Ami , Sajid
A icle
T ansna ional connec ions and eligious change: How UK
Bangladesh diaspo a ne wo ks shape eligious p ac ices in
Sylhe
Resea ch in Globaliza ion
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Sugges ed Ci a ion: Ami , Sajid (2025) : T ansna ional connec ions and eligious change: How UK
Bangladesh diaspo a ne wo ks shape eligious p ac ices in Sylhe , Resea ch in Globaliza ion, ISSN
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T ansna ional connec ions and eligious change: How UK Bangladesh
diaspo a ne wo ks shape eligious p ac ices in Sylhe
Sajid Ami
Cen e o En e p ise and Socie y, Uni e si y o Libe al A s Bangladesh (ULAB), Dhanmondi, Dhaka 1209, Bangladesh
ARTICLE INFO
Keywo ds:
T ansna ional Religious Ne wo ks
Diaspo a In luence
Remi ances
Social Media
Religious Conse a ism
UK-Bangladesh Connec ions
Mixed Me hods Resea ch
ABSTRACT
In an inc easingly in e connec ed global landscape, diaspo a communi ies main ain complex ansna ional ies
wi h hei homelands, in luencing local eligious p ac ices and ins i u ions. This s udy examines how UK-
Bangladesh diaspo a connec ions shape eligious iden i y o ma ion and social p ac ices in Bangladesh’s Syl-
he egion. Using a mixed-me hods app oach combining su eys (n =400), ocus g oup discussions (n =10), and
key in o man in e iews (n =17) conduc ed om Augus 2018 o Feb ua y 2020, he esea ch in es iga ed how
ansna ional amily ela ionships, emi ances, and digi al echnologies in luence eligious de elopmen in he
egion. Findings e eal ha global digi al pla o ms ha e become p ima y d i e s o eligious change, wi h 68.5
% o esponden s iden i ying social media as he main in luence on local eligious p ac ices. T ansna ional amily
connec ions signi ican ly shaped local eligious pe spec i es, wi h 81.8 % o esponden s epo ing high us in
UK- esiding ela i es’ eligious knowledge. Global inancial lows play a c ucial ole, wi h app oxima ely 40 % o
emi ances suppo ing eligious ins i u ions, highligh ing he economic dimensions o ansna ional eligious
ies. S a is ical analysis demons a ed signi ican associa ions be ween UK amily in luence (β =0.28), emi -
ance ecep ion (β =0.24), and social media use (β =0.22) wi h pe cep ions o inc eased eligiosi y. The s udy
e eals how hese ansna ional connec ions o en p omo e mo e conse a i e eligious in e p e a ions a he
han secula alues, challenging linea na a i es o globaliza ion leading o secula iza ion. These indings
con ibu e o ansna ional mig a ion schola ship by documen ing he speci ic mechanisms h ough which
diaspo a communi ies in luence eligious p ac ices in hei egions o o igin, o e ing impo an insigh s o
unde s anding eligious iden i y o ma ion in an inc easingly connec ed wo ld.
1. In oduc ion
T ansna ional connec ions be ween diaspo a communi ies and hei
homelands ha e p o ound impac s on social, cul u al, and eligious
p ac ices (Haide , 2015). These connec ions acili a e he low o no
only emi ances bu also ideas, alues, and cul u al no ms ac oss na-
ional bounda ies (Ga dne , 1995; Le i , 1998). In he case o he Syl-
he i communi y in Bangladesh, which has signi ican diaspo a
popula ions in he Uni ed Kingdom (UK), hese ansna ional connec-
ions ha e pa icula ly in luenced eligious p ac ices and iden i y o -
ma ion (Kib ia, 2011; Samuel, 2012). An es ima ed 90 o 95 pe cen o
B i ish Bangladeshis claim Sylhe i he i age, c ea ing s ong and sus-
ained links be ween he UK and he Sylhe egion (Alexande & Lidhe ,
2024; Miah, 2021). These connec ions a e main ained and s eng hened
h ough emi ances, amily isi s, elecommunica ions, and inc eas-
ingly, h ough social media and digi al pla o ms(Bun , 2018; Guglielmi
e al., 2021; Manda ille, 2003).
In ecen yea s, Bangladesh has expe ienced an inc ease in eligious
adicaliza ion leading o e o ism (Hasan, 2020). This end is pa ic-
ula ly conce ning gi en ha Bangladesh was ounded on p inciples o
in e eligious peace and e hnic and cul u al di e si y, dis inguishing i
om many o he Muslim-majo i y na ions. T ansna ional ex emism has
ecen ly had a de as a ing impac on Bangladesh, pe mea ing he e y
ab ic o socie y. Violen ex emism, esul ing om Islamis adicaliza-
ion, has become one o Bangladesh’s p ima y challenges (Hasan &
Macdonald, 2022). The ex en o iolen ex emism in Bangladesh and
he impac o adicals on socie y became s a kly e iden ollowing he
Holey A isan Bake y a ack in July 2016 (News, 2019). Young in-
di iduals om ac oss Bangladesh ha e also commi ed andom ac s o
e o ism. The e o is h ea in Bangladesh s ems om bo h o gani-
za ions hea ily ocused on jihad and hose p ima ily conce ned wi h
e angelism (dawa), hough hese ocuses may o e lap o some g oups.
One such o ganiza ion is Ha aka ul Jihad-i-Islami-Bangladesh (HuJI-B),
whose ounde , Fazlul Rahman, epo edly ecei ed ini ial unding om
E-mail add esses: [email p o ec ed], [email p o ec ed].
Con en s lis s a ailable a ScienceDi ec
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Recei ed 25 Feb ua y 2025; Recei ed in e ised o m 9 May 2025; Accep ed 9 May 2025
Resea ch in Globaliza ion 10 (2025) 100286
A ailable online 16 May 2025
2590-051X/© 2025 The Au ho (s). Published by Else ie L d. This is an open access a icle unde he CC BY-NC license ( h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by-
nc/4.0/ ).
Osama bin Laden and suppo ed his 1998 decla a ion o jihad. O he
compa able o ganiza ions include Jama ul Mujahedeen Bangladesh
(JMB), Jag a a Muslim Jana a Bangladesh (JMJB), and Ahle Hadi h
Andolon Bangladesh (AHAB). While hei membe ships a e somewha
ambiguous and o en conside ed o e lapping, i is belie ed ha hese
o ganiza ions a e pa o Al Muhajedeen, he main umb ella o ganiza-
ion. JMB and JMJB ha e been linked o nume ous bombings, including
Bangladesh’s i s suicide a acks and he simul aneous de ona ion o
400 bombs in 2005 (Ahmed & Ali, 2019; Fink, 2010; Samuel, 2012).
O ganiza ions such as JMB, JMJB, and HuJI-B exp ess opposi ion o
democ a ic poli ical p ocesses, ques ion he legi imacy o he secula
go e nmen , and ad oca e o he iolen con e sion o Bangladesh in o
an Islamic s a e (BEI, 2014; Ha igan, 2013).
The Sylhe di ision in Bangladesh s ands ou as a signi ican eco-
nomic zone, enowned o i s eligious sain s, o eign emi ances, and
h i ing ea indus y. A subs an ial numbe o Sylhe is eside ab oad,
p ima ily in F ance, he Uni ed S a es, he Uni ed Kingdom (UK), and
Middle Eas e n coun ies such as Saudi A abia and he Uni ed A ab
Emi a es (Hussain, 2014). No ably, app oxima ely 450,000 Sylhe is li e
in he UK, con ibu ing a signi ican po ion o emi ances o hei home
egion. The UK’s emi ance low o Sylhe is pa icula ly subs an ial
compa ed o o he na ions, as an es ima ed 90 o 95 pe cen o B i ish
Bangladeshis claim Sylhe i he i age. Recen s udies sugges ha ans-
na ional ne wo ks, including diaspo a communi ies and in e na ional
eligious o ganiza ions, play a signi ican ole in shaping eligious
p ac ices and ins i u ions in Bangladesh (Ahmed & Ali, 2019). These
ex e nal in luences ope a e h ough a ious channels, including inan-
cial suppo , educa ional exchanges, and he ansmission o eligious
ideas h ough bo h adi ional and digi al media. Radical o ganiza ions
in Bangladesh o en a ge you h o ad ance hei poli ical agendas.
