coope a-
i e en e p ises shall p o ide acili a ion condi ions.
Eu opean Union
On 24 Ap il 2024, he Eu opean Pa liamen passed he Di ec i e on Imp o ing Wo king Condi ions
in Pla o m Wo k (P9 TA(2024)0330) (he ea e “ he Di ec i e”). The Di ec i e was app o ed by he
Eu opean Council on 14 Oc obe 2024, and will ake e ec upon publica ion in he O icial Jou nal
o he Eu opean Union.38 EU Membe S a es will ha e wo yea s om he da e o en y in o o ce
o he Di ec i e o ensu e domes ic compliance wi h he Di ec i e (a icle 29).
31 The ull o mal name is he Guidelines o P o ec ing he Righ s and In e es s o Wo ke s in New Fo ms o Employmen .
32 Res and Remune a ion Guidelines, a icle 2.
33 Labou Dispu es Guidelines, a icle 1.
34 Labou Dispu es Guidelines, a icles 4–9.
35 Labou Dispu es Guidelines, a icles 10–11.
36 Labou Dispu es Guidelines, a icles 14–15. Mo e de ailed dispu e esolu ion p ocedu es and mechanisms a e p o ided o in a icles
16–21. These Guidelines do no apply o comme cial dispu es in ol ing new o ms o employmen (a icle 22).
37 Labou Dispu es Guidelines, a icle 12.
38 As he Di ec i e had no been o mally published a he ime o w i ing, he ex e e ed o he e is he uno icial ex o he Di ec i e
as passed by he Eu opean Pa liamen .
15 ILO Wo king Pape 143
Wo ke s unde he Di ec i e a e classi ied as ei he pe sons “pe o ming pla o m wo k”, which
includes all pe sons engaged unde a con ac o pe o m pla o m wo k, o unde he na ow-
e ca ego y o “pla o m wo ke s”, who a e pe sons pe o ming pla o m wo k wi h a con ac
o employmen o who a e deemed o ha e a con ac o employmen .
A icle 4(1) equi es EU Membe S a es o es ablish app op ia e and e ec i e p ocedu es o e -
i y and ensu e he co ec de e mina ion o he employmen s a us o pe sons pe o ming pla -
o m wo k, including h ough a p esump ion o an employmen ela ionship. Fu he mo e, a i-
cle 4(2) p o ides ha any de e mina ion o he exis ence o an employmen ela ionship should
conside ac s guided by he ac ual pe o mance o wo k, i espec i e o how ha ela ionship
has been classi ied wi hin a con ac ual a angemen be ween he pa ies.
A icle 5(1) equi es ha he con ac ual ela ionship be ween a digi al labou pla o m39 and a
pe son pe o ming wo k h ough ha pla o m “shall be legally p esumed o be an employmen
ela ionship when ac s indica ing con ol and di ec ion, acco ding o na ional law, collec i e
ag eemen s, o p ac ice in o ce in he Membe S a es and wi h conside a ion o he case-law
o he Cou o Jus ice” a e ound. The p esump ion would be ebu able by a digi al labou pla -
o m, which would bea he onus o es ablishing ha he con ac ual ela ionship in ques ion is
no an employmen ela ionship.
P io o he passage o he Di ec i e, a leas h ee EU Membe S a es had in oduced ebu able
p esump ions o employmen wi hin hei domes ic laws based on speci ic c i e ia being me .
This includes C oa ia (amendmen s o he C oa ia Labou Ac (Law NN 151/22 o 20 Decembe
2022, a icle 221m(2) and 221n)); Po ugal (Po ugal Labou Code (Law No. 13/2023 o 3 Ap il
2023, a icle 12); and Belgium ( he “Labou Deal” Ac o 3 Oc obe 2022 on a ious labou p o-
isions). In hose coun ies, he p o isions ha e mean ha wo ke s who mee speci ic c i e ia
ou lined in he espec i e legisla ion ob ain he bene i o he p esump ion and a e co e ed by
he domes ic labou laws o he Membe S a e (including p o isions o collec i e ba gaining).
In espec o collec i e ba gaining and sel -employed wo ke s in he pla o m economy, he p e-
amble o he Di ec i e acknowledges ha pla o m wo k is he e ogenous wi h di e en ypes
o pla o ms, sec o s and ac i i ies co e ed, and co e s a wide ange o wo ke s (clause 5). The
p esump ion o employmen lea es genuine sel -employmen in pla o m wo k in ac , and he
Di ec i e seeks o ensu e minimum igh s p omo ing “ anspa ency, ai ness and accoun abili-
y” (p eamble, clause 14) o pe sons pe o ming pla o m wo k. This encompasses “p o ec ing
wo ke s and imp o ing wo king condi ions … including he exe cise o collec i e ba gaining” o
imp o e legal ce ain y and o le el he playing ield be ween digi al labou pla o ms and o line
p o ide s o se ices (p eamble, clause 14).
Fo his pu pose, a icle 25 o he Di ec i e s a es:
Membe S a es shall, wi hou p ejudice o he au onomy o he social pa ne s and
aking in o accoun he di e si y o na ional p ac ices, ake adequa e measu es o p o-
mo e he ole o he social pa ne s and encou age he exe cise o he igh o collec i e
ba gaining in pla o m wo k, including measu es o asce ain he co ec employmen
39 Unde a icle 1, a “Digi al Labou Pla o m” is any na u al o legal pe son p o iding a se ice a leas in pa a a dis ance h ough
elec onic means, a he eques o a ecipien o he se ice, which in ol es he use o au oma ed moni o ing o decision-making
sys ems, and in ol es “as a necessa y and essen ial componen , he o ganiza ion o wo k pe o med by indi iduals in e u n o pay-
men , i espec i e o whe he ha wo k is pe o med online o in a ce ain loca ion”.
16 ILO Wo king Pape 143
s a us o pla o m wo ke s and o acili a e he exe cise o hei igh s ela ed o algo-
i hmic managemen se ou in Chap e III o his Di ec i e.
As pla o m wo k is de ined in a icle 1 o he Di ec i e o encompass any wo k o ganized h ough
a digi al labou pla o m and pe o med in he EU by an indi idual h ough a con ac ual ela ion-
ship wi h he pla o m o an in e media y, a icle 25 ha p omo es he ole o he social pa ne s
and encou ages he exe cise o he igh o collec i e ba gaining in pla o m wo k – encompass-
es bo h pe sons pe o ming pla o m wo k (who may be sel -employed) and pla o m wo ke s
(employed pla o m wo ke s o hose deemed o be employed).
A icle 25 p o ides ha EU Membe S a es “wi hou p ejudice o he au onomy o he social
pa ne s and aking in o accoun he di e si y o na ional p ac ices, ake adequa e measu es
o p omo e he ole o he social pa ne s and encou age he exe cise o he igh o collec i e
ba gaining in pla o m wo k”, linking his in pa icula o acili a ion o he exe cise o pla o m
wo ke s’ igh s ela ed o algo i hmic managemen . These la e igh s a e se ou in Chap e III
o he Di ec i e and a e applicable o pe sons pe o ming pla o m wo k – he b oade ca ego y
o wo ke s co e ed by he Di ec i e. Fu he mo e, EU Membe S a e encou agemen o collec-
i e ba gaining o sel -employed pla o m wo ke s is no longe po en ially subjec o Eu opean
Commission en o cemen ac ion in espec o po en ial b eaches o EU compe i ion law unde
he EU Guidelines on compe i ion law published in 2022 (see Sec ion 4 below).
