Bu chi, F ancesco; Te skaya, Anas asia; Sakke a, Tekalign Gu u; Au ino, Elisabe a
A icle — Published Ve sion
Do public wo ks p og ammes os e clima e esilience?
Concep ual amewo k and e iew o empi ical e idence
In e na ional Social Secu i y Re iew
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Sugges ed Ci a ion: Bu chi, F ancesco; Te skaya, Anas asia; Sakke a, Tekalign Gu u; Au ino, Elisabe a
(2025) : Do public wo ks p og ammes os e clima e esilience? Concep ual amewo k and e iew
o empi ical e idence, In e na ional Social Secu i y Re iew, ISSN 1468-246X, Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, Vol.
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SOCIAL SECURITY: ENABLING AND SUPPORTING RESILIENCE
Do public wo ks p og ammes
os e clima e esilience?
Concep ual amewo k and
e iew o empi ical e idence
F ancesco Bu chi*, Anas asia Te skaya**,
Tekalign Gu u Sakke a*and Elisabe a Au ino**
*Ge man Ins i u e o De elopmen and Sus ainabili y (IDOS), Bonn,
Ge many; **Uni e si y o Ba celona, Ba celona, Spain
Abs ac Public wo ks p og ammes (PWPs) a e pe asi ely
used o ackle po e y and unemploymen , and o build
in as uc u e and skills in low- and middle-income coun ies.
While hei impac s on po e y, ood secu i y and labou
ou comes ha e been widely documen ed, he e is li le esea ch
ocusing on he ole o PWPs in suppo ing household clima e
esilience in he global con ex o a deepening clima e c isis.
To fill his gap, we p opose a concep ual amewo k ha links
he di e en componen s o PWPs –wages, in as uc u e,
and skills de elopmen – o household capaci y o cope wi h,
and adap o, clima e- ela ed shocks. We use his amewo k
Add esses o co espondence: F ancesco Bu chi, Ge man Ins i u e o De elopmen and Sus ainabili y
(IDOS), Tulpen eld 6, 53113 Bonn, Ge many; email: [email p o ec ed]. Anas asia
Te skaya, Uni e si y o Ba celona, Facul ad de Economía y Emp esa (Edifici 690), A inguda Diagonal,
696, 08034 Ba celona, Spain; email [email p o ec ed]; Tekalign Gu u Sakke a, Ge man Ins i u e o
De elopmen and Sus ainabili y (IDOS), Tulpen eld 6, 53113 Bonn, Ge many; email: ekalign.
sakke a@idos- esea ch.de. Elisabe a Au ino, Uni e si y o Ba celona, Facul ad de Economía y Emp esa
(Edifici 696), A inguda Diagonal, 696, 08034 Ba celona, Spain; email: [email p o ec ed].
Elisabe a Au ino is also a filia ed wi h Ins i u d’Economia de Ba celona, Spain. Anas asia Te skaya is
also a filia ed wi h Ins i u d’Economia de Ba celona.
The au ho s hank S e an Beie l, Ma kus Loewe and Daniele Male ba o hei use ul commen s on
di e en e sions o he pape . This esea ch is unded by he Ge man Fede al Minis y o Economic
Coope a ion and De elopmen (BMZ), wi hin he p ojec “Fos e ing Resilience h ough Heal h and
Social P o ec ion in imes o mul iple c ises”. Elisabe a Au ino acknowledges he Jacobs Founda ion,
Minis e io de Ciencia, Inno acion y Uni e sidades (MICIU/AEI/10.13039/501100011033 and Eu opean
Union Nex Gene a ionEU/PRTR), and he Eu opean Resea ch Council unded by he Eu opean Union
[g an numbe 101041741] o suppo ing he ime du ing pa o he w i ing pe iod. Views and
opinions exp essed a e hose o he au ho s only and do no necessa ily eflec hose o he Eu opean
Union o he Eu opean Resea ch Council Execu i e Agency, o any o he o he unde s. Nei he he
Eu opean Union no he g an ing au ho i y can be held esponsible o hese.
In e na ional Social Secu i y Re iew, Vol. 78, 2-3/2025
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145
This is an open access a icle unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion License, which pe mi s use, dis ibu ion and
ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed.
o guide ou e iew o empi ical expe imen al and
quasi-expe imen al e idence on he mul iple sho - e m and
long- e m e ec s o PWPs on esilience o wea he shocks,
such as floods, d ough s and cyclones. Such e idence mos ly
d aws om a ew p og ammes in India, E hiopia and Malawi.
O e all, we find ha , h ough he wage componen , PWPs can
be e ec i e in enhancing household esilience h ough
inc easing sa ings and p oduc i e in es men s. Howe e ,
hese benefi s usually only ma e ialize in he case o egula ,
long- e m p og ammes, as opposed o ad-hoc/ empo al
PWPs. PWPs’in as uc u e componen can play a c ucial
ole in suppo ing households’long- e m capaci y o adap o
shocks, especially in he case o “clima e-sma ”in as uc u e,
wi h posi i e ex e nali ies beyond di ec p og amme benefi-
cia ies o communi ies. The e is a key e idence gap in es iga ing
he e ec s o PWPs h ough he in as uc u e componen on
bo h beneficia ies and o he communi y membe s, as well as
on he ole o on- he-job aining and i s capaci y o s eng hen
esilience in combina ion wi h he in as uc u e componen .
E idence om di e en socioeconomic con ex s is also sca ce.
Ano he key gap ela es o he iden ifica ion o he main
mechanisms h ough which hese ela ionships ope a e. Filling
hese gaps will suppo policy make s aking decisions abou
when o implemen PWPs (especially in compa ison wi h
o he social p o ec ion in e en ions), and how o design
hem o ackle ulne abili y o clima e change.