Young people, especially hose un amilia wi h eligious eachings
agains iolence, a e pa icula ly ulne able o ec ui men . These o -
ganiza ions exploi his ulne abili y by mis ep esen ing eligious doc-
ines, decei ing young indi iduals in o belie ing hey a e igh ing o a
noble cause wi h p omises o success bo h in his li e and he a e li e
(Ahmed & Ali, 2019; Hasan & Macdonald, 2022). In addi ion o eligious
o ganiza ions, e o is g oups a e ac i ely ec ui ing a educa ional
ins i u ions, pa icula ly uni e si ies and o he highe lea ning cen e s.
Ai Cd (Re d.) Ish aq Elahi Chowdhu y, a leading secu i y expe in
Bangladesh, has a gued ha exposu e o Wahabi Majhab among mig an
wo ke s, especially hose who a eled o he Middle Eas , has con ib-
u ed o he Islamiza ion o Bangladesh. He u he asse s ha he in lux
o money om he Middle Eas , o en disguised as a ious o ms o elie
o cha i y, has signi ican ly bols e ed he suppo o a ious Islamic
poli ical pa ies al eady p esen in Bangladesh (BIPSS; Bangladesh
Ins i u e o Peace and Secu i y S udies, 2017).
The ield o adicaliza ion s udies has p ima ily ocused on
indi idual-le el ac o s and local con ex s, while he li e a u e on e-
mi ances has la gely examined hei economic impac s. Howe e , he e
is a signi ican gap in unde s anding how hese wo phenomena in e -
sec , pa icula ly in he con ex o ansna ional communi ies and hei
implica ions o sus ainable de elopmen . This s udy aims o b idge his
gap by examining he unique case o Sylhe i communi ies in he UK and
Bangladesh. The p ima y esea ch ques ion is: How do ansna ional
connec ions be ween UK- esiding Sylhe is and local Sylhe is—speci i-
cally h ough emi ances, digi al communica ions, and amily ne -
wo ks—in luence eligious p ac ices and ins i u ions in he Sylhe
egion o Bangladesh? This ques ion e lec s he iden i ied esea ch gap
by ocusing on he in e connec ed dynamics o economic emi ances,
cul u al exchange, and hei e ec s on eligious p ac ices in a speci ic
c oss-cul u al con ex . By add essing his ques ion, he esea ch con-
ibu es o unde s anding how ansna ional connec ions shape local
eligious landscapes in communi ies wi h s ong diaspo a ies. Fi s ,
empi ical e idence is p o ided on he po en ial links be ween e-
mi ances and adicaliza ion, an a ea ha has been unde s udied despi e
he g owing impo ance o bo h phenomena in an inc easingly
globalized wo ld. Second, he ole o ansna ional communi ies in
shaping eligious p ac ices and po en ially in luencing adicaliza ion
ends is examined, o e ing insigh s in o he complex in e play be ween
global connec ions and local eligious landscapes. Thi d, he implica-
ions o hese dynamics o sus ainable de elopmen a e explo ed,
b idging he gap be ween adicaliza ion s udies and sus ainabili y
esea ch – wo ields ha ha e a ely been conside ed in conjunc ion.
This s udy is pa icula ly imely and ele an gi en he inc easing
global conce n o e adicaliza ion and he simul aneous ecogni ion o
emi ances as a po en ial ool o de elopmen . By ocusing on he
Sylhe i communi y, which has a signi ican p esence bo h in he UK and
Bangladesh, a unique pe spec i e is o e ed on how ansna ional ies
can in luence local eligious p ac ices and po en ially con ibu e o
adicaliza ion ends. Mo eo e , by examining hese issues h ough he
lens o sus ainabili y, aluable insigh s a e p o ided o policymake s
and p ac i ione s wo king owa ds sus ainable de elopmen in com-
muni ies wi h s ong diaspo a connec ions. The indings ha e he po-
en ial o in o m mo e nuanced app oaches o coun e ing iolen
ex emism, managing emi ance lows, and p omo ing sus ainable
de elopmen in ansna ional con ex s.
1.1. Theo e ical and concep ual amewo k
Fo cla i y and consis ency h oughou his pape , se e al key e ms
de ine as ollows. T ansna ionalism e e s o he p ocesses by which
immig an s c ea e and main ain mul i-s anded social ela ions ha link
hei socie ies o o igin and se lemen (Ve o ec, 2009). In his s udy,
his p ima ily conce ns he connec ions be ween UK- esiding Sylhe is
and hei communi ies o o igin in Bangladesh (S a k & Bloom, 1985).
This esea ch examines bo h hei economic impac and hei ole in
shaping eligious ins i u ions and p ac ices. Religious conse a ism in
his pape e e s o adhe ence o mo e o hodox in e p e a ions o eli-
gious ex s and p ac ices, o en cha ac e ized by s ic e obse ance o
eligious laws and adi ions. This is dis inc om eligious ex emism o
adicaliza ion, which in ol e adop ing iews ha jus i y iolence. Social
emi ances, a concep de eloped by Le i , 1998, e e s o he ideas,
beha io s, iden i ies, and social capi al ha low om ecei ing o
sending communi ies. In his con ex , his includes eligious ideas and
p ac ices ansmi ed om UK- esiding Sylhe is o local Sylhe is. Digi al
connec i i y encompasses he a ious echnological means (pa icula ly
social media pla o ms) h ough which ansna ional communi ies
main ain con ac and sha e in o ma ion, ideas, and alues ac oss
geog aphical dis ances (Bun , 2018). These concep s o m he ounda-
ion o he analysis o how UK-Bangladesh diaspo a ne wo ks in luence
eligious p ac ices in Sylhe . Th oughou he pape , ca e is aken o
dis inguish be ween inc eased eligiosi y, which e e s simply o g ea e
adhe ence o eligious p ac ices, and eligious conse a ism, which en-
ails adop ion o mo e o hodox in e p e a ions o eligion.
To examine he ela ionship be ween ansna ional connec ions and
eligious p ac ices in he Sylhe egion, his s udy d aws upon h ee
complemen a y heo e ical pe spec i es ha oge he p o ide a
comp ehensi e amewo k o analysis. Fi s , he concep o ans-
na ionalism (Ve o ec, 2009) o e s a ounda ion o unde s anding how
mig an s main ain mul i-s anded ela ionships ha connec hei soci-
e ies o o igin and se lemen . This pe spec i e is pa icula ly ele an
o analyzing he Sylhe i communi y, which main ains s ong ies be-
ween he UK and Bangladesh h ough a ious channels including
amily isi s, elecommunica ions, and digi al media. T ansna ionalism
helps explain how cul u al and eligious p ac ices low be ween hese
connec ed communi ies, o en leading o hyb id o ms ha e lec bo h
local adi ions and ex e nal in luences. Second, he New Economics o
Labo Mig a ion (S a k & Bloom, 1985) p o ides insigh s in o he eco-
nomic dimensions o ansna ional connec ions, pa icula ly ega ding
emi ance beha io s. Unlike ea lie economic models ha iewed
mig a ion as pu ely indi idual decisions, his amewo k ecognizes ha
emi ances a e o en pa o amily s a egies ha se e mul iple
S. Ami
Resea ch in Globaliza ion 10 (2025) 100286
2
pu poses beyond immedia e consump ion. In he Sylhe i con ex , his
heo y helps explain why signi ican po ions o emi ances a e di ec ed
owa d eligious ins i u ions and ac i i ies, ep esen ing bo h inancial
suppo and symbolic in es men s in communi y s a us and eligious
iden i y. Thi d, Social Remi ances Theo y (Le i , 1998) ex ends he
concep o emi ances beyond mone a y ans e s o include he ans-
mission o ideas, beha io s, and social capi al be ween sending and
ecei ing communi ies. This heo e ical lens is c ucial o unde s anding
how eligious ideas and p ac ices a e ans e ed om UK- esiding Syl-
he is o hei communi ies o o igin. I helps explain how changes in
eligious p ac ices can occu h ough ansna ional connec ions e en
wi hou di ec inancial suppo , h ough mechanisms such as social
media communica ions, e u n isi s, and amily ne wo ks. Toge he ,
hese heo e ical pe spec i es c ea e a amewo k ha connec s eco-
nomic exchanges ( emi ances), social ela ionships ( ansna ional
amily ies), and cul u al p ac ices ( eligious ac i i ies) in a cohe en
analy ical app oach. This in eg a ed amewo k guides he analysis o
how UK-Bangladesh diaspo a ne wo ks in luence eligious p ac ices in
Sylhe , wi h pa icula a en ion o he pa hways h ough which ex e nal
in luences a e inco po a ed in o local eligious landscapes.