F ance
Unde F ench labou law, “subo dina ion” is he main c i e ia o a wo ke o be classi ied as an
employee. I a wo ke is no “de ju e o de ac o” subo dina e o hei engage , hey a e ea ed
as sel -employed and as an unde aking (D iguez 2022, 262). The ques ion o wo ke classi ica-
ion is ul ima ely one o he cou s o de e mine.
Fo pla o m wo ke s who a e sel -employed, sec o -le el legisla ion has been passed by he
F ench Pa liamen o p omo e collec i e o ganiza ion, ep esen a ion and ba gaining. A icle L
7342-6 o he Labou Code (in oduced by he El Khom i Law No. 2-16-1088) p o ides sel -em-
ployed digi al pla o m wo ke s he igh o “ o m a ade union, join i and o asse hei col-
lec i e in e es s” (as ci ed by D iguez 2022, 263). Gillis, Lenae s and Waeyae (2022, 2) obse e
ha “ his is he i s ime ha he igh o s ike has been g an ed o sel -employed in F ance”.40
In espec o p o isions o he collec i e o ganiza ion o digi al pla o m wo ke s unde he
Labou Code, O dinance No. 2021-484 (app o ed by Ac No. 2022-139 on 7 Feb ua y 2022) o gan-
izes he ep esen a ion o pla o m wo ke s h ough he Au ho i y o Social Rela ions o Labou
Pla o ms (ARPE). The ARPE is esponsible o o e seeing collec i e ba gaining and ep esen a ion
o wo ke s in digi al labou pla o ms (ETUC 2022, 3), and he i s elec ion o o ganiza ions o
he pu poses o ep esen ing sel -employed pla o m wo ke s was un by he ARPE in May 2022.
41
Fu he egula ion applies speci ically o pla o m wo ke s who wo k as d i e s o passenge e-
hicles o who deli e goods using wo- o h ee-wheel ehicles unde O dinance No/ 2022-492 o
6 Ap il 2022. Acco ding o he ILO Commi ee o Expe s on he Applica ion o Con en ions and
Recommenda ions (CEACR), his O dinance “o ganizes social dialogue and collec i e ba gaining
40 In espec o he igh o s ike, D iguez (2022, 263) no es ha a icle L7342-6 o he Labou Code echoes he p o ec ion o he igh
o s ike ound in a icle 7 o he p eamble o he 1946 Cons i u ion o F ance.
41 CEACR, “Obse a ion – Righ o O ganise and Collec i e Ba gaining Con en ion, 1949 (No. 98) – F ance”, 2023.
17 ILO Wo king Pape 143
a he sec o al le el” o hose speci ic sec o s, including an obliga ion o engage in sec o al le -
el ba gaining e e y yea o e ce ain subjec s. Valid collec i e ag eemen s a e hose which ha e
been signed by a minimum o one pla o m o ganiza ion and wo ke s’ o ganiza ions who ep-
esen o e 30 pe cen o he o es cas du ing a ep esen a ion elec ion. Fu he , he ag ee-
men canno ha e been opposed by a wo ke o ganiza ion ep esen ing 50 pe cen o mo e
o he o es cas . Once c ea ed, a sec o al ag eemen will apply o hose pla o ms a ilia ed o
he signa o y o ganiza ion and hei wo ke s and applies as a compulso y minimum s anda d.42
The i s sec o al ag eemen s c ea ed subjec o hese p o isions a e discussed in he collec i e
ag eemen s sec ion below (see sec ion 3.2). Finally, D iguez (2022, 264) obse es ha he e a e
no speci ic exemp ions in he compe i ion laws o F ance o sel -employed wo ke s who would
be classi ied as unde akings o ha pu pose, lea ing an open ques ion as o he ela ionship
be ween he egula ion o sel -employed pla o m wo ke s and compe i ion law.
Singapo e
The Pla o m Wo ke s Ac 2024 passed h ough he Singapo e Pa liamen on 10 Sep embe 2024,
and ook e ec on 1 Janua y 2025. I p o ides ce ain igh s and obliga ions o idesha e and
deli e y pla o m wo ke s and ope a o s ( o example, in ela ion o wo k inju y compensa ion
and occupa ional sa e y and heal h). In addi ion, he Ac es ablishes a sys em o he ecogni ion,
egis a ion, egula ion and go e nance o “pla o m wo k associa ions”, as well as egula ing
indus ial ela ions be ween pla o m ope a o s and hei wo ke s.43
A “pla o m ope a o ” is de ined in sec ion 4 o he Ac as a pe son who p o ides a pla o m se -
ice in Singapo e by en e ing in o an ag eemen wi h one o mo e se ice use s, exe cising man-
agemen con ol o e one o mo e pla o m wo ke s in espec o he p o ision o ha pla o m
se ice, e en i subcon ac ing pa s o he se ice o he exe cise o managemen con ol. Sec ion
3 de ines a “pla o m se ice” as a se ice speci ied in he law ha is p o ided in Singapo e ia
a digi al pla o m o o he pla o m by a pla o m ope a o exe cising managemen con ol in
espec o he p o ision o ha se ice by one o mo e pla o m wo ke s o he pla o m ope a-
o ( he Fi s Schedule o he Ac es ic s i s applica ion o deli e y and ide-hail pla o m se ic-
es). Fo hese pu poses, a “pla o m wo ke ” is an indi idual who has an ag eemen ( ha is no
included wi hin he Employmen Ac ) wi h a pla o m ope a o o p o ide a pla o m se ice in
Singapo e o se ice use s; is subjec o he managemen con ol o he pla o m ope a o e-
cei ing paymen o bene i s; and is in Singapo e when p o iding he pla o m se ice (sec ion
5, see also sec ion 3(2)).
Pla o m wo ke s may o m a “pla o m wo k associa ion”, de ined in sec ion 19 as any associa-
ion o combina ion o pla o m wo ke s o pla o m ope a o s, whe he empo a y o pe ma-
nen , whose p incipal objec is o egula e ela ions be ween pla o m wo ke s and pla o m op-
e a o s o any o all o he ollowing pu poses:
● o p omo e good indus ial ela ions be ween pla o m wo ke s and pla o m ope a o s;
● o imp o e he wo king condi ions o pla o m wo ke s o enhance hei economic and so-
cial s a us;
● o achie e he aising o p oduc i i y o he bene i o pla o m wo ke s, pla o m ope a o s
and he economy o Singapo e.
42 CEACR, “Obse a ion – Con en ion No. 98 – F ance”, 2023.
43 Explana o y S a emen , Pla o m Wo ke s Bill 2024, pages 234–235.
18 ILO Wo king Pape 143
A pla o m wo k associa ion is conside ed es ablished on he i s da e on which any pla o m
wo ke s o pla o m ope a o s ag ee o become o c ea e an associa ion o a combina ion o
he u he ance o any one o mo e o he objec s speci ied in he de ini ion o a “pla o m wo k
associa ion” in sec ion 19. E e y pla o m wo k associa ion mus apply o egis a ion wi hin
one mon h o es ablishmen .
Unde he p o isions o Pa 3, Di ision 3 o he Ac , egis e ed associa ions and hei membe s
a e p o ec ed om ci il sui s ela ed o ac s done in u he ance o a wo k dispu e, e en i hose
ac s induce b eaches o ag eemen s o in e e e wi h o he s’ business o employmen . Regis e ed
associa ions a e liable o con ac s hey en e in o, excep hose ha a e oid o unen o ceable
by law. Howe e un egis e ed pla o m wo k associa ions do no enjoy he igh s, immuni ies o
p i ileges o egis e ed associa ions.
The igh s o pla o m wo k associa ions include he igh o engage in collec i e ba gaining.