Keywo ds social p o ec ion, esilience, labou in ensi e
employmen , clima e change, economic and social
de elopmen , in e na ional
In oduc ion
Clima e change causes, among o he hings, an inc ease in he incidence and
se e i y o ex eme wea he e en s, such as floods, d ough s, wildfi es o
hea wa es (IPCC, 2018). Households in low- and middle-income coun ies
(LMICs) a e especially a ec ed by hese wea he shocks due o hei high eliance
on he ag icul u al sec o as a key sou ce o income and o hei limi ed access o
Do public wo ks p og ammes os e clima e esilience?
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146
c edi and insu ance ma ke s (De con and Ch is iaensen, 2011). Clima e- ela ed
haza ds esul ed in an annual loss o 23 million wo king-li e yea s be ween 2000
and 2015, especially among ulne able g oups, ampli ying exis ing social and
economic inequali ies (ILO, 2018). Iden i ying s a egies ha p omo e
households’ esilience o wea he shocks, bo h by enhancing hei abili y o cope
wi h shocks once hey ma e ialize as well as hei abili y o adap o u u e
shocks, is, he e o e, a key global challenge and policy p io i y.
1
Public wo ks p og ammes (PWPs) –also known as labou -in ensi e
employmen , wo k a e, o cash-/ ood/inpu - o -wo k p og ammes –a e among
he mos common o ms o social p o ec ion globally, wi h o e 90 coun ies
implemen ing hem (Wo ld Bank, 2018). Gi en hei pe asi eness, hey can play
a c ucial ole in mi iga ing he impac s o wea he - ela ed shocks (Bowen
e al., 2020; Cos ella e al., 2023). PWPs a e go e nmen -led o dono -led
ini ia i es, which o e empo a y employmen oppo uni ies o people usually
li ing in poo o ulne able a eas (Subba ao e al., 2013). PWP beneficia ies
usually engage in labou -in ensi e ac i i ies ela ed o he cons uc ion o
main enance o communi y in as uc u es o o he p o ision o o he public
se ices. In exchange o hei wo k, beneficia ies ecei e compensa ion ei he in
cash o in kind (o en ood).
In he sho e un, PWPs can suppo households in wi hs anding and
eco e ing in he ace o shocks by o e ing income suppo . They can also
p omo e longe - e m esilience, including a e PWPs end, h ough asse and
in as uc u e c ea ion, as well as skills de elopmen . Inc easingly, PWPs a e used
o c ea e clima e-sma communi y asse s o p o ide clima e-sma se ices (e.g.
a o es a ion, land ehabili a ion, i e walls, e c.). This way, hey can suppo
clima e esilience mo e di ec ly compa ed wi h o he social p o ec ion schemes,
such as uncondi ional cash o ood ans e s (Beie l, 2021; God ey-Wood and
Flowe , 2018; Beazley e al., 2016). I is no ewo hy ha he wo ld’s wo la ges
PWPs –India’s Maha ma Gandhi Na ional Ru al Employmen Gua an ee Ac
(MGNREGA) and E hiopia’s P oduc i e Sa e y Ne P og am (PSNP) –we e
ini ia ed as a public esponse o wo la ge d ough shocks (Bagga e al., 2023).
Despi e his po en ial, PWPs ha e no ye been ully exploi ed as a majo policy
le e age o mi iga e and adap o clima e change (Cos ella e al., 2023). This is
pa ly due o lack o e idence syn hesis. S udies e iewing he impac s o PWPs
(Geh ke and Ha wig, 2018; Sakke a and on B aun, 2019; Beie l, 2021; Bagga
e al., 2023) did no ha e a specific ocus on clima e esilience.
Ou goal is o con ibu e o his li e a u e by, fi s , p oposing a diag amma ic
concep ual amewo k, which links he di e en componen s o PWPs o
households’di e en ( esilience) capaci ies o deal wi h cu en and u u e
1. We p esen a comp ehensi e defini ion o esilience in he nex sec ion.
Do public wo ks p og ammes os e clima e esilience?
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clima ic shocks; and by, second, syn hesizing exis ing empi ical e idence o he
mul iple (sho - un and long- un) e ec s o PWPs on clima e esilience. Finally,
we highligh gaps o u he esea ch.
We iden i y h ee main e idence gaps. Fi s , he e is e y limi ed causal e idence
abou he e ec i eness o he in as uc u e componen o hese p og ammes.
Unde s anding he impac o his componen is c ucial o policy make s when
deciding be ween PWPs and less cos ly social assis ance p og ammes, such as
cash ans e s. Second, despi e being widely used globally, exis ing expe imen al
and quasi-expe imen al s udies a e limi ed o a ew u al se ings (India, E hiopia
and, o a lesse ex en , Malawi). We do no ha e much in o ma ion on hei
a e age and dis ibu ional e ec i eness in he ace o clima e shocks o Cen al
and La in Ame ica, he Middle Eas , and Eas Asia, o o he se ings in
sub-Saha an A ica o Sou h Asia. Also, e idence om u ban o pe i-u ban
a eas, and humani a ian se ings is e y limi ed. Finally, ou unde s anding o he
mechanisms and p og amme design ea u es h ough which PWPs can suppo
esilience-building in di e en con ex s emains ela i ely limi ed.
Concep ual amewo k: Public wo ks p og ammes and
clima e esilience
We define clima e esilience as he capaci y o a social sys em o cope e ec i ely
wi h a haza dous e en , esponding in a way ha p ese es i s basic unc ion,
iden i y and s uc u e, while main aining he capaci y o adap . Se e al schola s
define esilience as a wo-p onged concep encompassing he capaci y o cope wi h,
and adap o shocks (Bowen e al., 2020; Beazley e al., 2016;Bahadu e al.,2015).