1.2. Li e a u e e iew
The li e a u e on ansna ional connec ions, emi ances, and eli-
gious p ac ices has de eloped ac oss se e al disciplines, p o iding
aluable insigh s o unde s anding he Sylhe i con ex . This e iew
syn hesizes key esea ch in h ee in e connec ed a eas cen al o his
s udy.
1.2.1. T ansna ional eligious ies and p ac ices
Resea ch on ansna ional eligious ies has e ealed how diaspo a
communi ies main ain, ans o m, and some imes in ensi y eligious
p ac ices ac oss bo de s. Ebaugh & Cha e z, 2002 conduc ed ex ensi e
s udies o ansna ional eligious communi ies, demons a ing how im-
mig an s use eligious ins i u ions o p ese e cul u al iden i y while
adap ing o new en i onmen s. Thei wo k shows ha a he han
simply ansplan ing eligious p ac ices om he homeland, diaspo a
communi ies o en de elop dis inc i e o ms o eligiosi y ha e lec
bo h o igin and des ina ion con ex s. This insigh helps explain he
dis inc i e eligious dynamics obse ed in Sylhe i communi ies, whe e
UK in luences in e ac wi h local adi ions.
Kib ia, 2011 landma k s udy o Bangladeshi Muslim communi ies in
he diaspo a speci ically examines how eligious iden i y becomes a
c ucial ancho o main aining connec ions o he homeland. He
esea ch demons a es ha o many Bangladeshi mig an s, Islamic
p ac ices become mo e o malized and ex ually-o ien ed in he dias-
po a con ex −a inding ha helps explain why UK- esiding Sylhe is
migh p omo e mo e o hodox in e p e a ions when engaging wi h hei
communi ies o o igin. This wo k is pa icula ly ele an o unde -
s anding he eligious in luence ha lows om he UK o Sylhe , as
documen ed in he p esen s udy.
Manda ille, 2003 concep o “ ansna ional Muslim poli ics” p o-
ides a amewo k o unde s anding how Islamic p ac ices and iden i-
ies a e nego ia ed ac oss bo de s. His wo k demons a es how mode n
communica ions echnologies enable new o ms o eligious au ho i y
and communi y ha anscend na ional bounda ies. This pe spec i e is
essen ial o unde s anding how UK- esiding Sylhe is can in luence
eligious p ac ices in Bangladesh despi e geog aphical dis ance, espe-
cially h ough digi al pla o ms. Manda ille’s emphasis on he de e i-
o ializa ion o eligious au ho i y helps explain he high le el o us in
UK ela i es’ eligious knowledge epo ed in he p esen s udy.
Recen schola ship has u he expanded ou unde s anding o eli-
gious mobili y in ansna ional con ex s. Ullah, 2025 p o ides aluable
insigh s in o he his o ical dimensions o eligious mobili y, examining
how empi e and colonialism ha e shaped con empo a y ansna ional
eligious ne wo ks. His wo k demons a es how his o ical powe
dynamics con inue o in luence eligious lows be ween diaspo a com-
muni ies and hei homelands, o e ing impo an his o ical con ex o
unde s anding he Sylhe -UK eligious connec ions examined in his
s udy. Addi ionally, Ullah e al., 2022 explo e how eligion adap s and
ans o ms in he age o mig a ion, highligh ing he complex in e play
be ween eligious p ac ices, poli ical ideologies, and mig an iden i ies.
Thei amewo k helps explain how eligious iden i ies in bo h sending
and ecei ing communi ies a e nego ia ed wi hin b oade poli ical and
ideological con ex s—a dynamic ha is pa icula ly ele an o un-
de s anding he UK-Bangladesh eligious connec ions examined he e.
Ahmed & Ali, 2019 esea ch on he Ful oli adi ion among B i ish
Bangladeshis o e s pa icula ly ele an insigh s in o how speci ic Is-
lamic p ac ices om Sylhe a e main ained and ans o med in he UK
con ex . Thei wo k documen s how eligious leade ship and au ho i y
a e nego ia ed be ween homeland and diaspo a, c ea ing ansna ional
eligious ne wo ks ha shape p ac ices in bo h loca ions. This esea ch
p o ides con ex o unde s anding he complex eligious exchanges
be ween UK and Bangladesh documen ed in he p esen s udy.
1.2.2. Remi ances and eligious ins i u ions
Resea ch on emi ances has inc easingly ecognized hei signi i-
cance beyond economic impac s, pa icula ly hei ole in shaping social
and eligious ins i u ions in sending communi ies. Ga dne , 1995 sem-
inal esea ch on Bangladeshi mig an s p o ides c ucial insigh s in o how
emi ances ans o m local powe s uc u es and physical landscapes in
Sylhe . She demons a es ha emi ance- unded mosques and mad a-
sahs se e no only eligious unc ions bu also as symbols o amily
p es ige and ehicles o main aining ansna ional connec ions. This
pe spec i e helps explain he subs an ial p opo ion o emi ances
di ec ed owa d eligious ins i u ions documen ed in he p esen s udy,
e ealing ha hese inancial lows ha e signi icance beyond hei
mone a y alue.
S a k and Bloom (1985), in de eloping he New Economics o Labo
Mig a ion, ad anced he unde s anding o emi ances as pa o amily
s a egies a he han me ely indi idual decisions. Thei wo k shows
how emi ances se e mul iple pu poses, including isk di e si ica ion
and in es men s in s a us ma ke s. When applied o eligious in-
s i u ions, his amewo k helps explain why UK- esiding Sylhe is in es
in mosques and mad asahs as s a egic amily decisions ha enhance
p es ige while main aining cul u al connec ions. This heo e ical
pe spec i e p o ides con ex o in e p e ing he pa e ns o emi ance
use documen ed in his s udy.
Fa had, 2022 a ecen analysis o emi ance lows o Sylhe , which
documen s ha he egion ea ns app oxima ely 10 % o Bangladesh’s
o al emi ance in low, p o ides essen ial con ex o unde s anding he
economic scale o ansna ional connec ions in he egion. This signi i-
can economic ela ionship unde pins many o he social and eligious
dynamics obse ed in Sylhe . Fa had’s analysis o he UK’s subs an ial
con ibu ion o hese emi ance lows (7.68 % in 2019, 7.58 % in 2020,
and 8.54 % in 2021) helps explain he pa icula in luence o UK-
esiding Sylhe is on local eligious landscapes, as hey con ol signi i-
can inancial esou ces ha can be di ec ed owa d eligious in-
s i u ions and ac i i ies.
1.2.3. Digi al media and ansna ional eligious in luence
The ole o digi al media in shaping ansna ional eligious connec-
ions has eme ged as a c i ical a ea o s udy in ecen yea s. Bun , 2018
comp ehensi e wo k on “Hash ag Islam” p o ides essen ial insigh s in o
how digi al en i onmen s a e ans o ming eligious au ho i y and
p ac ice among Muslim communi ies wo ldwide. His esea ch demon-
s a es how social media pla o ms c ea e new spaces o eligious
discou se ha can bypass adi ional au ho i ies, enabling di e se in-
e p e a ions o ci cula e ansna ionally. This amewo k is c ucial o
unde s anding he inding in he p esen s udy ha social media is
iden i ied by 68.5 % o esponden s as a p ima y d i e o eligious
change in Sylhe , o e ing a heo e ical basis o in e p e ing his
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3
signi ican empi ical esul .
Manda ille (2003), while examining b oade ansna ional Muslim
poli ics, pays pa icula a en ion o he ole o new media echnologies
in c ea ing “ anslocal” eligious spaces. His wo k shows how hese
echnologies enable diaspo a communi ies o main ain eligious con-
nec ions o hei homelands while simul aneously in oducing new in-
e p e a ions and p ac ices. This pe spec i e helps explain how UK-
esiding Sylhe is use digi al pla o ms o in luence eligious p ac ices
in hei communi ies o o igin, c ea ing hyb id eligious o ms ha
e lec bo h UK and Bangladeshi con ex s.
Conway, 2016 esea ch speci ically examines how digi al pla o ms
enable he ansmission o eligious ideas ac oss bo de s. He wo k
highligh s he impo ance o conside ing no jus he con en sha ed bu
also he echnological a o dances ha shape how eligious messages a e
ecei ed and in e p e ed. This pe spec i e is aluable o unde s anding
he p ocesses h ough which UK- esiding Sylhe is in luence local eli-
gious iews h ough social media, as documen ed in his s udy.