Unde sec ion 40, he o ice s o a pla o m wo k associa ion and any o he pe sons duly appoin -
ed by he associa ion o ep esen i s membe s in nego ia ions wi h a iew o a collec i e ag ee-
men , ha e he au ho i y o ba gain collec i ely o and o bind all he membe s o he pla o m
wo k associa ion by a collec i e ag eemen wi hou he need o a i ica ion by he membe s. In
addi ion, he decisions o hose o ice s o pe sons on any ma e in such nego ia ions is he de-
cision o all membe s o he pla o m wo k associa ion. The collec i e ba gaining p ocess is no
o he wise egula ed by he Pla o m Wo ke s Ac .
Indus ial ac ion may be engaged in by pla o m wo k associa ions, bu only by ollowing he
equi emen s o sec ion 36, which include ha a egis e ed pla o m wo k associa ion mus ob-
ain majo i y consen ia a sec e ballo o i s membe s who will be a ec ed be o e ini ia ing any
indus ial ac ion. The o ms o indus ial ac ion his would pe mi include s ikes o wo k bans/
limi a ions by associa ions o pla o m wo ke s, o lockou s ( ha is, p e en ing pla o m wo ke s
om ob aining o pe o ming asks) by associa ions o pla o m ope a o s.44
New Zealand
A na owe example is ha o New Zealand. Since amendmen s passed in 2010, he de ini ion
o “employee” unde he Employee Rela ions Ac 2000 has excluded wo ke s in he New Zealand
ilm indus y,45 unless hose wo ke s a e engaged unde a con ac ha speci ically labels hem
as employees (see McC ys al 2014). This has he e ec ha all New Zealand ilm indus y wo k-
e s can be engaged as sel -employed, and ha classi ica ion is no subjec o challenge. This ap-
plies o wo ke s engaged in he ilm indus y ei he in a con en ional manne , o di ec ly o in-
di ec ly h ough any labou pla o m.
In 2022 he Sc een Indus y Wo ke s Ac (he ea e he “SIW Ac ”) was enac ed o p o ide a
“wo kplace ela ions amewo k” o ilm indus y wo ke s excluded om he applica ion o he
Employee Rela ions Ac .46 Pa 4 o he SIW Ac p o ides access o egula ed collec i e ba gain-
ing o sel -employed ilm indus y wo ke s. Wo ke s who mee he de ini ions in he Ac ha
a e engaged h ough pla o ms would also all wi hin he ambi o he law. Wo ke o ganiza ions
may en e in o “en e p ise con ac s” a en e p ise le el o “occupa ional con ac s” ha would
44 See he de ini ions o “indus ial ac ion”, “s ike” and “lockou ” – and no e he ela ed de ini ion o “wo k dispu e” – ound in sec ion
19 o he Pla o m Wo ke s Ac .
45 The amendmen s we e e ec ed by he Employmen Rela ions (Film P oduc ion Wo k) Amendmen 2010 (NZ).
46 The Sc een Indus y Wo ke s Ac 2022 ook e ec on 30 Decembe 2022.
19 ILO Wo king Pape 143
apply o “e e y sc een p oduc ion wo ke who does he wo k o he occupa ional g oup speci-
ied in he co e age clause o he con ac ” and “e e y engage who engages a sc een p oduc-
ion wo ke o do ha wo k”, along wi h wo ke and engage o ganiza ions ha a e signa o ies
o he con ac (SIW Ac , sec ion 50). E e y engage o his pu pose would include pla o m la-
bou companies ac i e in he sc een indus y.
The powe o equi e pa ies o commence ba gaining o an occupa ional con ac is es ed in
he New Zealand Employmen Rela ions Au ho i y, whe e i is sa is ied ha he e is su icien
suppo om ei he he wo ke s wi hin he ele an occupa ion o among hose who a e hi ing
he wo ke s (SIW Ac , sec ion 39). Whe e collec i e ba gaining is unde aken in acco dance wi h
he SIW Ac , sec ions 27 and 30 o he Comme ce Ac conce ning an i-compe i i e beha iou do
no apply o any hing done by any pe son o ha pu pose, o o gi e e ec o a collec i e con-
ac en e ed in o in acco dance wi h he SIW Ac (SIW Ac , sec ion 7).
Whe e pa ies a e unable o each an ag eemen , he Employmen Rela ions Au ho i y has he
powe o inalize any ou s anding e ms ha ha e no been ag eed h ough a s a u o y o m o
inal o e a bi a ion (SIW Ac , Pa 5). The wo ke s do no ha e access o legally p o ec ed s ike
ac ion in suppo o such nego ia ions.47
47 Conce ning s ike ac ion by sel -employed pe sons and he po en ial impac o he common law, see McC ys al 2016; Bogg 2022:
35–36
20 ILO Wo king Pape 143
X3 Collec i e ag eemen s and o he ou comes o
collec i e nego ia ion o pla o m wo ke s
This sec ion iden i ies a ious ou comes o collec i e ac ion, namely, collec i e ag eemen s (as
con en ionally unde s ood) ha comp ehensi ely egula e wo king condi ions and o he o ms
o ag eemen s in he pla o m economy. We examine hese in he discussion ha ollows.48
The discussion in his sec ion will ou line he gene al in en o 15 collec i e ag eemen s conclud-
ed since 2021 ha impac pla o m wo ke s ac oss a ange o di e en coun ies. Whe e i has
been possible o loca e he ex o he ag eemen s, hei p o isions a e examined mo e closely.
These collec i e ag eemen s ha e s a ed o mo e beyond ea lie ag eemen s nego ia ed o
pla o m wo ke s in e ms o he wo king condi ions hey egula e. Fo example, Fe nández’s
2022 analysis o se en gig economy collec i e ag eemen s ound ha hey mos ly ocused on
gua an eeing minimum wage le els and maximum wo king hou s, bu did no add ess algo i h-
mic decision-making o a ings o wo ke s. Lamaniss’ 2023 epo iden i ied 52 pla o m econ-
omy collec i e ag eemen s in Eu ope, inding ha hey gene ally add essed adi ional wo k is-
sues such as pay, wo king ime, holidays, heal h and sa e y, and lea e, wi h only some dealing
wi h issues speci ically a ising om he na u e o pla o m wo k (such as da a po abili y, igh
o disconnec , algo i hmic anspa ency and anking sys ems). In con as , h ee ag eemen s ex-
amined o he pu poses o his esea ch – he I alian Assog oce y ag eemen , he Swiss Smood
ag eemen and he Spanish Jus Ea ag eemen – con ain de ailed egula ion o wo king condi-
ions o he kind ha would gene ally be ound in collec i e ag eemen s co e ing employees in
con en ional labou ma ke s. The Smood and Jus Ea ag eemen s also add ess aspec s o he
echnological impac o pla o m ope a ions upon wo ke s.
Conce ning he issue o wo ke classi ica ion, while wo ke s we e ea ed as employees in all 11
collec i e ag eemen s in Hadwige ’s 2022 s udy, a mo e mixed pic u e eme ges om he p es-
en esea ch. By coun y, wo ke s co e ed included:
●employees in ou ag eemen s (Cyp us, Spain, Sweden, Swi ze land);
●sel -employed in i e ag eemen s ( h ee Aus alian acco ds, F ance, he Uni ed Kingdom o
G ea B i ain and No he n I eland); and
● hose alling wi hin an in e media e ca ego y in one ag eemen (I aly).
In ano he one o he examples, he ag eemen applies ega dless o employmen s a us
(Belgium). In espec o ou ag eemen s, he classi ica ion o wo ke s is unclea (Aus ia, Colombia,
Ky gyzs an, No way).