This concep includes a leas wo key aspec s: a) he capaci y o cope, which e e s
o he abili y o wi hs and and eco e om a clima e- ela ed shock; b) he
capaci y o adap , which e e s o he abili y o adjus o po en ial damage, ake
ad an age o oppo uni ies and cope wi h consequences, and en ails educing
long- e m exposu e o isks as well as lea ning o adjus a e a shock o educe
ulne abili y o he same shock in he u u e.
2
In line wi h he exis ing li e a u e (e.g. Beie l, 2021), we sugges ha PWPs may
con ibu e o os e ing clima e esilience h ough h ee key componen s: wages;
in as uc u e de elopmen /se ice p o ision; and skills de elopmen . O cou se,
he ela ionship be ween PWPs and clima e esilience is complex and highly
con ex ual, a ying acco ding o he se ing in which he p og amme is
implemen ed and p og amme design ea u es. Ne e heless, i is possible o
de elop a gene al (al hough non-exhaus i e) concep ual amewo k, which
2. O he s add a hi d componen –a ans o ma i e capaci y (Béné e al., 2015; Sengup a and
Cos ella, 2023).
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illus a es he main pa hways/in e media e ou comes h ough which PWPs can
con ibu e o building esilience a di e en scales (indi idual, household,
and communi y). Such in e media e ou comes a e p oxies o he wo esilience
capaci ies, and how hey ela e o he ul ima e ou come, i.e. clima e esilience.
While i is no always easy o associa e a specific indica o o one o he o he
esilience “capaci y”and while, in he li e a u e, he e is no ull consensus, we do
iden i y some p oxy measu es. In u n, his can guide iden i ying he key
indica o s o be used o measu e p og amme e ec i eness (see Figu e 1).
We a gue ha PWPs may con ibu e o os e ing clima e esilience h ough h ee
key componen s: wages; in as uc u e de elopmen /se ice p o ision; and skills
de elopmen . This amewo k also p esen s he in e media e ou comes ha hese
h ee in e en ion componen s may p oduce, which a e p oxies o he wo
esilience capaci ies, and how hey ela e o clima e esilience. While i is no
always easy o associa e a specific indica o o one o he o he esilience
“capaci y”and while, in he li e a u e, he e is no ull consensus, we do iden i y
some p oxy measu es. An inc ease in sa ings is conside ed p ima ily a p oxy o
coping (o abso p i e) capaci y (Bowen e al., 2020; Béné, F ankenbe ge and
Nelson, 2015; Beazley e al., 2016); he same applies o a educ ion in he use o
ex eme coping s a egies –including selling p oduc i e asse s (Bowen e al., 2020;
Béné, F ankenbe ge and Nelson, 2015; Beazley e al., 2016; Sengup a and
Cos ella, 2023). Indica o s o adap i e capaci y, ins ead, a e li elihood
di e sifica ion (Sengup a and Cos ella, 2023; Bowen e al., 2020; Beazley
e al., 2016; Béné, F ankenbe ge and Nelson, 2015); adop ion o clima e-sma
echnology (Sengup a and Cos ella, 2023; Bowen e al., 2020; Béné, F ankenbe ge
and Nelson, 2015); and long- e m in es men s in p oduc i e asse s (Bowen
e al., 2020; Beazley e al., 2016; Béné, F ankenbe ge and Nelson, 2015).
The fi s in e en ion componen o PWPs in ol es he p o ision o a wage,
3
which enhances he coping capaci y by imp o ing access o ood and/o a oiding
de imen al consump ion smoo hing s a egies (Hadley e al., 2023), enabling
sa ings, p e en ing dis ess selling, and/o in es ing in p oduc i e asse s (De con
and Ch is iaensen, 2011; Hid obo e al., 2018). Rega ding he enhancemen o
adap i e capaci y, wage paymen s may allow in es men s in p oduc i e asse s and
echnology (e.g. d ough - esis an c ops), which helps o di e si y li elihoods and
inc ease he abili y o adjus o clima e change (Ba e e al., 2021). In addi ion,
wages may enhance adap i e capaci y by influencing sa ing habi s, al hough his
e ec may be limi ed, as PWPs ypically p o ide low emune a ion (hence, his
channel is indica ed in Figu e 1by a dashed line).
3. The e m “wage”he e also includes in-kind (especially in- ood) emune a ion o public wo ks
engagemen .
Do public wo ks p og ammes os e clima e esilience?
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Figu e 1. Concep ual amewo k linking PWPs o clima e esilience
No es: a) Clouds indica e he key design and implemen a ion ea u es o he specific PWP componen s. They influence he ela ionship be ween he specific in e en ion componen and
in e media e ou comes; b) Filled a ows indica e assumed s ong ela ionships, while dashed lines indica e weake ela ionships.
Sou ce: Au ho s’concep ualiza ion.
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150
The ex en o which wages a ec hese in e media e ou comes depends on
se e al ac o s: he size o he ans e (whe he i is su ficien o induce change
o mee consump ion needs); he egula i y and eliabili y o paymen s, he
equency o disbu semen ; and whe he he numbe o wo king days is su ficien
o gene a e a significan impac (McCo d, 2022). Addi ionally, he iming o
employmen should align wi h seasonal a ia ions in ood secu i y and labou
ma ke demand. Fo example, i access o PWPs is consis en ly eliable,
pa icipan s may educe p ecau iona y sa ings and in es in mo e p oduc i e
asse s, he eby s eng hening hei adap i e capaci y. In addi ion o hese
p e equisi es, imp o ing adap i e capaci y also equi es wage le els ha a e high
enough o encou age in es men in p oduc i e inpu s, capi al, and/o li elihood
di e sifica ion.