(Ami e al., 2020) s udy o social media use among uni e si y s u-
den s in Bangladesh p o ides locally-g ounded insigh s in o how young
Bangladeshis engage wi h eligious con en online. Thei esea ch
demons a es ha younge gene a ions o en u n o digi al sou ces o
eligious guidance a he han adi ional local au ho i ies, which helps
explain he gene a ional di e ences in eligious p ac ice iden i ied in
he p esen s udy. Thei wo k also shows how social media c ea es new
o ms o eligious communi y ha anscend geog aphical bounda ies,
p o iding con ex o unde s anding he in luence o UK- esiding Syl-
he is on hei coun e pa s in Bangladesh.
Toge he , his li e a u e p o ides a obus ounda ion o analyzing
how ansna ional connec ions be ween he UK and Bangladesh—-
h ough emi ances, amily ne wo ks, and digi al pla o ms—in luence
eligious p ac ices in Sylhe . The p esen s udy builds upon hese heo-
e ical and empi ical insigh s o documen he speci ic mechanisms
h ough which hese in luences ope a e and hei e ec s on he eligious
landscape o he egion.
1.2.4. Applica ion o heo e ical amewo ks
The heo e ical amewo ks and li e a u e discussed abo e p o ided
speci ic analy ical ools o in e p e ing he esea ch indings. Ve o ec
(2009) concep o ansna ionalism di ec ly in o med he analysis o
how UK- esiding Sylhe is main ain in luence in hei communi ies o
o igin despi e geog aphical dis ance. Fo example, when examining
su ey da a showing esponden s us hei UK- esiding ela i es’ eli-
gious knowledge, his was in e p e ed h ough Ve o ec’s insigh ha
ansna ional communi ies de elop “bi ocal” pe spec i es ha simul a-
neously alue bo h homeland and diaspo a con ex s. This heo e ical
lens helped explain why local Sylhe is migh conside UK ela i es as
legi ima e eligious au ho i ies, a he han iewing hei in-
e p e a ions as o eign imposi ions.
Le i (1998) concep o social emi ances p o ided a amewo k o
analyzing how eligious ideas a el be ween he UK and Bangladesh.
When in e iew da a e ealed s a emen s like “UK- esiding Sylhe is
encou age us owa ds mo e co ec eligious p ac ices,” Le i ’s
dis inc ion be ween no ma i e and p ac ice-based social emi ances
helped di e en ia e be ween he ansmission o abs ac eligious
p inciples e sus speci ic beha io s. This heo e ical dis inc ion was
c ucial o unde s anding ha UK in luence ope a es no jus h ough
unding eligious ins i u ions bu h ough sha ing speci ic in-
e p e a ions o eligious ex s and p ac ices.
The New Economics o Labo Mig a ion amewo k (S a k & Bloom,
1985) in o med he analysis o emi ance pa e ns, pa icula ly he
inding o emi ances suppo eligious ins i u ions. Ra he han
iewing his simply as cha i able gi ing, his heo e ical pe spec i e
enabled an in e p e a ion o eligious dona ions as s a egic amily in-
es men s ha se e mul iple unc ions, including s a us enhancemen
and isk di e si ica ion. This explains why su ey da a showed ha
dono s o en main ain con ol o e he ins i u ions hey und h ough
o e sigh commi ees and in ol emen in pe sonnel decisions.
Bun (2018) analysis o digi al Islam p o ided speci ic analy ical
ools o in e p e ing he su p ising inding o esponden s iden i ied
social media as he p ima y d i e o eligious change. His concep o
“cybe Islamic en i onmen s” helped explain how pla o ms like Face-
book and YouTube ha e become spaces whe e eligious au ho i y is
con es ed and nego ia ed, enabling new o ms o eligious in luence ha
bypass adi ional hie a chies. This heo e ical lens was essen ial o
unde s anding he mechanisms h ough which UK- esiding Sylhe is in-
luence local eligious p ac ices despi e physical dis ance. Toge he ,
hese heo e ical amewo ks p o ided complemen a y pe spec i es ha
enabled a comp ehensi e analysis o he complex ansna ional eligious
dynamics obse ed in Sylhe . Ra he han applying a single heo e ical
lens, his in eg a ed app oach allowed o examina ion o economic,
social, and echnological dimensions o ansna ional eligious
in luence.
2. Me hods and ma e ials
2.1. S udy a ea
Sylhe , a no heas e n di ision o Bangladesh, bo de s he Indian
s a es o Meghalaya o he no h, Assam o he eas , and T ipu a o he
sou h. I is bounded by Bangladesh’s Dhaka and Mymensingh di isions
o he wes and Chi agong o he sou hwes . The di ision comp ises ou
dis ic s: Habiganj, Moul ibaza , Sunamganj, and Sylhe , wi h a o al
popula ion o 12,102,325 and a li e acy a e o 51 % (BBS, 2002).
Religious demog aphics show ha 80 % o Sylhe ’s popula ion ollows
Islam, 14 % Hinduism, 5.06 % Ch is iani y, 0.04 % Buddhism, and 0.90
% o he ai hs (BBS, 2002). The majo i y o Muslims in Sylhe a e Sunni,
adhe ing o he Hana i school o law, wi h some ollowing Sha i’i and
Hanbali madhhabs. Su i adi ions, in luenced by Abdul La i o Ful oli,
a e also p e alen (Hossain, 2013). The egion hos s se e al impo an
Islamic ins i u ions, including he Deobandi-a ilia ed Jamia Lu h ia
Anwa ul Uloom Hamidnaga . Economically, Sylhe elies hea ily on i s
ea indus y and emi ances. Fo he 2012–2013 iscal yea , emi ances
we e expec ed o each $10 billion. F om 2019 o 2021, Sylhe ea ned
10 % (BDT 47,843 c o e) o Bangladesh’s o al emi ance in low
(Fa had, 2022). The UK, home o many Sylhe i mig an s, is a signi ican
sou ce o hese emi ances. The UK’s con ibu ion o Bangladesh’s o al
emi ances was 7.68 % in 2019, 7.58 % in 2020, and 8.54 % in 2021
(Fa had, 2022). These emi ances, sen h ough bo h o mal and
in o mal channels, ha e signi ican ly con ibu ed o u ban and subu ban
de elopmen in he egion.
2.2. Resea ch design and da a collec ion
The esea ch design employed mul iple complemen a y me hods o
examine ansna ional eligious in luences in Sylhe , as illus a ed in
Fig. 1. A mixed-me hods app oach was selec ed o i s abili y o cap u e
bo h pa e ns and meanings in complex social phenomena (Ami e al.,
2024; Ami & Ka y, 2022; B aun & Cla ke, 2006; K uege , 2014; Sul ana
e al., 2025). The quan i a i e su ey documen ed b oad ends ac oss
he Sylhe egion, p o iding s a is ically ep esen a i e da a on eligious
p ac ices and ansna ional connec ions. Meanwhile, Focus G oup Dis-
cussions (FGDs) and Key In o man In e iews (KIIs) o e ed con ex ual
unde s anding and explana o y dep h ha nume ical da a alone could
no p o ide. This me hodological in eg a ion was pa icula ly sui ed o
s udying ansna ional eligious in luences o se e al easons. Fi s , he
quan i a i e su ey (n =400) iden i ied pa e ns in emi ance usage,
pe cep ions o UK- esiding Sylhe is, and changes in eligious p ac ices
ac oss he egion. Second, he quali a i e componen s explo ed he
unde lying p ocesses h ough which hese pa e ns eme ge, cap u ing
he li ed expe iences and pe spec i es o communi y membe s na i-
ga ing ansna ional in luences. This combina ion enabled a mo e
comp ehensi e unde s anding han ei he app oach could p o ide alone
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Resea ch in Globaliza ion 10 (2025) 100286
4
(Ami & Ka y, 2024; Elo e al., 2014; Sul ana e al., 2025).
Da a we e collec ed om Augus 2018 o Feb ua y 2020, a pe iod
pa icula ly ele an o s udying ansna ional connec ions in Sylhe .
Du ing his ime ame, Sylhe was expe iencing signi ican economic
de elopmen h ough emi ances, wi h he egion ea ning app oxi-
ma ely 10 % o Bangladesh’s o al emi ance in low (Fa had, 2022).
This pe iod also saw inc eased digi al connec i i y in u al Bangladesh,
making i an oppo une ime o examine how social media acili a ed
ansna ional eligious exchanges (Bun , 2018). Addi ionally, his
ime ame allowed su icien dis ance om ea lie poli ical e en s o
pa icipan s o e lec hough ully on changing eligious p ac ices
wi hou immedia e conce ns abou secu i y o poli ical sensi i i y.