48 In addi ion, i is no ed ha in Finland, collec i e ba gaining nego ia ions commenced be ween he PAM ade union and ood de-
li e y pla o m Wol in Decembe 2023. The con en o he p oposed ag eemen s is unclea , bu he e will likely be sepa a e ag ee-
men s o employed and sel -employed cou ie s. Nego ia ions we e con inuing a he ime o w i ing, see: h ps://www.pam. i/en/
wol -cou ie s-nego ia ions/.
21 ILO Wo king Pape 143
Comp ehensi e collec i e ag eemen s
I aly
A Na ional Collec i e Ag eemen was eached on 19 Feb ua y 202449 be ween Assog oce y (a
pla o m connec ing clien s wi h pe sonal shoppe s in supe ma ke s)50 and he empo a y wo k-
e s di isions o he h ee majo I alian ade union con ede a ions: NIdiL CGIL, FeLSA CISL and
UILTemp. The Ag eemen e lec s he pa ies’ sha ed iew o “ he need o egula e, on an expe i-
men al basis, he collabo a ion es ablished by he pla o ms ope a ing in he so-called e-g oce y
sec o wi hin he scope o Legisla i e Dec ee no. 81 o 15.6.2015, in o de o gua an ee adequa e
p o ec ion o [ hose] wo ke s”, o p o ide adequa e emune a ion, and o add ess impo an is-
sues including sa e y and ade union igh s (p eamble). The Ag eemen is o ope a e o h ee
yea s, hen lapse unless i is ex ended o enewed (a icle 6.1). Na ional-le el enewal nego ia-
ions can occu wi hin six mon hs p io o expi y (a icle 6.2).
Shoppe s a e engaged on he basis o a “collabo a ion ela ionship” which is “au onomous and
non-exclusi e” wi h he abili y o p o ide ac i i ies o hi d pa ies (a icle 15.1). They a e engaged
unde a “coope a ion con ac ” ha mus include, o example, he du a ion o he collabo a ion,
he le el o emune a ion, modali ies o e mina ion, heal h and sa e y measu es and social se-
cu i y p o ec ion (a icle 16.1). Shoppe s pe o m hei wo k “wi hou obliga ion o con inui y
wi h he en e p ise” (a icle 17.1) and can p o ide hei a ailabili y o ime slo s on ce ain days
o he week (which hey can e oke) as well as hei chosen a ea o e i o ial a ailabili y (a icles
17.2–17.3; see also 17.4–17.5). Iden i ica ion o a ailable ime slo s by Shoppe s is subjec o he
gua an ee o an 11-hou es ime du ing he day (a icles 18.1–18.2). Al hough ca ying ou ac-
i i ies using hei own means, Shoppe s may be asked o use company-owned ki s, including
coole bags o company-b anded clo hing (a icle 17.6).
The company can in o m a Shoppe o easons ha may lead o e mina ion o hei con ac o
jus cause (a icle 29.2), ollowing he p ocedu e ou lined in a icle 29.3.
The p ocess by which Shoppe s access and comple e cus ome o de s h ough he pla o m is
de ailed in a icles 19.1–19.4. Unde a icle 19.5, each “assignmen shall, con en ionally, las one
hou ”, wi h he assignmen p oposal eaching he Shoppe a leas 20 minu es be o e he s a
o hei a ailabili y ime slo (a icle 19.5). P io i y in p oposals should be gi en o Shoppe s who
ha e no ye ecei ed assignmen p oposals (wi hin a adius o h ee kilome es om he e -
e ence s o e) (a icle 19.6). Shoppe s can e use an assignmen p oposal on g ounds including
sickness, inabili y o access buildings o means o anspo , and so on (a icle 32.3).
Pay a es a e se a a minimum ee pe assignmen o €12.50 un il 31 Decembe 2024; €13.00
om 1 Janua y o 31 Decembe 2025; and €13.50 om 1 Janua y 2026 (a icle 30.1).51 The min-
imum ee is calcula ed by conside ing he a e age ee paid o a Shoppe o each e e ence
mon h, including all economic componen s (such as bonuses) bu excluding ac o s such as uel
49 The ull ex o he ag eemen (in I alian) is a ailable a : h ps://www.bolle inoadap .i /wp-con en /uploads/2024/03/Acco do-
Assog oce y.pd .
50 A icle 1.1 cla i ies ha he Ag eemen egula es ela ionships be ween en e p ises ha pe o m an online shopping se ice h ough
a digi al pla o m and hei collabo a o s who p epa e he shopping ca , ca y ou he pu chase and deli e o he cus ome ’s home.
The “Shoppe ” is de ined as an “employee” who ca ies ou hese ac i i ies by accep ing indi idual o de p oposals h ough he pla -
o m, using a ou -wheeled ehicle (a icles 1.2, 1.3). The Ag eemen does no apply o ide s o d i e s who ca y ou ood deli e ies
in u ban a eas (a icle 2.3). Al hough he e m “employee” is used in he Ag eemen , his does no accu a ely desc ibe he basis o
he engagemen o he shoppe s, as explained below.
51 Sligh ly lowe pay a es apply o “junio Shoppe s”, ha is, hose who ha e ca ied ou ewe han 500 assignmen s o e he du a ion
o he coope a ion ela ionship wi h he same p incipal (see a icle 34).
28 ILO Wo king Pape 143
loca ion a hei des ina ion”. In addi ion, he sys em mus pe mi d i e s o ma ch ide o e s
wi h he choice hey ha e made and o access o he a ailable ide o e s i hey wan o. Each
pla o m can de ine i s own me hods o implemen ing hese equi emen s, including how op-
e a o s can change hei p e e ences, and o enabling d i e s o access ides ha do no acco d
wi h hei p e e ences.
The ag eemen applies o ela ionships be ween he pla o ms men ioned in a icle L. 7342-1 o
he F ench Labou Code (see Sec ion 2 abo e) and he independen wo ke s who use hem in
he sec o o d i ing a anspo ehicle wi h a chau eu e e ed o in he same p o ision o he
Code, and i applies o ips booked immedia ely ( ha is, i excludes ad ance bookings) (a icle
2). The ope a i e da e o he ag eemen was se o 1 Janua y 2025 o enable pla o ms o make
“ he necessa y adjus men s o accoun o hese new obliga ions”. The ag eemen will apply o
an inde ini e pe iod, unless e ised o e mina ed unde he Labou Code (a icle 3).
Ky gyzs an
The Kabylan ade union nego ia ed a collec i e ag eemen o app-based anspo a ion d i -
e s engaged by he Osh Taxi pla o m in Sep embe 2023. I p o ided o heal h and sa e y p o-
ec ions, and he p e en ion o gende -based iolence, ha assmen , disc imina ion and unjus
suspension om he app (Ruslanbeko a 2023).
No way
A collec i e ag eemen was eached in 2022 be ween Foodo a and he Uni ed Fede a ion o T ade
Unions (Felles o bunde ) o deli e y/cou ie wo ke s, co e ing wo king ime/hou s, wages, wo k
on public holidays and eimbu semen o expenses (ILO 2024, 86). In June 2024, Felles o bunde
and Foodo a inalized a enego ia ion o he ag eemen .63 The main p oposed changes conce n
wages, wi h he new a es as ollows:
●Base sala y a es o bicycle and d i e cou ie s o be inc eased by 3.00 No wegian k one
pe hou ; new a e o 137.39 k one pe hou .
●Paymen pe deli e y: Weekdays – inc eased by 1.75 k one ; Sa u days – inc eased by 2.25
k one ; and Sundays – inc eased by 2.75 k one .
●New peak ime bonus (5.00 p.m. o 8.00 p.m.): 1.20 k one om 1 July 2024.