4
This highligh s ha –like any o he social p o ec ion ool –
e ec i e p og amme design and implemen a ion a e c i ical.
The second in e en ion componen in ol es in as uc u e c ea ion and/o
se ice p o ision. The p o ision o public goods is a key ea u e o PWPs,
dis inguishing hem om cash ans e s. Th ough his p o ision, PWPs can
s eng hen household esilience o clima e shocks. Subba ao e al. (2012)
ca ego ize goods and se ices c ea ed by PWPs in o wo ypes: in as uc u e (e.g.
oad econs uc ion a e wea he shocks o a o es a ion) and land managemen
(e.g. soil conse a ion p ojec s). While bo h ypes o PWPs may mi iga e he
e ec s o shocks and inc ease esilience, i is likely ha PWPs ocusing specifically
on clima e-sma in as uc u e, such as a o es a ion and land ehabili a ion, may
yield la ge impac s on clima e esilience han o he ypes o in as uc u e and
se ice p o ision (Bagga e al., 2023). O e he las yea s, an inc easing numbe o
coun ies, such as E hiopia, Hai i, India, Indonesia, Madagasca , Malawi, Pakis an
and Rwanda, ha e ocused on he p o ision o hese se ices h ough PWPs wi h
he specific objec i e o educing ulne abili y o di e en wea he shocks, as well
as some consequences o unsus ainable land use, such as soil e osion and
deg ada ion (Subba ao e al., 2012; Adam, 2015; God ey-Wood and Flowe , 2018).
One in e media e ou come o he in as uc u e c ea ion and se ice p o ision
componen o PWPs is he adop ion o clima e-sma echnologies. Clima e-sma
ag icul u e (CSA) p ac ices, such as conse a ion ag icul u e, ag icul u al
di e sifica ion, and imp o ed seed use, ha e been widely p omo ed in many
A ican coun ies. Howe e , hei success has o en been limi ed due o high cos s
(Amadu, McNama a and Mille , 2020). Hence, PWPs may ac i ely inc ease he
adop ion o CSA p ac ices by easing household budge cons ain s. This, in u n,
may enhance ag icul u al p oduc i i y and clima e esilience (Scognamillo and
4. A he same ime, wages should usually be below ma ke wages, and in gene al no oo high:
o he wise, people in he middle class may also be incen i ized o pa icipa e, al hough PWPs a e
mean o each he poo .
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Si ko, 2021). Fo example, he adop ion o d ough - esis an c op a ie ies can make
a ming mo e esilien o wa e sca ci y, allowing a me s o main ain, o e en
inc ease, c op yields du ing d ough pe iods. Addi ionally, adop ing clima e-sma
app oaches can imp o e sus ainable esou ce use and p oduc i i y. Fo example,
d ough - esis an c ops o en equi e less wa e and ewe inpu s such as pes icides
and e ilize s, p omo ing mo e sus ainable ag icul u al p ac ices and educing
en i onmen al deg ada ion, ul ima ely imp o ing hei long- e m esilience.
Jus like wages, he impac o in e en ions is highly dependen on he ele ance,
quali y and unc ionali y o he in as uc u e and se ices c ea ed. I is c ucial ha
hese in as uc u es a e ailo ed o local needs and ha hey a e p o ided wi h
adequa e echnical inpu s du ing design, implemen a ion and main enance.
Go e nance and communi y owne ship o hese in as uc u es is also key
(Bu chi and Sakke a, 2025).
The hi d componen o PWPs is skills de elopmen . Indeed, PWPs in e en ions
a e o en combined wi h on- he-job aining o b oade aining ini ia i es. T aining
ac i i ies on CSA p ac ices, disas e p epa edness, li elihoods di e sifica ion, and
ex ension se ices a e o en p omo ed o equip household wi h specific skills ha
enhance hei adap i e capaci y. Such human capi al-building in e en ions can
ha e long- e m e ec s on labou ma ke ou comes, including wages,
employabili y, labou pa icipa ion, and p oduc i i y. Compa ed o cash ans e s,
PWPs o e he dis inc ad an age o os e ing on- he-job skill de elopmen , which
can con ibu e o sus ained economic esilience. Howe e , gi en ha many o he
ac i i ies unde aken in PWPs a e gene ally low-skill and sho - e m, i is ha d o
e alua e he deg ee o which he quali y o skill acquisi ion and ans e abili y
occu s in p ac ice (Geh ke and Ha wig, 2018). Se e al ac o s de e mine whe he
skills de elopmen in e en ions o PWPs would enhance capaci ies o cope o
adap . These include: 1) he alignmen o he aining wi h he local con ex and
esilience; 2) he a ailabili y o esou ces o enable beneficia ies o apply he
acqui ed skills; 3) he demand o hese skills; and 4) labou ma ke condi ions,
among o he s (McCo d e al., 2016; Be and e al., 2017; Soló zano and
Cá denes, 2019; Beie l, 2021).
E ec s on he communi y
The h ee in e en ion componen s can a ec no only he esilience o he
beneficia ies bu also ha o en i e communi ies. Fo ins ance, he injec ion o
conside able amoun s o cash (o ood) h ough PWPs in o a ge ed
communi ies may lead o se e al gene al equilib ium e ec s on local wages,
p ices and o e all economic ac i i ies such as ade, p oduc ion and income
di e sifica ion (Loewe and Zin l, 2023). This is o en e e ed o in he li e a u e
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hey looked a a m e sus non- a m income inc ease, as a measu e o households’
di e sifica ion o ac i i ies and applied a p opensi y sco e ma ching me hodology.