The esea ch employed iangula ion a mul iple le els: me hodo-
logical iangula ion (using complemen a y quan i a i e and quali a i e
app oaches), da a sou ce iangula ion (su eying di e en s akeholde s
ac oss ou dis ic s), and in es iga o iangula ion (in ol ing mul iple
esea che s in da a collec ion and analysis). This comp ehensi e
app oach s eng hened he c edibili y o indings by enabling c oss-
e i ica ion be ween di e en da a sou ces and analy ical pe spec i es
(Nowell e al., 2017; Sul ana e al., 2025).
The s udy acknowledges se e al me hodological limi a ions. This
s udy impo an ly acknowledges ha i s indings a e speci ically si u-
a ed wi hin he Sylhe egion’s unique socio-cul u al con ex and i s
pa icula ela ionship wi h he UK diaspo a. While he esea ch p o-
ides obus insigh s in o ansna ional eligious dynamics in his spe-
ci ic egion, we ecognize ha hese indings canno be gene alized o
o he egions in Bangladesh o o o he diaspo a-homeland ela ion-
ships. The Sylhe -UK mig a ion co ido has dis inc i e his o ical oo s,
economic pa e ns, and cul u al connec ions ha may no be eplica ed
elsewhe e. Fu u e compa a i e esea ch ac oss mul iple egions wi h
di e en diaspo a connec ions would be aluable o iden i ying which
pa e ns obse ed in his s udy migh ep esen b oade ends in
ansna ional eligious in luence and which a e unique o he Sylhe
con ex .
2.2.1. Quan i a i e su ey
A quan i a i e su ey was conduc ed wi h 400 esponden s om he
Sylhe Di ision o Bangladesh. The sample size was de e mined using
Coch an’s o mula wi h a 95 % con idence le el and a 5 % ma gin o
e o , conside ing he o al popula ion o Sylhe Di ision (app oxima ely
12 million) (Guglielmi e al., 2021). A s a i ied andom sampling
echnique was employed o ensu e ep esen a ion om all ou dis ic s
in he Sylhe Di ision: Habiganj, Moul ibaza , Sunamganj, and Sylhe .
This sampling s a egy allowed o cap u ing po en ial a ia ions ac oss
di e en geog aphical a eas wi hin he di ision. The su ey ins umen
was de eloped based on he esea ch ques ions and heo e ical ame-
wo k. I included ques ions on demog aphic cha ac e is ics, emi ance
pa e ns, eligious p ac ices, pe cep ions o adicaliza ion, and iews on
sus ainable de elopmen (Table 1). To ensu e cul u al app op ia eness
and cla i y, he ques ionnai e was ini ially de eloped in English and
hen ansla ed in o Bengali by p o essional ansla o s. A back-
ansla ion p ocess was used o e i y he accu acy o he ansla ion
(B islin, 1970).
The su ey ins umen unde wen igo ous de elopmen and es ing
o ensu e i s alidi y and cul u al app op ia eness. The ini ial ques-
ionnai e was de eloped based on he esea ch ques ions and heo e ical
amewo k, wi h pa icula a en ion o measu ing ansna ional con-
nec ions, emi ance pa e ns, and eligious p ac ices. To ensu e cul u al
and linguis ic alidi y, he ques ionnai e was i s de eloped in English
and hen ansla ed in o Bengali by p o essional ansla o s, ollowed by
back- ansla ion o e i y accu acy (Po in e al., 2023). The ques ion-
nai e was hen pilo - es ed wi h 20 esponden s om di e en de-
mog aphic backg ounds wi hin he Sylhe egion. This pilo p ocess
yielded se e al impo an imp o emen s o he inal ins umen . Fi s ,
ques ions abou eligious p ac ices we e e ined o use locally ele an
e minology and a oid inad e en ly imposing ex e nal eligious ca e-
go ies. Second, he sequence o ques ions was adjus ed o es ablish
appo be o e add essing mo e sensi i e opics ela ed o eligious be-
lie s and ansna ional in luences. Thi d, se e al ques ions we e e o -
mula ed o a oid leading language, pa icula ly ega ding pe cep ions o
UK- esiding Sylhe is. Finally, he pilo con i med ha he su ey could
be comple ed wi hin a easonable ime ame (app oxima ely 30–40
min), p e en ing esponden a igue. These e inemen s enhanced bo h
he echnical quali y and cul u al sensi i i y o he su ey ins umen ,
inc easing he alidi y o he da a collec ed. The inal su ey was
adminis e ed ace- o- ace by ained local in e iewe s o accoun o
Fig. 1. Resea ch design and da a collec ion p ocess.
Table 1
Demog aphic p o ile o su ey esponden s.
Cha ac e is ic Pe cen age
Gende
Male 52 %
Female 48 %
Age G oup
18–35 45 %
36–50 35 %
51+20 %
Educa ion
P ima y 15 %
Seconda y 30 %
Highe 55 %
Occupa ion
Ag icul u e 25 %
Business 30 %
Se ice 35 %
O he s 10 %
Remi ance ecei e s 68 %
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Resea ch in Globaliza ion 10 (2025) 100286
5
a ying li e acy le els and o ensu e a high esponse a e ac oss all de-
mog aphic g oups.
2.2.2. FGDs
Ten FGDs we e conduc ed o ga he in-dep h quali a i e da a. One o
hese FGDs ook place a he B i ish High Commission in Dhaka,
in ol ing s akeholde s engaged in coun e ing iolen ex emism (CVE).
This pa icula FGD o e ed aluable insigh s om policymake s and
p ac i ione s who a e di ec ly add essing issues ela ed o adicaliza-
ion.. The emaining nine FGDs we e conduc ed ac oss he ou dis ic s
o he Sylhe Di ision. Pa icipan s included emi ance ecei e s,
emi ance sende s, local go e nmen o icials, communi y leade s, and
uni e si y s uden s. This di e se ange o pa icipan s allowed o cap u e
a ious pe spec i es on he esea ch opics. Each FGD consis ed o 6–8
pa icipan s and las ed app oxima ely 90 min.
The FGDs we e mode a ed by ained acili a o s who we e na i e o
he Sylhe egion and luen in bo h s anda d Bengali and he Sylhe i
dialec . This linguis ic compe ence was essen ial o c ea ing an en i-
onmen whe e pa icipan s could exp ess hemsel es na u ally and
wi hou communica ion ba ie s. To ensu e open and hones discus-
sions, pa icula ly on sensi i e opics like adicaliza ion, se e al s a e-
gies we e employed. These included c ea ing a non-judgmen al
a mosphe e, using indi ec ques ioning echniques, and ensu ing
gende -seg ega ed g oups whe e cul u ally app op ia e (K uege , 2014).
Du ing he FGDs, acili a o s p ima ily used he Sylhe i dialec when
communica ing wi h pa icipan s, as his is he e e yday language o
mos esiden s in he egion. Howe e , hey we e able o shi be ween
Sylhe i and s anda d Bengali as needed, pa icula ly when discussing
mo e o mal eligious o educa ional concep s ha a e o en exp essed
in s anda d Bengali. The acili a o s unde wen specialized aining in
quali a i e esea ch me hods wi h a speci ic ocus on discussing po en-
ially sensi i e opics ela ed o eligion and ansna ional connec ions.
This aining included echniques o encou aging pa icipa ion wi hou
leading esponses, managing g oup dynamics o p e en domina ion by
ocal indi iduals, and p obing o deepe insigh s while main aining
espec o pa icipan s’ belie s and pe spec i es. All acili a o s we e
amilia wi h local eligious e minology and p ac ices, enabling hem o
accu a ely unde s and e e ences o speci ic eligious concep s, in-
s i u ions, and adi ions men ioned by pa icipan s. Each FGD was
conduc ed using a semi-s uc u ed discussion guide ha ou lined key
opics while allowing lexibili y o explo e eme gen hemes. Sessions
ypically las ed 90 min and we e audio- eco ded wi h pa icipan s’
consen , hen la e ansc ibed and ansla ed o analysis. This
app oach balanced me hodological igo wi h cul u al sensi i i y,
c ea ing condi ions conduci e o open and au hen ic dialogue abou
ansna ional eligious in luences.