●To al hou ly wage: Weekdays – 156.85 k one ; Sa u days – 167.68 k one ; and Sundays –
178.52 k one .
Sweden
The Swedish T anspo Wo ke s’ Union nego ia ed a new collec i e ag eemen wi h Foodo a in
May 2023, p o iding new e ms and condi ions o bicycle and moped cou ie s making ood de-
li e ies.64 Unde he ag eemen , gua an eed sala y ( ha is, pay ega dless o deli e y numbe s)
is o inc ease by 12.06 pe cen on a e age and allowances and supplemen s a e o ise by 7.4
63
In o ma ion abou he 2024 ag eemen (in No wegian) is a ailable a : h ps://www. elles o bunde .no/ak uel /nyhe e /2024/lonnsokning-
i- oodo a/.
64 I appea s o be a eplacemen o he i s comp ehensi e ag eemen made be ween he pa ies in 2021, unde which ide s we e
engaged as employees (see Selbe g 2023).
29 ILO Wo king Pape 143
pe cen o e he ag eemen pe iod o 1 May 2023 o 30 Ap il 2025. In addi ion, a “wo king g oup
wi h ep esen a i es om bo h pa ies will also be se up o e iew he applica ion o empo a y
employmen s” (Swedish T anspo Wo ke s’ Union 2023).
Volun a y union ecogni ion ag eemen s
Uni ed Kingdom
The GMB Union nego ia ed a ecogni ion ag eemen wi h Deli e oo in May 2022 (Jones 2022).65
This is a olun a y ag eemen in which Deli e oo ecognizes GMB “as he sole independen ade
union o Deli e oo Ride s in he UK”.66 Unde he ag eemen , he pa ies “accep ha Ride s o
Deli e oo a e sel -employed and in business on hei own accoun and Deli e oo is jus one o
many clien s and cus ome s wi h whom hey may wo k”.67 The ag eemen has many s a emen s
by he pa ies o hei sha ed commi men s, o example, o “wo king oge he in a spi i o ans-
pa ency, open communica ion and ea ing each o he wi h digni y and espec ”, bu ew subs an-
i e p o isions. In ela ion o collec i e ba gaining and consul a ion, he ag eemen p o ides ha :
The Pa ne s shall es ablish a Join Pa ne ship Council as he o um in which he Pa ne s
will engage in Collec i e Ba gaining and Consul a ion.
The Pa ne s shall engage in Collec i e Ba gaining on ma e s including Deli e oo’s
commi men o ea nings secu i y o Ride s in he o m o a gua an eed pay loo .
Consul a ion on ma e s including main aining exis ing ea nings suppo o illness,
one-o lump sum new pa en suppo , insu ance, Ride s’ heal h and sa e y and men-
al and physical well being.68
The “gua an eed pay loo ” means ha ide s’ ees will be a leas equi alen o he applicable UK
Na ional Li ing Wage, plus cos s o o de s unde aken on a “ ime wo k basis”. GMB is acco d-
ed igh s o mee wi h and ec ui ide s so i can ep esen hei in e es s, and Deli e oo will (as
a as possible) p o ec ide s om disc imina ion o ic imiza ion o being GMB membe s. The
“dispu e esolu ion” p o ision does no include any p ocess o esol ing dispu es, s a ing simply
ha he pa ies “sha e a join commi men o he success o he ela ionship be ween hem ha
will be c ea ed by his Ag eemen , and o he good conduc o indus ial ela ions”.69
65 The ull ex o ag eemen is a ailable a : h ps://dpd-12774-s3.s3.eu-wes -2.amazonaws.com/asse s/4416/5234/2894/GMB_and_
Deli e oo_Volun a y_Pa ne ship_Ag eemen .pd .
66 Deli e oo–GMB Volun a y Pa ne ship Ag eemen (2022). See McGu dy’s (2022) c i ique o he ag eemen (including i s p ese a ion
o sel -employed s a us o Deli e oo ide s and i s ous ing o i al ade union IWGB, which had pu sued a long- unning li iga ion
ying o es ablish s a u o y ecogni ion igh s o collec i e ba gaining wi h Deli e oo). See also he case law sec ion below on he
UK Sup eme Cou decision ejec ing IWGB’s appeal agains ea lie ulings p ecluding i s applica ion o s a u o y ecogni ion.
67 Deli e oo–GMB Volun a y Pa ne ship Ag eemen (2022).
68 Deli e oo–GMB Volun a y Pa ne ship Ag eemen (2022).
69 Deli e oo–GMB Volun a y Pa ne ship Ag eemen (2022).
30 ILO Wo king Pape 143
O e a ching acco ds ou lining p inciples o ag eemen
Aus alia
The TWU has nego ia ed se e al in o mal acco ds wi h idesha e and ood deli e y pla o ms,
se ing b oad p inciples a he han minimum s anda ds, ou side he s a u o y sys em o collec-
i e ba gaining. These acco ds we e made p io o he commencemen o he new collec i e ba -
gaining amewo k o employee-like wo ke s on digi al labou pla o ms, and we e e y much
shaped by he imminen p ospec o egula ion in oducing minimum s anda ds o gig econo-
my wo ke s (see Sec ion 2 abo e).
The TWU’s May 2022 acco d wi h ood deli e y pla o m Doo Dash ecognized he ade union’s
ep esen a i e ole on behal o d i e s, al hough wi h he quali ica ion ha gi en he “ agmen -
ed na u e” o gig wo k, “a new and e ec i e model o collec i e pa icipa ion is needed in o de o
acili a e and ensu e e ec i e ep esen a ion”.70 This o med one o “six co e p inciples we ag ee
should o m a na ional amewo k o u u e e o m o he on-demand anspo indus y includ-
ing h ough go e nmen egula ion”. Among he o he p inciples was he need o “ ecognise he
alue ha wo ke s de i e om his new, unique o m o wo k, while c ea ing a po able, p opo -
ional, and lexible amewo k ha allows app-based wo ke s o main ain hei independence
while accessing new p o ec ions and bene i s”. Fu he p inciples included anspa ency o gig
wo ke s in espec o he moni o ing, con ol and emune a ion o hei wo k, o mal educa ion
and aining o d i e s, and access o independen dispu e esolu ion.
In June 2022, he TWU inalized an acco d wi h Ube and Ube Ea s, including ag eed p inciples
such as “ espec ” o he igh s o pla o m wo ke s o be ep esen ed by a ade union and o
“ha e an e ec i e collec i e oice”.71 The acco d indica ed he pa ies’ suppo o p oposed e-
o ms ha would p o ide an independen body wi h he abili y o “se minimum and anspa -
en en o ceable ea nings” o gig wo ke s, as long as hese we e “based on he p inciple o cos
eco e y, aking in o accoun he na u e o he wo k”. I also e lec ed he need o “a cos e ec-
i e and e icien mechanism o esol e dispu es”. Ve y simila commi men s and p inciples we e
included in he TWU’s acco d wi h Menulog, concluded in Ma ch 2023.72
Belgium
The Belgian Union o T anspo Wo ke s (ABVV-BTB) and Ube eached an ag eemen in Oc obe
2022. The ag eemen p o ided o ecogni ion o he ade union’s ep esen a i e ole on behal
o Ube d i e s (i espec i e o employmen s a us) and o collabo a ion on imp o ed wo king
condi ions, including in ela ion o heal h and sa e y (ABVV-BTB 2022).
