Elacqua, G ego y; Pe ez Nunez, G aciela; Cubillos, Ped o; Iglesias, Juliana
Wo king Pape
B eaking glass ceilings in Colombia: S a egies and
ou comes in e o s o na ow he gende gap in
educa ional leade ship
IDB Wo king Pape Se ies, No. IDB-WP-01678
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
In e -Ame ican De elopmen Bank (IDB), Washing on, DC
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Elacqua, G ego y; Pe ez Nunez, G aciela; Cubillos, Ped o; Iglesias, Juliana (2025) :
B eaking glass ceilings in Colombia: S a egies and ou comes in e o s o na ow he gende gap in
educa ional leade ship, IDB Wo king Pape Se ies, No. IDB-WP-01678, In e -Ame ican De elopmen
Bank (IDB), Washing on, DC,
h ps://doi.o g/10.18235/0013404
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B eaking Glass Ceilings in Colombia:
S a egies and
Ou comes in
E o s o Na ow
he Gende Gap in
Educa ional Leade ship
G ego y Elacqua
G aciela Pe ez Nunez
Ped o Cubillos
Juliana Iglesias
WORKING PAPER No IDB-WP-01678
In e -Ame ican De elopmen Bank
Educa ion Di ision
Janua y 2025
B eaking Glass Ceilings in Colombia:
S a egies and Ou comes in E o s o Na ow
he Gende Gap in Educa ional Leade ship
G ego y Elacqua
G aciela Pe ez Nunez
Ped o Cubillos
Juliana Iglesias
In e -Ame ican De elopmen Bank
Educa ion Di ision
Janua y 2025
Ca aloging-in-Publica ion da a p o ided by he
In e -Ame ican De elopmen Bank
Felipe He e a Lib a y
B eaking glass ceilings in Colombia: s a egies and ou comes in e o s o
na ow he gende gap in educa ional leade ship / G ego y Elacqua, G aciela
Pé ez-Núñez, Juliana Iglesias, Ped o Cubillos.
p. cm. — (IDB Wo king Pape s Se ies ; 1678)
Includes bibliog aphic e e ences.
1. Educa ional leade ship-Sex di e ences-Colombia. 2. Women-Rec ui ing-
Colombia. 3. Teache s-Selec ion and appoin men . I. Elacqua, G ego y M.,
1972- II. Pé ez-Nuñez, G aciela. III. Iglesias Velasco, Juliana. IV. Cubillos,
Ped o. V. In e -Ame ican De elopmen Bank. Educa ion Di ision. VI. Se ie.
IDB-WP-1678
Jel Codes: I21, I24, J71, J16, M51, O15
Keywo ds: Gende Gap, Educa ional Leade ship, School Managemen ,
Rec ui men P ocess, Di e si y in Leade ship, La in Ame ica, Colombia
h p://www.iadb.o g
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B eaking Glass Ceilings in Colombia: S a egies and
Ou comes in E o s o Na ow he Gende Gap in
Educa ional Leade ship*
G ego y Elacqua†G aciela Pé ez Núñez‡Ped o Cubillos§Juliana Iglesias¶
Janua y 2025
Abs ac
In Colombia, women ep esen 65% o he eache wo k o ce bu only 34% o school p incipals, e lec -
ing a signi ican gende gap in leade ship. This s udy examines wo cen alized p incipal selec ion p o-
cesses implemen ed by Colombia’s Na ional Ci il Se ice Commission: he 2016 na ionwide p ocess
and he 2018 p ocess a ge ing disad an aged PDET egions (De elopmen P og ams wi h a Te i o-
ial Focus). Bo h p ocesses e alua ed candida es h ough s anda dized es s, minimum equi emen s,
and assessmen s o educa ion and expe ience, de e mining eligibili y o leade ship acancies. Ou de-
sc ip i e analysis shows how selec ion c i e ia in luence gende ep esen a ion. In 2016, s anda dized
es ing domina ed, esul ing in 45% o applican s being women bu only 20% quali ying, wi h an o e -
all eligible- o- acancy a io o jus 0.7%. In con as , he 2018 PDET p ocess p io i ized con ex -speci ic
compe encies and p ac ical expe ience, yielding 35% emale eligibili y despi e women comp ising only
38% o applican s (likely due o challenging condi ions in PDET egions). Mo eo e , eligible candida es
o bo h gende s ou numbe ed acancies by 4.5 imes. These indings unde sco e he c i ical ole o selec-
ion design in shaping gende ep esen a ion in school leade ship. Howe e , s uc u al ba ie s, such as
inadequa e childca e and igid wo k schedules, pe sis as obs acles o women’s pa icipa ion.