2.2.3. KIIs
The s udy conduc ed 17 KIIs wi h s a egically selec ed pa icipan s
ep esen ing di e se pe spec i es on ansna ional eligious connec-
ions. The KIIs we e dis ibu ed ac oss mul iple s akeholde g oups o
ensu e comp ehensi e co e age o ele an iewpoin s. Fi e Imams
om di e en pa s o he Sylhe Di ision p o ided insigh s in o
changing eligious p ac ices and he in luence o ansna ional connec-
ions on local eligious in e p e a ion. These eligious leade s o e ed
aluable pe spec i es on how UK- unded mosques ope a e and how
eligious discou se has e ol ed in communi ies wi h s ong UK ies.
Th ee mad asah eache s om di e en educa ional ins i u ions ac oss
he egion sha ed insigh s in o eligious educa ion and he in luence o
ex e nal unding and ideas. These educa o s o e ed pa icula ly ele-
an pe spec i es on how eligious cu iculum and eaching app oaches
may be in luenced by ansna ional connec ions and unding sou ces.
Th ee communi y leade s om di e en dis ic s in Sylhe p o ided
b oade con ex ual unde s anding o local dynamics and communi y
esponses o ansna ional eligious in luences. These leade s o en
played media ing oles be ween UK dono s and local eligious in-
s i u ions, o e ing unique insigh s in o hese ela ionships. Th ee na-
ional go e nmen ep esen a i es in Dhaka sha ed policy pe spec i es
on ansna ional connec ions and eligious ins i u ions. These in e iews
p o ided impo an con ex on how hese ela ionships a e unde s ood
and managed a he na ional le el. Th ee B i ish na ionals o esiden s o
Sylhe i he i age we e in e iewed ei he in London o du ing hei isi s
o Sylhe . These pa icipan s o e ed di ec pe spec i es om he dias-
po a communi y on hei mo i a ions o main aining ansna ional
eligious connec ions and hei pe cep ions o hei in luence on local
p ac ices. While he numbe o di ec in e iews wi h UK- esiding Syl-
he is was limi ed o h ee, ansna ional connec ions we e explo ed
h oughou all in e iew ca ego ies. Imams, mad asah eache s, and
communi y leade s equen ly discussed hei in e ac ions wi h UK-
esiding Sylhe is who und eligious ins i u ions, hei expe iences
wi h e u ning mig an s, and he eligious ideas lowing be ween he UK
and Bangladesh. This in eg a ed app oach mean ha ansna ional di-
mensions we e explo ed in 14 o he 17 in e iews, p o iding mul iple
pe spec i es on hese connec ions.
All KIIs employed a semi-s uc u ed in e iew o ma using an
in e iew guide ha ensu ed consis en co e age o key opics while
allowing lexibili y o explo e eme ging hemes (K uege , 2014). The
in e iew guide was ailo ed o each s akeholde ca ego y while
main aining co e ques ions abou ansna ional connec ions and eli-
gious p ac ices. In e iews ypically las ed 60–90 min, p o iding su i-
cien ime o in-dep h explo a ion o complex opics.
In addi ion o hese 17 o mal KIIs, he s udy bene i ed om he FGD
conduc ed a he B i ish High Commission in Dhaka wi h s akeholde s
in ol ed in UK-Bangladesh ela ions, and om su ey da a om he
68.3 % o esponden s who epo ed ha ing amily membe s in he UK.
These mul iple da a sou ces enabled iangula ion o pe spec i es on
ansna ional eligious connec ions, s eng hening he alidi y o he
indings (Ami e al., 2024; Ami & Ka y, 2024; Nowell e al., 2017;
Sul ana e al., 2025).
2.3. Da a analysis
The da a analysis p ocess was designed o in eg a e he quan i a i e
and quali a i e da a, p o iding a comp ehensi e unde s anding o he
esea ch ques ions. Quan i a i e da a om he su ey we e analyzed
using SPSS so wa e ( .26). Desc ip i e s a is ics we e employed o
summa ize he demog aphic cha ac e is ics o he sample and key a -
iables. Chi-squa e es s we e used o examine associa ions be ween
ca ego ical a iables, such as emi ance ecep ion and pe cep ions o
eligious change. Mul iple eg ession analysis was conduc ed o explo e
he ac o s in luencing pe cep ions o adicaliza ion, wi h p edic o s
including demog aphic a iables, emi ance pa e ns, and eligious
p ac ices.
In addi ion o desc ip i e s a is ics, mo e ad anced s a is ical ech-
niques we e employed o analyze quan i a i e da a. P incipal Compo-
nen Analysis (PCA) was conduc ed o iden i y he main d i e s o
changes in he eligious landscape. PCA is a dimension- educ ion ech-
nique ha helps o iden i y pa e ns in da a wi h high dimensionali y
(Jolli e, 2002). Twel e a iables ela ed o eligious p ac ices, ex e nal
in luences, local ins i u ions, and economic ac o s we e included in
PCA. The analysis was pe o med using he ’p comp’ unc ion in R
( e sion 4.0.3), wi h a iables s anda dized p io o analysis. Compo-
nen s wi h eigen alues g ea e han 1 we e e ained, ollowing Kaise ’s
c i e ion (Jolli e, 2002).
To examine he ac o s in luencing pe cep ions o inc eased eligi-
osi y, mul iple eg ession analysis was conduc ed. This echnique allows
o he assessmen o he ela ionship be ween a dependen a iable and
mul iple independen a iables simul aneously (Osbo ne & Wa e s,
2002). The dependen a iable was a composi e measu e o pe cei ed
inc eased eligiosi y, c ea ed by a e aging esponses o se e al Like -
scale i ems (C onbach’s
α
=0.82). Independen a iables included
S. Ami
Resea ch in Globaliza ion 10 (2025) 100286
6
demog aphic ac o s (age, educa ion le el), economic indica o s
( emi ance ecep ion), and measu es o ex e nal in luence (UK amily
in luence, social media use). Be o e conduc ing he eg ession, mul i-
collinea i y was checked using Va iance In la ion Fac o s (VIF),
ensu ing all VIF alues we e below 5. Residual plo s we e examined o
check o homoscedas ici y and no mali y o esiduals. The eg ession
analysis was pe o med using he ’lm’ unc ion in R. S anda dized be a
coe icien s we e calcula ed o allow o compa ison o he ela i e
impo ance o p edic o s. Fo bo h PCA and eg ession analyses, lis wise
dele ion was used o handle missing da a, esul ing in a inal sample size
o 389 o hese analyses. Sensi i i y analyses using mul iple impu a ion
o missing da a yielded simila esul s, sugges ing ha indings a e
obus o di e en app oaches o handling missing da a.
Quali a i e da a om FGDs and KIIs we e ansc ibed e ba im and
analyzed using NVi o so wa e ( e sion 12). Thema ic analysis was
employed, ollowing he six-s ep p ocess ou lined by B aun and Cla ke
(2006): amilia iza ion wi h he da a, gene a ing ini ial codes, sea ching
o hemes, e iewing hemes, de ining and naming hemes, and p o-
ducing he epo (B aun & Cla ke, 2006). This i e a i e p ocess allowed
us o iden i y ecu ing pa e ns and hemes ac oss he quali a i e da a.
To enhance he igo o he quali a i e analysis, se e al s a egies
we e employed. These included pee deb ie ing, whe e esea che s no
di ec ly in ol ed in da a collec ion e iewed he coding and hemes, and
membe checking, whe e p elimina y indings we e sha ed wi h a subse
o pa icipan s o ensu e he accu acy o in e p e a ion (Elo e al., 2014;
Nowell e al., 2017). The in eg a ion o quan i a i e and quali a i e
indings occu ed a mul iple s ages o he analysis. P elimina y quan-
i a i e esul s in o med he ocus o quali a i e inqui ies, while quali-
a i e insigh s helped explain and con ex ualize quan i a i e indings.
This in eg a i e app oach allowed o a mo e nuanced unde s anding o
he complex ela ionships be ween emi ances, eligious p ac ices, and
po en ial adicaliza ion.
2.4. E hical conside a ions
E hical conside a ions we e pa amoun h oughou he esea ch
p ocess, gi en he sensi i e na u e o some o he opics explo ed. E hical
app o al o his s udy was ob ained om he E hics Commi ee
(Re e ence numbe 2018/003) o he Uni e si y o Libe al A s
Bangladesh (ULAB), Dhanmondi, Dhaka-1209, Bangladesh. In o med
consen was ob ained om all pa icipan s be o e da a collec ion. Fo
he su ey, e bal consen was ob ained and eco ded by he in-
e iewe s. W i en consen o ms we e used o FGDs and KIIs. All
consen p ocedu es we e conduc ed in Bengali o ensu e ull unde -
s anding. Pa icipan s we e assu ed o con iden iali y and anonymi y.