70 TWU and Doo Dash, S a emen o P inciples o Ensu e Sa e y and Fai ness o Wo ke s in he On-Demand Economy, 9 May 2022.
71 Ube and TWU, S a emen o P inciples and Fu u e Commi men s o Wo ke s in he On-Demand Economy, 28 June 2022.
72
TWU and Menulog, Cha e o P inciples and Ongoing Commi men s o Ensu e Sa e y and Fai ness o On-Demand Deli e y Cou ie s,
Ma ch 2023.
31 ILO Wo king Pape 143
X4 De elopmen s impac ing he in e sec ion
be ween labou law and compe i ion law in ela ion
o sel -employed pla o m wo ke s
Whe e pla o m wo ke s a e engaged h ough con ac ual a angemen s ha classi y hem as
being sel -employed, hei capaci y o engage in collec i e ba gaining and c ea e collec i e ag ee-
men s may be es ic ed by he applica ion o compe i ion laws. This may occu because he pla -
o m wo ke is egula ed by compe i ion law as an “unde aking” and hus subjec o he same
compe i ion egula ion as he digi al labou pla o m o which hey a e con ac ed, and/o be-
cause he pla o m wo ke does no all wi hin he scope o any “employee” exemp ion unde
compe i ion laws.
In ju isdic ions whe e sel -employed pla o m wo ke s a e subjec o compe i ion laws, wo ke s
can gene ally o m collec i es; howe e , any collec i e ac ions may be conside ed o be unlaw-
ul an i-compe i i e conduc impac ing he ma ke in which hey sell hei se ices. This may in-
clude collec i e ba gaining and he inaliza ion o any collec i e ag eemen whe e i is consid-
e ed o be an i-compe i i e, such as p ice- ixing o collec i e boyco beha iou . This may be he
case i espec i e o he ac ual an i-compe i i e e ec o he conduc in ju isdic ions whe e “ca -
el” beha iou is deemed o be an i-compe i i e wi hou he necessi y o p o ing such pu pose
o e ec . Fu he mo e, in some ins ances, compe i ion egula ion may p ohibi some collec i e
conduc like in o ma ion sha ing abou con ac ual e ms and condi ions among membe s o
he collec i e. Fo example, o sel -employed pla o m wo ke s in Aus alia, collec i e in o ma-
ion sha ing may be subjec o he s a u o y p ohibi ion o “conce ed p ac ices” in sec ion 45(1)
(c) o he Compe i ion and Consume Ac 2010 (C h), which has he e ec o ou lawing in o ma-
ion sha ing be ween compe i o s whe e his has he pu pose, o e ec , o lessening compe i-
ion (see u he Da ies and Wainsco 2017).
The discussion ha ollows ou lines ecen de elopmen s in compe i ion egula ion ha ela e
o he capaci y o sel -employed wo ke s o engage in collec i e ba gaining and c ea e collec-
i e ag eemen s, wi hou hese ac ions acing po en ial liabili y unde compe i ion egula ion.
Aus alia
As ou lined in Sec ion 2 abo e, in 2024 Aus alia in oduced a dis inc egula o y egime wi h-
in he Fai Wo k Ac 2009 (C h) o ce ain “employee-like” sel -employed wo ke s ha acili-
a es olun a y nego ia ion and c ea ion o collec i e ag eemen s wi h digi al labou pla o ms.
Nego ia ions unde his egime a e p o ec ed om compe i ion egula ion by an exp ess s a u-
o y exemp ion (see abo e).
Fo sel -employed pla o m wo ke s in Aus alia whose engagemen s all ou side o he scope o
he “employee-like” ju isdic ion, he possibili y o nego ia ing and c ea ing collec i e ag eemen s
is no closed o by he Compe i ion and Consume Ac 2010 (C h). A 2015 e iew o Aus alian
compe i ion laws ecommended he c ea ion o a “sa e ha bou ” o collec i e ba gaining conduc
32 ILO Wo king Pape 143
by small businesses (Ha pe 2015, 404), and legisla ion o acili a e his was passed in 2017.73 The
amending bill’s Explana o y Memo andum s a ed: “By nego ia ing as a collec i e, small business
may be able o nego ia e wi h ba gaining powe equal o a la ge i m, and achie e a mo e e -
icien and p o-compe i i e ou come.”74 The amendmen s ga e he Aus alian Compe i ion and
Consume Commission (ACCC) he powe o c ea e a class exemp ion h ough de e mina ion.
A e a leng hy pe iod o consul a ion, he ACCC made such a de e mina ion, and in June 2021,
he small business class exemp ion ook e ec (as o his his o y, see Ha dy and McC ys al 2020).75
Unde he class exemp ion, any small business, including sel -employed pla o m wo ke s, wi h
an agg ega ed annual u no e o less han A$10 million76 can o m a collec i e wi h businesses
ha also mee he h esholds, engage in collec i e ba gaining and c ea e collec i e ag eemen s
wi h ba gaining coun e pa ies o e he supply o acquisi ion o goods o se ices, including he
e ms and condi ions unde which a sel -employed pe son is engaged o wo k (see gene ally
Smi h and Healy 2023). To be co e ed by he exemp ion, he pa ies seeking o engage in collec-
i e ba gaining mus ha e:77
●a leas a easonable expec a ion ha he pa ies will make a con ac wi h he a ge o ba -
gaining o e he supply o acquisi ion o good o se ices;
●complied wi h he obliga ion o no i y he ACCC and he a ge o ba gaining o hei in en ion
o engage in ba gaining (along wi h iden i ying ei he he membe s o he ba gaining g oup
o he cha ac e is ics o he membe ship); and
● he membe ship g oup mus no engage, o p opose o engage, in any collec i e e usal o
con ac wi h he a ge o he ba gaining ( ha is, ac ion akin o s ike ac ion o a “collec i e
boyco ”).
Once he exemp ion applies, collec i e ba gaining conduc ha does no include s ike ac ion can
p oceed wi hou being subjec o en o cemen ac ion unde compe i ion laws. Membe s o he
collec i e a e pe mi ed o sha e in o ma ion, bu only whe e he in o ma ion is sha ed o he
pu poses o ba gaining and he pa y sha ing he in o ma ion belie es ha i is easonably nec-
essa y o sha e ha in o ma ion o acili a e ba gaining.
78
Nei he he Compe i ion and Consume
Ac no he class exemp ion p o ide any ins i u ional suppo o collec i e ba gaining unde ak-
en pu suan o he exemp ion; hose hi ing sel -employed wo ke s a e no equi ed o ecog-
nize o ba gain wi h he collec i e; and he e is no s a u o y egime o c ea e en o ceable collec-
i e ag eemen ou comes (beyond he law o con ac ) (see u he McC ys al and Ha dy 2021).
To da e he e is no empi ical e idence o he ex en o which collec i e ba gaining co e ed by he
class exemp ion is leading o collec i e ag eemen s. The ACCC main ains a egis e o class ex-
emp ion no ices ha iden i ies hose small businesses ha a e seeking o make collec i e ag ee-
men s pu suan o he exemp ion,79 bu he e is no egis e o eco d o ag eemen s eached.
The no ices lodged wi h he ACCC iden i y ha some ade unions ha o ganize sel -employed
wo ke s and o he mo e in o mal collec i es ha e lodged no i ica ions unde he p o isions,
mos commonly in ela ion o sel -employed medical p o essionals and owne -d i e cou ie s
73 Compe i ion and Consume Amendmen (Compe i ion Policy Re iew) Ac 2017 (C h).
74 Explana o y Memo andum, Compe i ion and Consume Amendmen (Compe i ion Policy Re iew) Bill 2017 (C h) [9.11].
75 ACCC, Compe i ion and Consume (Class Exemp ion – Collec i e Ba gaining) De e mina ion 2021 c ea ed pu suan o Compe i ion
and Consume Ac 2010 sec ion 95AA.