They showed ha he e was no significan e ec o he PSNP on li elihood
di e sifica ion (nei he o a m no non- a m income), while i no ably inc eased
na u al- esou ce ex ac ion, sugges ing ha he PSNP encou aged a nega i e
adap a ion s a egy. Addi ionally, Kozicka e al. (2024) showed ha PSNP had a
nega i e e ec on c op di e si y, which may dec ease a me s’ esilience o clima e
shocks. Fo hei analysis, hey applied he DiD app oach combined wi h
p opensi y sco e ma ching. Hoddino e al. (2012) s udied he e ec s o he PSNP
on he use o e ilize and in es men in wa e e en ion, using ma ching
echniques. Pa icipa ion in he PSNP alone did no inc ease he use o e ilize o
ag icul u al in es men . Howe e , when combined wi h o he ood-secu i y
p og ammes designed o inc ease ag icul u al p oduc i i y he e ec o he PSNP
u ned posi i e, hin ing a he po en ial ole o complemen a y in es men s. Using
p opensi y sco e ma ching, Gilligan, Hoddino and Ta esse (2009) ound a
significan inc ease in e ilize use among PSNP beneficia ies, along wi h a highe
sha e o own en e p ises compa ed o he con ol g oup.
Beegle, Galasso and Goldbe g (2017) e alua ed he e ec o Malawi’s MASAF on
a ious ou comes including he use o e ilize , elying on ac oss- and wi hin-
illage andomiza ion. O e all, he PWP did no inc ease e ilize use, maybe
due o limi ed employmen du a ion in he MASAF in compa ison o, o
example, he Indian MGNREGA. In con as , a non-expe imen al s udy by
Scognamillo and Si ko (2021) based on mul i a ia e eg essions, showed ha
Malawi’s MASAF was associa ed wi h he adop ion o CSA p ac ices, such as
building soil wa e conse a ion s uc u es and applying he use o e ilize .
9
In summa y, PWPs ha e g ea po en ial o enhance households’adap i e
capaci y by p omo ing li elihood di e sifica ion h ough business ac i i ies, as
indica ed in mos s udies. Howe e , he e idence ega ding he impac o PWP
wages on he adop ion o CSA p ac ices and ag icul u al echnology is mixed.
Some s udies e en epo nega i e e ec s, sugges ing ha he wage componen o
PWPs may no be su ficien o induce a me s’adap a ion o clima e shocks.
Table 2p o ides a syn hesis o he main esul s o he empi ical s udies examined.
The in as uc u e componen o PWPs
Tiwa i e al. (2011) and Es e es e al. (2013) showed ha he ac i i ies unde aken
unde MGNREGA we e linked o dec eased a iabili y in c op yields, enhanced soil
e ili y, imp o ed c op p oduc i i y, educed soil e osion and, consequen ly, an
o e all inc ease in c op yields along wi h a decline in he ag icul u al
9. Please no e he dashed line linking he wage componen o echnology in Figu e 1.
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ulne abili y index. Simila ly, Fishe (2020) analysed 798 MGNREGA p ojec s and
concluded ha hese p ojec s helped ulne able households o con on clima e
shocks. This e idence di ec ly indica es ha he in as uc u e componen o he
MGNREGA posi i ely a ec s capaci ies o cope and o adap o clima e shocks;
howe e , his e idence is a he desc ip i e.
A quasi-expe imen al s udy o Geh ke (2015) applied he DiD app oach o s udy
he e ec s o India’s MGNREGA in as uc u e on ag icul u al p oduc i i y and he
employmen o non-pa icipan s. Specifically, he s udy compa ed a me s who
had had any o m o MGNREGA ac i i y unde aken close o hei lands wi h
a me s who had no . The esul s indica ed ha he e was a posi i e e ec o
MGNREGA ac i i y on ag icul u al p oduc ion bu no e ec on he demand o
labou . The s udy also indica ed significan he e ogenei y, wi h di e en ypes o
in as uc u e a ou ing specific g oups. Landowne s, o ins ance, benefi ed
om land de elopmen - ela ed in as uc u e, while flood con ol in as uc u e
benefi ed he u al landless popula ion, inc easing hei employmen
oppo uni ies. This indica ed ha he in as uc u al componen o he
MGNREGA may help households o adop o u u e shocks.
Table 2. Summa y o he esul s
P oxy ou come Numbe o
s udies
Ad e se
e ec
No
e ec
Beneficial
e ec
Food secu i y and ulne abili y o clima e shocks 4 0 1 3
Employmen ulne abili y o clima e shocks 1 0 0 1
P oduc i i y ulne abili y o clima e shocks 4 3 1 0
Selling li es ock du ing shocks 2 0 2 0
Sa ings 14 0 6 8
Owne ship o p oduc i e asse s 15 0 5 10
Sa ings (long o medium- un) 9 0 5 4
Li elihood di e sifica ion (includes sel -employmen ) 7 1 1 6
Use o echnology/CSA p ac ices (e.g. e ilize ) 6 1 2 3
Flood con ol in as uc u e, wa e in as uc u e, soil quali y,
cul i a ed land, anspo a ion cos s.
6015
E ec on non/pa icipan s 3 0 1 2
Business aining ( ansi ion o sel -employmen ) 1 0 0 1
CSA aining (usage o CSA p ac ices) 2 0 0 2
Fo es y skills 1 0 0 1
Sou ce: Au ho s’elabo a ion.