No pe sonally iden i iable in o ma ion was collec ed in he su ey, and
pseudonyms we e used in he ansc ip ion o FGDs and KIIs. Da a we e
s o ed secu ely, wi h access es ic ed o he esea ch eam. Pa icipan s
we e in o med ha hey could wi hd aw om he s udy a any ime
wi hou penal y. Fo FGDs and KIIs, pa icipan s we e also gi en he
op ion o e iew and amend hei con ibu ions a e he session. Gi en
he po en ial o discussions abou eligious p ac ices and ansna ional
in luences o ouch on sensi i e pe sonal and communi y ma e s, a
p o ocol was es ablished o add essing any discom o o conce ns ha
migh a ise du ing in e iews o ocus g oups. This included op ions o
pausing o edi ec ing discussions when needed and ensu ing pa ici-
pan s had access o esea ch eam con ac s a e he sessions. A e da a
analysis, pa icipan s we e indi idually in o med abou he agg ega ed
esul s o he s udy, ul illing he commi men o anspa ency and
ecip oci y in he esea ch p ocess. These comp ehensi e e hical p o-
cedu es ensu ed ha he esea ch adhe ed o he highes s anda ds o
e hical p ac ice in social science esea ch (Is ael & Hay, 2006).
3. Resul s
3.1. Changes in he eligious landscape
Su ey esul s e eal a signi ican end owa d inc eased eligiosi y
in he Sylhe egion. As shown in Fig. 2, male esponden s epo ed
becoming “Signi ican ly Mo e Religious” (12 %) and “Sligh ly Mo e
Religious” (9 %), while emale esponden s epo ed simila changes
wi h 9 % becoming “Signi ican ly Mo e Religious” and 17 % becoming
“Sligh ly Mo e Religious.” No ably, mo e males (43 %) han emales (23
%) epo ed ha eligiosi y “S ayed he Same,” sugges ing ha women
may be expe iencing o pe cei ing mo e eligious change in hei daily
li es. The geog aphical dis ibu ion o hese pe cep ions showed ha
esponden s om Sunamganj dis ic we e mos likely o pe cei e
inc eased eligiosi y, ollowed by hose om Sylhe dis ic . Age was
also a signi ican ac o , wi h younge esponden s mo e likely han
olde ones o epo signi ican inc eases in eligiosi y.Quali a i e da a
om KIIs p o ide impo an con ex o hese pa e ns. An o e -
whelming majo i y o in e iewees desc ibed a bi-di ec ional change in
he eligious-cul u al landscape, whe e bo h Wes e n in luences and
Islamic p ac ices ha e simul aneously in ensi ied. As a mad asah
eache om Sunamganj explained:
“The las i e yea s ha e seen bo h inc easing Wes e n and Islamic in-
luence. While he you h ha e some imes aken o mode n ends and
clo hes, ac i i ies o Sala is g oups, La-madhabi, and Jamaa e Islami
ha e inc eased.”
This simul aneous s eng hening o seemingly con adic o y in-
luences sugges s ha inc easing eligiosi y may pa ly ep esen a
esponse o pe cei ed h ea s om mode niza ion. As a communi y
leade in Habiganj no ed:
“The e ha e been signi ican changes in he las i e yea s. People ha e
gene ally become mo e eligious. The younge gene a ion is also d awn o
Wes e n cul u e and inc easingly, a e comple ing HSC, and appea ing
o IELTS, hey y o admission o o eign uni e si ies. Wes e n cul u e,
educa ion, and mode nisa ion ha e enabled conse a i e Islamic p ac-
ices o h i e.”
These quali a i e insigh s help explain he quan i a i e indings,
sugges ing ha globaliza ion has acili a ed inc eased eligiosi y
h ough bo h g ea e access o non-local Islamic p ac ices and as a
Fig. 2. Religiosi y changes segmen ed by gende .
S. Ami
Resea ch in Globaliza ion 10 (2025) 100286
7
eac ion o pe cei ed cul u al h ea s.
3.2. D i e s o changes in he eligious landscape
To iden i y he ac o s d i ing eligious change in Sylhe , e-
sponden s we e asked abou a ious po en ial in luences. As shown in
Fig. 3, social media eme ged as he mos signi ican d i e a 68.5 %,
ollowed by he in luence o TV (31.5 %), UK amily in luence (13.5 %),
in luence o local amily (11.5 %), and inc easing economic/socio
mobili y (10.8 %). Wo ld e en s (7.8 %), mad asahs (5.3 %), and
inc easing libe al in luences (4.3 %) we e epo ed as less signi ican
ac o s.The p ominence o social media as he p ima y d i e o eligious
change ep esen s a signi ican inding, highligh ing how digi al con-
nec i i y has ans o med pa hways o eligious in luence. KIIs con ex-
ualized his s a is ical inding, wi h eligious leade s exp essing bo h
oppo uni ies and conce ns abou social media’s in luence. One ma-
d asah eache om Sunamganj s a ed:
“Social media has become a p ima y sou ce o eligious in o ma ion o
many, bu i o en lacks he nuance and dep h p o ided by adi ional
Islamic educa ion.”
The high in luence o social media aligns wi h global ends in eli-
gious communica ion bu akes on pa icula signi icance in he Ban-
gladeshi con ex , whe e mobile phone adop ion and social media
pene a ion ha e apidly inc eased among you h popula ions.
3.3. Indigenous p ac ices o Islam
Despi e Sylhe ’s ich his o ical adi ion o Islamic mys icism and
Su ism (o en e e ed o as he “land o 360 sain s”), su ey esul s
indica e a po en ial disconnec ion wi h hese indigenous eligious
p ac ices. As shown in Fig. 4, app oxima ely 55 % o esponden s e-
po ed awa eness o local indigenous p ac ices, while a subs an ial 45 %
we e unawa e o hese adi ions, sugges ing a gene a ional o cul u al
shi away om his o ical eligious o ms.
Fu he mo e, Fig. 5 indica es ha esponden s a y b oadly in hei
knowledge and pe cep ion o ension be ween indigenous p ac ices and
con empo a y eligious ends. Knowledge le els ypically ange be-
ween 40 % and 60 %, while ension le els a e pe cei ed be ween 30 %
and 50 %. This inding sugges s ongoing nego ia ion be ween local Su i
adi ions and mo e ex - ocused in e p e a ions o Islam ha o en
cha ac e ize ansna ional eligious in luences.
FGD wi h communi y elde s e ealed a sense o loss ega ding local
Su i adi ions. One elde om Moul ibaza lamen ed:
“Ou ich he i age o Su i p ac ices is being o go en as younge gene -
a ions u n o mo e o hodox in e p e a ions o Islam, o en in luenced by
ideas om ab oad.”
This ension be ween indigenous and impo ed eligious p ac ices
p o ides impo an con ex o unde s anding how ansna ional con-
nec ions a e eshaping Sylhe ’s eligious landscape.
I is impo an o ecognize ha he appa en shi owa d mo e
conse a i e eligious in e p e a ions is no monoli hic o uni o m
ac oss he popula ion. Ou indings e eal signi ican di e si y in how
indi iduals and communi ies espond o ansna ional eligious in-
luences. While he o e all end indica es inc easing eligious conse -
a ism, indi idual esponses a y conside ably based on ac o s
including age, gende , educa ion, and local con ex .
Fo example, he a ying le els o knowledge and ension ega ding
indigenous p ac ices (Fig. 5) demons a e ha communi ies a e no
Fig. 3. D i e s o changes in eligious landscape in Sylhe di ision.
Fig. 4. Awa eness s. non-awa eness o indigenous p ac ices.
Fig. 5. Knowledge s. ension on indigenous p ac ices.