76 The h eshold is se highe o some small businesses, bu as hese highe h esholds a e no ele an o pla o m economy sel -em-
ployed wo ke s, hey a e no conside ed u he he e.
77 ACCC, Compe i ion and Consume (Class Exemp ion – Collec i e Ba gaining) De e mina ion 2021, clauses 8–11.
78 ACCC, Compe i ion and Consume (Class Exemp ion – Collec i e Ba gaining) De e mina ion 2021, clause 13.
79
A ailable he e: h ps://www.accc.go .au/public- egis e s/class-exemp ions- egis e /collec i e-ba gaining-class-exemp ion-0 (accessed
16 Augus 2024).
33 ILO Wo king Pape 143
o conc e e anspo e s. Howe e , o da e, he e ha e been no no ices lodged wi h he ACCC by
g oups o sel -employed pe sons seeking o nego ia e wi h digi al labou pla o ms.
Eu opean Union
As de e mined by he Cou o Jus ice o he EU in Albany In e na ional BV . S ich ing
Bed i spensioen onds Tex ielindus ie,80 EU compe i ion law exemp s collec i e ag eemen s be-
ween wo ke associa ions and employe s ha ha e been c ea ed wi hin a amewo k o ba -
gaining be ween employe s and employees, whe e hey con ibu e o imp o ing he wo king
condi ions o hose employees. Howe e , as cla i ied in FNV Kuns en,81 his exemp ion does no
apply o ag eemen s c ea ed by an associa ion on behal o genuinely sel -employed wo ke s.
Such an associa ion, in nego ia ing a collec i e ag eemen , would be ac ing as an associa ion o
unde akings a he han associa ion o wo ke s, unless hey we e “ alse sel -employed” wo k-
e s in a posi ion compa able o employees.
Fo a ade union ac ing on behal o pla o m wo ke s who a e nei he employees no alse
sel -employed, he abo e has he e ec ha any collec i e ac ions by he ade union could be
ound o be con a y o EU compe i ion law. This app oach lea es wo ke classi ica ion o be de-
e mined on a case-by-case basis, wi h concomi an unce ain y o he ade union, he wo k-
e s and hose wi h whom hey seek o ba gain abou he legali y o he ac ions. I also has he
e ec ha , in he EU, sel -employed pla o m wo ke s may be subjec o EU en o cemen ac ion
whe e hey engage in collec i e ba gaining and make collec i e ag eemen s.
In Sep embe 2022 he Eu opean Commission issued “Guidelines on he applica ion o [Eu opean]
Union compe i ion law o collec i e ag eemen s ega ding he wo king condi ions o solo sel -em-
ployed pe sons” (OJ 2022/C 374/02). Fo his pu pose, he “solo sel -employed” a e hose wi h-
ou an employmen con ac , o who a e no wi hin an employmen ela ionship, and who ely
p ima ily on hei own pe sonal labou o he p o ision o he se ices conce ned (clause 2(a)).
The Guidelines obse e ha some sel -employed pe sons “ ace di icul ies in in luencing hei
wo king condi ions”, pa icula ly hose ha wo k on hei own and “p ima ily ely on hei own
labou o make a li ing” (clause 7). Fu he mo e, hey no e ha such wo ke s may lack independ-
ence o su icien ba gaining powe , a si ua ion ha has been con ibu ed o by “ he end owa ds
subcon ac ing and ou sou cing business and pe sonal se ices, as well as he digi aliza ion o
p oduc ion p ocesses and he ise o he online pla o m economy” (clause 8). As such “[c]ollec-
i e nego ia ions may p o ide an impo an means o imp o e he wo king condi ions o hese
solo sel -employed pe sons” (clause 8). The solu ion se ou wi hin he Guidelines is ha collec i e
ag eemen s c ea ed by sel -employed pe sons in a si ua ion compa able o ha o wo ke s all
ou side he scope o a icle 101 o he T ea y on he Func ioning o he Eu opean Union (TFEU),
and ha he Eu opean Commission will no ake en o cemen ac ion agains sel -employed pe -
sons expe iencing an imbalance o ba gaining powe wi h a ba gaining a ge .
80 Case C-67/96, [1999] ECR 1-5751.
81 Case C-413/13, FNV Kuns en In o ma ie en Media ECLI :EU :C :2014 :2411.
34 ILO Wo king Pape 143
The Guidelines (clause 2.2) iden i y h ee ca ego ies o sel -employed pe sons who he Eu opean
Commission will conside as compa able o wo ke s, such ha hei collec i e ag eemen s will
be conside ed o all ou side he scope o a icle 101 o he TFEU:
1. Economically dependen solo sel -employed pe sons ( hose p o iding se ices exclusi ely o
p edominan ly o one coun e pa y and iden i ied as hose who ea n, on a e age, a leas
50 pe cen o o al wo k- ela ed income om a single coun e pa y o e a pe iod o one o
wo yea s);
2. Solo sel -employed pe sons wo king “side-by-side” wi h wo ke s ( hose pe o ming he same
o simila asks “side-by-side” wi h wo ke s o he same coun e pa y); and
3. Solo sel -employed pe sons wo king h ough digi al labou pla o ms.82
The hi d ca ego y – solo sel -employed pe sons wo king h ough digi al labou pla o ms – is
o mos ele ance he e. The inclusion o his g oup wi hin he concep o “compa able wo ke s”
is jus i ied wi hin he Guidelines by e e ence o he ac ha sel -employed pe sons may be “de-
penden on digi al pla o ms, especially o he pu poses o eaching cus ome s, and may o en
ace ‘ ake i o lea e i ’ wo k o e s, wi h li le o no scope o nego ia e hei wo king condi ions”
(clause 28).
Fo he pu poses o he Guidelines, a “digi al labou pla o m” is de ined a clause 2(d) as any
na u al o legal pe son p o iding a comme cial se ice ha :
1. is p o ided, a leas in pa , a a dis ance h ough elec onic means;
2. is p o ided a he eques o a ecipien o he se ice; and
3. in ol es, as a necessa y and essen ial componen , he o ganiza ion o wo k pe o med by in-
di iduals, i espec i e o whe he i is pe o med online o a a speci ic loca ion.
Fu he mo e, any collec i e ag eemen (o p oposed collec i e ag eemen ) be ween sel -employed
pe sons and a digi al labou pla o m mus be one which “conce ns he wo king condi ions” o he
sel -employed pe sons (clause 2(c)). These a e de ined o include ma e s such as emune a ion,
wo king ime, lea e, heal h and sa e y, wo king space, insu ances and e mina ion o engage-
men (clause 15). bu would no ex end o ag eemen s ha con ol he cos o se ices o e ed
by digi al labou pla o ms o consume s, which limi digi al labou pla o ms decisions a ound
hi ing, o which amoun o ma ke sha ing be ween sel -employed wo ke s (clause 17).83 Whe e
he collec i e ag eemen (o p oposed ag eemen ) only conce ns wo king condi ions, he asso-
cia ed coo dina ion be ween he pa ies on each side o he nego ia ions ( ha is, ag eemen o
in o ma ion exchange) is also co e ed by he Guidelines, p o ided ha he coo dina ion is neces-
sa y and p opo iona e o he nego ia ion o conclusion o he collec i e ag eemen (clause 16).