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Ch is ian e al. (2015) analysed he e ec o in as uc u e c ea ed by Yemen’s
Labo In ensi e Wo k P og am (LIWP), a PWP ha p o ides sho - e m
employmen o poo u al households in he cons uc ion o local in as uc u e
wi hin a conflic se ing. The LIWP cons uc ion p ojec s included eclama ion o
ag icul u al lands om ha m ul plan s, p o ec ion o i iga ion canals and wa e
sou ces, imp o emen o u al oads, pa ing o u al ma ke s, ainwa e
ha es ing, cons uc ion o shallow wells, and e ace epai . The e alua ion was
based on he andom assignmen o 60 o 120 communi ies in o pa icipa ion in
he LIWP in he fi s yea (2010), while he emaining 60 con ol communi ies
en e ed he p og amme in he second yea (2011). Thus, he e alua ion
highligh ed he sho - e m e ec s o LIWP in as uc u e on wa e accessibili y
and anspo a ion cos s. The esul s sugges ed ha he LIWP-c ea ed
in as uc u e educed he a e age leng h o wa e - e ching ips du ing he ainy
season, leading o an inc ease in wa e a ailabili y. Mo eo e , inc eased access o
wa e esul ed in one o wo ewe mon hs o wa e sho age pe yea .
Fu he mo e, mos households (abou 80 pe cen ) epo ed ha hey benefi ed
di ec ly om he p ojec s. This again indica es ha PWP in as uc u e is
clima e-sma and inc eases he capaci y o cope and adap o clima e shocks.
Le ine e al. (2024) in es iga ed he long- e m (3–5 yea s) impac s o PWP
asse s on li elihoods and esilience in No h Wollo, E hiopia and in Makueni
Coun y, Kenya. In he fi s case asse s such as check-dams, ee plan ing and
infil a ion enches we e mean o ensu e soil and wa e conse a ion, while in
he second ea h dams we e c ea ed o imp o e wa e access. To assess
p og amme impac s hey employed a mixed-me hod app oach and elied on
e ospec i e in o ma ion. Fo nei he o he wo p og ammes we e posi i e
benefi s o he asse s ound, despi e p e ious claims which led hese p og ammes
o be conside ed success ul. In Wollo, he asse s we e gene ally s ill o good
quali y and unc ioning; he main p oblems lied in he w ong planning o
ac i i ies (e.g. plan ing a he w ong ime o he yea ; oo many asse s on a piece
o land). In con as , in Kenya, a echnical app aisal de ec ed majo p oblems in
he cons uc ion o main enance o se e al dams, which p ecluded i s unc ionali y.
Finally, some s udies did no disen angle he e ec o he wage componen o
PWPs om ha o he in as uc u e componen bu ocused on he e ec s o
PWPs on non-pa icipan s, a guing ha hey we e p obably d i en by he public
in as uc u e. Wi hin he E hiopian PSNP amewo k, he quasi-expe imen al
s udy by Scognamillo, Mas o illo and Ignaciuk (2024) ound ha he posi i e
impac s o he p og amme on ood secu i y du ing wea he shocks ex ended
pa ially o he b oade communi y beyond di ec pa icipan s. This was likely
a ibu ed o he na u e o he public wo ks execu ed h ough he p og amme,
pa icula ly he in eg a ed communi y-based wa e shed de elopmen ini ia i es.
The Wo ld Bank (2018) conduc ed a andomized con ol ial (RCT) wi hin
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Egyp ’s PWP –The Eme gency Labo In ensi e In es men P ojec (ELIIP) –which
aims o build and p o ec communi y asse s in poo communi ies. ELIIP’s
in as uc u e componen includes se e al sec o s including some clima e-sma
ac i i ies, such as p o ec ion o he Nile i e banks, he cleaning and upg ading
o canals, and oads upg ading. The illage-based andomiza ion allowed o
s udy e ec s on bo h pa icipan s and non-pa icipan s in ea ed illages. The
s udy ound no s a is ically significan in as uc u e e ec s o he likelihood o
being a ec ed by shocks, such as loss o ha es and loss o p ope y.
O e all, he e is some ini ial e idence ha he in as uc u e c ea ed by PWPs –
when adequa ely designed and ealized –con ibu es o clima e esilience, bu he
empi ical li e a u e is s ill limi ed, especially ha which elies on sound quan i a i e
me hods o de i e fi m conclusions. Mo eo e , mos e idence is based on India’s
MGNREGA and he e o e migh no be gene alizable o sho du a ion o
ad-hoc eme gency p og ammes.
The skill de elopmen componen o PWPs
The hi d componen o PWPs is skill de elopmen . I PWPs include aining on
CSA p ac ices o o he o ms o on- he-job aining, hey may enhance
adap a ion o clima e- ela ed shocks ia he acqui ed skills.
Geh ke and Ha wig (2018) summa ized he esul s om se e al PWP
p og ammes ha con ain a skill de elopmen componen , such as THIMO (Co e
d’I oi e), PSNP (E hiopia), C WTEP/YEP (Libe ia), and LIWP (Yemen).
Specifically, he THIMO inco po a ed compulso y cou ses on en ep eneu ship;
he YEP included echnical skills aining, in e nships, and employmen sea ch
suppo ; and he PSNP and he LIWP included on- he-job aining. Kenya’s Kazi
KwaVijana P og amme (KKV) also inco po a ed aining and labou ma ke
ac i a ion, since i s main goal was o imp o e you h employmen ou comes.
Ano he example o a p og amme which may a ec clima e esilience h ough skill
de elopmen is he MASAF (Malawi), since i inc eases he use o CSA p ac ices
p omo ed in he coun y. Howe e , he e idence conce ning he skill componen
o PWPs is sca ce and mainly d aws on non-expe imen al s udies and obse a ional
da a, wi h ew excep ions. Below we de ail he esul s o hese s udies.