S. Ami
Resea ch in Globaliza ion 10 (2025) 100286
8
(Ebaugh & Cha e z, 2002), his s udy highligh s he e e se low—how
diaspo a communi ies in luence eligious p ac ices in hei communi ies
o o igin. The pa e ns o in luence in ensi y ac oss di e en egions and
demog aphics (Fig. 8) demons a e how hese e e se lows ope a e
ac oss di e se local con ex s. Thi d, he indings highligh how eco-
nomic, social, and digi al ac o s in e ac o c ea e mul iple pa hways o
ansna ional eligious in luence. The p incipal componen analysis
iden i ying “ex e nal in luence,” “local ins i u ions,” and “economic
ac o s” as h ee key componen s d i ing eligious change demons a es
he mul i ace ed na u e o hese p ocesses. This suppo s heo e ical
app oaches ha emphasize he in e connec ion be ween di e en o ms
o ansna ional exchange a he han ea ing hem as sepa a e do-
mains. Fou h, he s udy p o ides e idence o wha migh be called
“ ansna ional eligious conse a ism”—whe e diaspo ic popula ions
p omo e mo e conse a i e eligious in e p e a ions in hei commu-
ni ies o o igin a he han mo e libe al ones. The 3D ne wo k diag am
(Fig. 12) showing a ying le els o in luence ac oss di e en ins i u ion
ypes and geog aphical loca ions illus a es how UK- unded eligious
ins i u ions can ha e di e en ial impac s ac oss he egion, o en p o-
mo ing mo e conse a i e in e p e a ions. This inding nuances as-
sump ions ha exposu e o Wes e n con ex s necessa ily leads o mo e
libe al eligious a i udes, sugges ing ins ead ha eligious conse a ism
may some imes unc ion as a s a egy o main aining cul u al iden i y
in diaspo a con ex s (Kib ia, 2011). These implica ions ex end cu en
heo e ical unde s andings o ansna ionalism and eligion by demon-
s a ing he complex, mul i-di ec ional, and some imes coun e in ui i e
ways ha c oss-bo de connec ions shape eligious iden i y and p ac-
ice. Ra he han p oducing homogeniza ion o secula iza ion, he
ansna ional connec ions obse ed in his s udy ha e con ibu ed o
eligious dis inc i eness and in some cases conse a ism.
4.6. Policy implica ions and u u e esea ch di ec ions
The indings sugges se e al impo an implica ions o policy and
p ac ice. Fi s , hey highligh he need o app oaches o diaspo a
engagemen ha ecognize he signi ican eligious dimensions o
ansna ional connec ions. Policies ocused solely on economic aspec s
o mig a ion may o e look he impo an cul u al and eligious ex-
changes ha shape communi ies wi h s ong diaspo a ies. Second, he
cen al ole o digi al pla o ms in acili a ing ansna ional eligious
in luence sugges s he impo ance o digi al li e acy ini ia i es ha help
use s c i ically e alua e eligious con en encoun e ed online. The
inding ha social media is iden i ied as a p ima y d i e o eligious
change indica es ha digi al pla o ms ha e become essen ial spaces o
eligious discou se and in luence. Thi d, he documen ed ensions be-
ween indigenous eligious p ac ices and ansna ional in e p e a ions
sugges he alue o cul u al he i age ini ia i es ha p ese e local
eligious adi ions while engaging wi h global eligious cu en s. The
inding o indigenous eligious p ac ices indica es po en ial oppo u-
ni ies o educa ional ini ia i es ha econnec communi ies wi h hei
eligious he i age.
Se e al di ec ions o u u e esea ch eme ge om his s udy. Mos
c i ically, longi udinal esea ch could ack pa e ns o ansna ional
eligious in luence o e ime, p o iding deepe insigh s in o how hese
p ocesses e ol e and s eng hening causal in e ences ha a e limi ed in
he cu en c oss-sec ional design. The in ensi y luc ua ions o e ime
illus a ed in Fig. 14 sugges dynamic pa e ns ha me i longe - e m
in es iga ion h ough panel s udies ha ollow he same indi iduals
and communi ies o e mul iple yea s. Such longi udinal app oaches
would help cla i y he causal ela ionships be ween ansna ional con-
nec ions and eligious change, which can only be in e ed wi h cau ion
om he cu en da a. Addi ionally, compa a i e s udies examining
hese dynamics in o he egions wi h s ong diaspo a connec ions would
help de e mine which pa e ns a e speci ic o he Sylhe i con ex and
which ep esen b oade ends in ansna ional eligious in luence. The
egional a ia ions documen ed sugges ha local con ex s signi ican ly
media e ansna ional p ocesses. Mo e de ailed e hnog aphic esea ch
could explo e how indi iduals and communi ies na iga e and nego ia e
ansna ional eligious in luences in hei daily li es. The a ied
pe cep ion in ensi ies sugges nuanced esponses o ansna ional eli-
gious in luence ha wa an close in es iga ion.
4. Conclusion
This s udy has documen ed how ansna ional connec ions be ween
UK- esiding Sylhe is and hei communi ies o o igin shape eligious
p ac ices in he Sylhe egion o Bangladesh. The esea ch has iden i ied
h ee key mechanisms h ough which ansna ional eligious in luence
ope a es: emi ances ha und eligious ins i u ions, digi al communi-
ca ions ha ansmi eligious ideas, and amily ne wo ks ha p omo e
pa icula eligious in e p e a ions. The indings demons a e ha
ansna ional connec ions signi ican ly in luence eligious p ac ices in
Sylhe , o en p omo ing mo e conse a i e in e p e a ions o Islam.
Social media eme ged as he mos signi ican d i e o eligious change
(68.5 %), highligh ing how digi al pla o ms ha e ans o med pa h-
ways o eligious in luence. UK amily connec ions showed he s onges
associa ion wi h inc eased eligiosi y (β =0.28), unde sco ing he
impo ance o ansna ional amily ne wo ks in shaping eligious iews.
Remi ances play a c ucial ole in his p ocess, wi h app oxima ely 40 %
suppo ing eligious ins i u ions, p o iding he economic ounda ion o
ansna ional eligious in luence. PCA e ealed ha “ex e nal in luence”
(p ima ily social media and UK amily in luence) accoun s o he la ges
p opo ion o a iance (35.5 %) in eligious change, ollowed by “local
ins i u ions” (27 %) and “economic ac o s” (19 %). This s a is ical e -
idence, combined wi h ich quali a i e insigh s, demons a es how
ansna ional connec ions c ea e mul iple pa hways o eligious in lu-
ence ac oss na ional bounda ies.
These indings challenge simplis ic na a i es abou globaliza ion
leading o secula iza ion, ins ead e ealing how ansna ional connec-
ions can acili a e eligious conse a ism h ough economic, social, and
digi al channels. The esea ch shows ha a he han p oducing ho-
mogeniza ion o wes e niza ion, globaliza ion can gene a e complex
pa e ns o eligious change ha e lec bo h global in luences and local
esponses o hose in luences. By ocusing speci ically on ansna ional
eligious connec ions, emi ances, and social media— a he han
b oade concep s like adicaliza ion o sus ainable de elopmen — his
s udy p o ides a ocused analysis o how diaspo a communi ies in lu-
ence eligious p ac ices in hei egions o o igin. This a ge ed app oach
e eals he nuanced dynamics o ansna ional eligious in luence,
con ibu ing o a mo e e ined unde s anding o how globaliza ion
shapes eligious iden i y and p ac ice in communi ies wi h s ong dias-
po a connec ions. Fu u e esea ch should examine hese dynamics
longi udinally, explo e compa a i e cases in o he egions wi h signi i-
can diaspo a connec ions, and in es iga e how local communi ies
ac i ely nego ia e hese ansna ional eligious in luences. By
con inuing o examine hese complex ela ionships be ween mig a ion,
emi ances, and eligious p ac ice, schola s can de elop inc easingly
nuanced unde s andings o eligious iden i y o ma ion in ou in e -
connec ed wo ld.
Consen o pa icipa e
The s udy was pe o med in acco dance wi h ele an guidelines and
egula ions including he Decla a ion o Helsinki o esea ch wi h
human pa icipan s. In o med consen was ob ained om all
pa icipan s.
CRediT au ho ship con ibu ion s a emen
Sajid Ami : W i ing – e iew & edi ing, W i ing – o iginal d a ,
Visualiza ion, Valida ion, Supe ision, So wa e, Resou ces, P ojec
adminis a ion, Me hodology, In es iga ion, Funding acquisi ion,
S. Ami
Resea ch in Globaliza ion 10 (2025) 100286
15
Fo mal analysis, Da a cu a ion, Concep ualiza ion.
Funding
No unding was ecei ed o his s udy.
Decla a ion o compe ing in e es
The au ho s decla e ha hey ha e no known compe ing inancial
in e es s o pe sonal ela ionships ha could ha e appea ed o in luence
he wo k epo ed in his pape .
Da a A ailabili y
The da a ha suppo he indings o his s udy a e no publicly
a ailable due o p i acy o con iden iali y es ic ions. Howe e , da a
will be made a ailable om he co esponding au ho upon easonable
eques .
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