82 The Guidelines also iden i y wo u he g oups o sel -employed pe sons who, while no in a posi ion compa able o wo ke s, would
no be subjec o EU Commission en o cemen ac ion whe e hey c ea e collec i e ag eemen s. These a e ag eemen s made by solo
sel -employed pe sons whe e he coun e pa y has a le el o economic s eng h such an imbalance is o be p esumed whe e he
coun e pa ies o he ag eemen ep esen he whole o a sec o o indus y, o i he coun e pa ies ha e economic u no e s o
mo e han €2 million o a s a headcoun o 10 o mo e (clause 34). Second, ag eemen s concluded by sel -employed pe sons pu -
suan o na ional o EU legisla ion whe e he legisla ion was enac ed in pu sui o social objec i es o add ess imbalances in ba gain-
ing powe (clause 36).
83 I should also be no ed ha he Guidelines apply o e ical ag eemen s be ween solo sel -employed pe sons and unde akings, bu
do no ex end o ho izon al ag eemen s be ween a ge unde akings, such as, o example, an ag eemen be ween digi al labou
pla o ms as o he p ice hey will ag ee o pay o se ices o which p e en s one digi al labou pla o m om “poaching” wo ke s
om ano he pla o m. Fo mo e on ecen de elopmen s in compe i ion law in espec o non-poaching and wage ixing ag eemen s
be ween unde akings, see Rod igues, Rocha and Mou a (2024).
35 ILO Wo king Pape 143
The Guidelines a e no binding law. They cla i y when he Eu opean Commission will conside
sel -employed pe sons o be “compa able” o wo ke s o he pu poses o he Albany excep ion.
They a e binding on he Eu opean Commission i sel , and guide EU Membe S a es and hei
compe i ion en o cemen agencies in espec o he le el o ole a ion ha will be p o ided o do-
mes ic compe i ion law legisla ion and collec i e ac ion by sel -employed pe sons wi hin Membe
S a es. Howe e , he Guidelines do no c ea e new igh s o egula o y ca ego ies, no do hey
p e en p i a e pa ies om b inging en o cemen ac ions in ci cums ances o he han hose
co e ed by he Guidelines (Heissl 2024, 137; Pe ulli 2024, 200; Daskalo a 2022).
Looking ahead, he Guidelines can be elied upon by EU Membe S a es o p o ide exemp ions
om domes ic compe i ion laws o collec i e ba gaining igh s o pla o m wo ke s wi hin he
scope o he Guidelines. Resea ch ca ied ou by Eu o ound (2022, 27) se ou he legal posi ion
o sel -employed collec i e ba gaining in EU Membe S a es (as a Janua y 2022) (see also Waas
and Heissl 2021):
●Poland allows collec i e ba gaining by sel -employed pe sons wi hou es ic ion.
●
Fou Membe S a es (Bulga ia, Hunga y, Romania and Slo akia) ha e es ic ions on collec i e
ba gaining o he sel -employed wi hin domes ic labou law egula ion.
●Fi e Membe S a es (Czechia, Denma k, Es onia, Finland and La ia) ha e es ic ions on col-
lec i e ba gaining o he sel -employed wi hin compe i ion law egula ion.
●Nine Membe S a es (Aus ia, F ance, Ge many, G eece, I eland, he Ne he lands, Po ugal,
Spain and Sweden) allow sel -employed collec i e ba gaining in excep ional cases.
●Eigh Membe S a es (Belgium, C oa ia, Cyp us, I aly, Li huania, Luxembou g, Mal a and
Slo enia) do no egula e he collec i e ba gaining igh s o he sel -employed.
A he ime o w i ing, i appea s ha he e ha e been no de elopmen s in compe i ion egula-
ion in EU Membe S a es ha would ha e he e ec o changing he legal posi ion as i applied
in Janua y 2022 esul ing om he g ea e la i ude a o ded by he Guidelines. Howe e , pa allel
de elopmen in he EU in he o m o he Pla o m Wo k Di ec i e was no ed in Sec ion 2 abo e.
36 ILO Wo king Pape 143
X5 Li iga ion on he pe sonal scope o labou laws
and e ec i e ecogni ion o he igh o collec i e
ba gaining o pla o m wo ke s
In he pe iod since 2021, li iga ion has con inued in a ious ibunals and cou s a ound he
wo ld in espec o he pe sonal scope o labou laws and whe he pla o m wo ke s a e co e ed
by domes ic legal de ini ions o “employee”, “wo ke ” o ela ed e ms o gain access o a ious
labou law igh s and p o ec ions (see, o example, Hiessl 2021; ILAW 2022; and he Gigpedia
o e iew o cou cases impac ing gig wo ke s84). This has included li iga ion on he ques ion o
ecogni ion o he pu poses o collec i e ba gaining.
I is no possible he e o p o ide a comp ehensi e o e iew o all ele an li iga ion. Howe e , i
is clea ha he e is no common ou come o unanimi y in he cases, wi h some li iga ion being
esol ed wi h a inding ha pa icula pla o m wo ke s a e sel -employed and o he li iga ion
esul ing in pla o m wo ke s being classi ied as dependen wo ke s o employees. This inding
esona es wi h he conclusions o ea lie s udies ha also ound a lack o unanimi y in he ou -
comes o such li iga ion (Heissl 2021; Hadwige 2022, 42).
Many lowe -le el cou and ibunal cases de e mined since 2021 emain subjec o appeal and,
he e o e, inal esolu ion o he issues in ol ed emains ou s anding. The e ha e also been de-
e mina ions as o he classi ica ion o pla o m wo ke s om highe le el cou s in some coun-
ies, wi h Annex 1 below ou lining such cases om he Ne he lands, New Zealand, Republic o
Ko ea and he Uni ed Kingdom. The discussion in Annex 1 is no comp ehensi e, bu se es o
illus a e he a ious app oaches o ques ions o classi ica ion.
84 Gigpedia, “Cou Cases”.
37 ILO Wo king Pape 143
XConclusion
This wo king pape has explo ed de elopmen s ela ed o he pla o m wo ke s’ engagemen
in collec i e ba gaining and o he collec i e ac ion o e he las h ee yea s. These legal de el-
opmen s a e modes in na u e and linked o a combina ion o legisla i e e o ms in a ange o
coun ies, along wi h ( o a lesse ex en ) judicial decisions ha ha e indica ed ha he e is no
common ou come o unanimi y in cases ela ed o he employmen s a us o pla o m wo ke s.
Collec i e ag eemen s, olun a y ecogni ion ag eemen s and acco ds be ween ade unions and
digi al pla o ms also con inue o be nego ia ed, al hough hese a e concen a ed in Eu opean
coun ies (apa om examples in Cen al Asia, Oceania and Sou h Ame ica) and a e mos ly o
be ound in he deli e y and idesha e sec o s. In mos coun ies he e has been no change in
egula o y se ings on collec i e ba gaining.
The ela ionship be ween labou law and compe i ion law has enabled g ea e p o ision o col-
lec i e ba gaining in some ins ances by sel -employed pla o m wo ke s o ake place wi hou
o ending adi ional cons ain s imposed by compe i ion egula ion.
44 ILO Wo king Pape 143
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Condi ions o Wo k and Equali y Depa men
(WORKQUALITY)
Inclusi e Labou Ma ke s, Wages and Wo king
Condi ions B anch (INWORK)
In e na ional Labou O ganiza ion
Rou e des Mo illons 4
1211 Gene a 22
Swi ze land
T +41 22 799 6754
XAd ancing social jus ice, p omo ing decen wo k
The In e na ional Labou O ganiza ion is he Uni ed Na ions agency o he wo ld o wo k. We b ing oge he go e nmen s, employe s and wo ke s
o imp o e he wo king li es o all people, d i ing a human-cen ed app oach o he u u e o wo k h ough employmen c ea ion, igh s a wo k,
social p o ec ion and social dialogue.
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