In gene al, he e idence indica es ha pa icipa ion in on- he-job aining
combined wi h wage and in as uc u e can enhance pa icipan s’knowledge
le els in CSA p ac ices and inc ease income and employmen . One example is
he E hiopian PSNP whe e pa icipan s ecei ed aining in soil and wa e
conse a ion and a o es a ion. Ande sson, Mekonnen and S age (2011)
sugges ed ha pa icipan s acqui ing o es y skills h ough he PSNP could
explain i s posi i e impac on ee holdings. Howe e , he s udy did no
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disen angle his skill componen om he es o he p og amme componen s.
Mo e quali a i ely, one su ey sugges ed ha almos hal o hose in ol ed in he
PSNP gained soil and wa e conse a ion skills ha hey subsequen ly applied on
hei pe sonal land (Lieuw-Kie-Song, 2011).
Be and e al. (2017) e alua ed he e ec o he aining componen o he
THIMO in Co e d’I oi e, exploi ing he ac ha a andom subse o
beneficia ies was o e ed basic business aining o acili a e ansi ion in o
sel -employmen o aining in job-sea ch skills o acili a e access o he job
ma ke . While he s udy ound no impac s on employmen , i ound a posi i e
e ec on ea nings, d i en by non-ag icul u al and sel -employmen ac i i ies in
he g oup assigned o complemen a y business aining.
Beie l (2021) applied a DiD app oach o s udy he skill and o he componen s o
Malawi’s MASAF, using he numbe o CSA p ac ices (soil and wa e conse a ion)
and days wo ked on hese CSA p ac ices as indica o s o a skills ec o . The s udy
showed an inc ease in CSA p ac ices in MASAF ca chmen s compa ed o he
con ol ca chmen s, wi h he e ec being d i en by non-pa icipan s. Scognamillo
and Si ko (2021) demons a ed ha in ol emen in he MASAF was co ela ed
wi h an inc eased adop ion o CSA me hods, os e ing sus ained u iliza ion o e
mul iple ag icul u al seasons. Fu he , i showed ha he combined impac o
pa icipa ing in he MASAF and main aining he use o soil and wa e
conse a ion s uc u es significan ly enhanced households’p oduc i i y and
wel a e. Acco ding o Scognamillo and Si ko (2021), his e ec is p obably due o
he applica ion o skills acqui ed du ing MASAF public wo ks o he a me s’
own fields.
In summa y, al hough pa chy, he limi ed e idence a ailable sugges s ha he
skills de elopmen componen o PWPs in combina ion wi h he in as uc u e
componen can imp o e clima e esilience.
Discussion and conclusions
Wi h he ongoing pace o clima e change, i is necessa y o iden i y policies ha
suppo households’ esilience o clima e- ela ed shocks. This a icle has ocused
on he ole o PWPs om bo h a heo e ical and an empi ical pe spec i e. We
de eloped a diag amma ic concep ual amewo k o unde s and how, and o
wha ex en , PWPs os e clima e esilience, and conduc ed a comp ehensi e
e iew o he empi ical e idence on he e ec s o PWPs on clima e esilience,
linking i o ou concep ual amewo k. While a numbe o p e ious s udies ha e
e iewed he e idence o he e ec s o PWPs (Geh ke and Ha wig, 2018;
Beie l, 2021; Bagga e al., 2023), hese s udies do no ocus di ec ly on clima e
esilience. Simila ly, p e ious s udies ha e c ea ed concep ual amewo ks ha
explain he link be ween social p o ec ion p og ammes and clima e esilience,
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bu his li e a u e ei he had a mo e gene al ocus on all social p o ec ion
p og ammes (Cos ella e al., 2023) o was no di ec ly connec ed wi h he ecen
empi ical li e a u e (Beazley e al., 2016). Hence, we a emp o fill his gap.
We sugges ha PWPs may a ec households’capaci y o cope wi h wea he
shocks h ough he wage componen by c ea ing addi ional economic esou ces
du ing he pe iod o nega i e shocks; and by p omo ing sa ings and in es men s
in p oduc i e asse s o bols e u u e adap i e esilience. Addi ionally, he wage
componen o PWPs may a ec he capaci y o adap o clima e change by
inducing households o use di e en echnology (especially, clima e-sma
echnology) and, in gene al, o di e si y li elihoods. Second, he in as uc u e
componen o PWPs has he po en ial o p omo e clima e esilience by
enhancing households’long- e m adap i e capaci y. This is especially he case
when PWPs a e used o c ea e “clima e-sma ”asse s, such as wa e conse a ion
o swales, o p o ide se ices such as a o es a ion, which may benefi he en i e
communi y. Thi d, as PWPs a e o en combined wi h aining, households’
capaci y o adap o wea he shocks can inc ease, o example, by inducing hem
o use CSA p ac ices and o di e si y li elihoods.
Ou e iew o he e idence sugges s ha he wage componen o PWPs in e ac s
significan ly wi h wea he shocks. Pa icipan s in PWPs a e less likely o educe
hei labou supply o expe ience ood insecu i y du ing nega i e wea he e en s
han non-pa icipan s. Howe e , PWPs may also exace ba e he ad e se e ec s o
clima e- ela ed shocks on ag icul u al p oduc i i y. This could be due o spillo e
e ec s, whe e PWPs dec ease labou supply in ag icul u e and ag icul u al wages
become less esponsi e o nega i e wea he shocks. Mo eo e , mos empi ical
s udies om di e en coun ies indica e ha pa icipa ion in PWPs enhances
households’coping capaci y h ough he accumula ion o p oduc i e asse s, wi h
e idence on he e ec on sa ings being mixed. Howe e , hese benefi s ypically
ma e ialize when people pa icipa e in he p og amme o se e al yea s and a e
hus p edominan ly obse ed in long- e m PWPs, such as he Indian
MGNREGA. Fu he mo e, he esul s o he e iew indica e ha long- e m
employmen gua an ee p og ammes such as he MGNREGA ha e he po en ial
o enhance households’adap i e capaci y by encou aging highe - isk in es men s
and he adop ion o CSA p ac ices. In con as , less gene ous o sho - e m
eme gency p og ammes appea o ha e limi ed bea ing on he adap i e capaci y.
We no iced e y ew quasi-expe imen al s udies ocusing on he in as uc u e
componen : hese sugges be e p o ec ion om wea he shocks o he whole
communi y whe e he PWP was implemen ed, which is likely d i en by
communi y asse s c ea ed h ough he p og amme. The e a e, ins ead, nume ous
desc ip i e s udies indica ing ha communi y asse s –such as u al oads, wa e
managemen and wa e shed de elopmen ini ia i es –o PWPs posi i ely a ec
clima e esilience. P ojec s ocusing on u al connec i i y, wa e managemen
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and wa e shed de elopmen ini ia i es help households o deal wi h clima e- ela ed
haza ds. A ew quasi-expe imen al s udies sugges posi i e e ec s o he whole
communi y in ea men illages, such as a educ ion in he nega i e e ec s o
wea he shocks on ood secu i y, which is likely d i en by communi y asse s
c ea ed by he PWPs.
Finally, he o e all e idence on he skill-de elopmen componen o PWPs
sugges s ha combining on- he-job aining wi h wage suppo and in as uc u e
de elopmen can enhance pa icipan s’knowledge o CSA p ac ices, while also
inc easing hei income and employmen oppo uni ies, po en ially p omo ing
li elihood di e sifica ion. Howe e , e idence on he skill componen o PWPs is
e y limi ed and p ima ily based on non-expe imen al s udies.
In gene al, he e ec s o he di e en componen s o PWPs on clima e esilience
may la gely depend on how he p og amme is designed and implemen ed, as well as
on he objec i es (e.g. long- e m de elopmen e sus ad-hoc measu es). Some
s udies highligh he ele ance o ac o s such as egula i y in paymen , adequa e
managemen o unds, and quali y o asse s c ea ed h ough he PWPs in
explaining hei e ec i eness. While i is key ha ans e s a e deli e ed on ime o
suppo households coping wi h shocks, se e al sou ces ha e documen ed delays
in he disbu semen o wages (Mugabo, 2018 in Rwanda; S einbach e al., 2020 in
India; and Hoddino e al., 2011 in E hiopia). Fu he mo e, wi hou quali y and
well-main ained in as uc u e, PWPs a e unlikely o inc ease esilience: some
s udies p o ide e idence o he posi i e e ec s o ac i e communi y pa icipa ion
in he di e en phases o he p ojec cycle in achie ing his objec i e (Shigu e, 2022;
Bu chi and Sakke a, 2025). The In e na ional Labou O ganiza ion (ILO) h ough
i s employmen -in ensi e in es men p og ammes (EIIP) has p o ided ex ensi e
guidance on how o op imize labou inpu s in PWPs o highligh he undamen al
unc ion o PWP asse s and o p omo e an e ficien p oduc ion o quali y and
du able asse s (McCo d e al., 2024). Ye , mos o hese design ea u es a e qui e
unde explo ed in he li e a u e, highligh ing a key e idence gap o policy make s
aiming o use PWPs o enhance clima e esilience.
Ano he majo gap ela es o he con ex s om which ou s udies we e d awn.
We mos ly d ew upon e alua ions conduc ed in E hiopia and India, and o some
ex en Malawi. Fu he , exis ing s udies ocus on u al a eas, while PWPs a e also
used in u ban and pe i-u ban se ings and in humani a ian con ex s. Va ia ion in
employmen oppo uni ies be ween u ban and u al a eas o ac oss humani a ian
se ings may influence he deg ee o which on- he-job aining can lead o long-
e m employabili y and, subsequen ly, esilience o u u e shocks.
In b ie , ou e iew highligh s ha PWPs can be used as an impo an policy ool
o s eng hen he esilience o beneficia ies and educe po e y in he ace o clima e
shocks, pa icula ly i in es men s in high-quali y and ele an in as uc u es a e
made. Howe e , mo e esea ch is needed o p o ide e idence on which
Do public wo ks p og ammes os e clima e esilience?
In e na ional Social Secu i y Re iew, Vol. 78, 2-3/2025
© 2025 The Au ho (s). In e na ional Social Secu i y Re iew published by John Wiley & Sons L d on behal o In e na ional Social Secu i y Associa ion.
165
in e en ion componen s o PWPs and which design ea u es ma e he mos o
e ec i e esilience building. In pa icula , he e is a lack o scien ifically sound
e idence on he impac o PWPs h ough hei in as uc u e/se ice componen .
In addi ion, u u e s udies should explo e he e ec i eness o combining
in as uc u e p ojec s wi h skills de elopmen and on- he-job aining o enhance
he esilience capaci y o beneficia ies, and beyond. Finally, PWPs –mo e han
o he social p o ec ion schemes –can ha e ele an (posi i e) e ec s on he en i e
communi ies in which hey a e implemen ed, especially h ough he in as uc u e
componen . This is especially he case gi en he inc easing emphasis on
clima e-sma in as uc u es, which specifically ha e he objec i e o os e ing
esilience. Since he e a e only e y ew igo ous s udies ha in es iga e PWPs’
impac s beyond hose on hei immedia e beneficia ies, mo e esea ch should be
o ien ed owa ds a mo e comp ehensi e documen a ion o hese spillo e e ec s.
Only wi h adequa e in o ma ion on he o e all e ec s on di e en membe s o
socie y, and on he channels h ough which hese e ec s ma e ialize, can policy
make s ake decisions abou when o implemen PWPs (especially in compa ison
wi h o he social p o ec ion in e en ions), and how o design hem.
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