JEL Classi ica ion: I21, I24, J71, J16, M51, O15
Keywo ds: gende gap, educa ional leade ship, school managemen , ec ui men p ocess, di e si y in leade ship,
La in Ame ica, Colombia
*We g a e ully acknowledge unding om he In e -Ame ican De elopmen Bank. The opinions exp essed in his publica ion
a e hose o he au ho s and do no necessa ily e lec he iews o he In e -Ame ican De elopmen Bank, i s Boa d o Di ec o s, o
he coun ies hey ep esen . The au ho s ha e no con lic s o in e es o inancial o ma e ial in e es s in he esul s. All e o s a e
ou own.
†In e -Ame ican De elopmen Bank. E-mail: [email p o ec ed].
‡In e na ional Ins i u e o Educa ion Planning, UNESCO. E-mail: [email p o ec ed].
§Depa men o Economics, Uni e si y College London. E-mail: ped [email p o ec ed]
¶UNICEF-Colombia. E-mail: [email p o ec ed]
1 INTRODUCTION
1 In oduc ion
The gende gap in leade ship oles emains a global challenge ac oss sec o s. In La in
Ame ica and he Ca ibbean (LAC), women hold only 29% o cong essional sea s, 25%
o minis e ial posi ions, 20% o co po a e boa d sea s, and 30% o posi ions on go e n-
ing boa ds o mul ila e al o ganiza ions (Gonzalez and Ibanez,Ma ch 8, 2024). While
hese dispa i ies a e well-documen ed, less a en ion has been paid o he gende gap
in school leade ship (Be gmann e al.,2022;Wang and Gao,2022). Globally, women
comp ise 68.3% o he eaching wo k o ce in OECD coun ies bu hold only 47.3% o
school leade ship posi ions (OECD,2019). This dispa i y is e en mo e p onounced in
LAC, whe e in 2013, eigh ou o 15 coun ies epo ed a leas a 20 pe cen age poin gap
be ween emale eache s and p incipals (Adelman and Lemos,2021). While coun ies
such as A gen ina, B azil, and Pe u ha e made s ides in na owing his gap, i emains
a signi ican issue in o he s, including Colombia. In Colombia, whe e women cons i u e
65% o he eache wo k o ce, only 34% o school p incipals a e emale (Elacqua e al.,
2024), unde sco ing he p essing need o a ge ed e o s o add ess gende inequali y
in educa ional leade ship.
School p incipals play a pi o al ole in shaping s uden ou comes, second only o each-
e s in e ms o hei impac (UNESCO,2018;G issom, Egali e, Lindsay e al.,2021;
B anch e al.,2012;Coelli and G een,2012;Muñoz and P em,2024;Hallinge and Heck,
1996;Heck e al.,1990;Ma ks and P in y,2003;Pounde e al.,1995;Wa e s e al.,
2003;Zheng e al.,2017).1P incipals’ esponsibili ies span cu iculum implemen a ion,
eache de elopmen , s uden disciplina y policies, inancial managemen , and os e -
ing a posi i e cul u e. By se ing high expec a ions and guiding eache s, s a , s uden s,
and amilies, p incipals c ea e en i onmen s conduci e o e ec i e lea ning (Da ling-
Hammond e al.,2022;Lei hwood e al.,2004;Ten B uggenca e e al.,2012;Lemos e al.,
2021;Bloom e al.,2015).
Female leade ship p o ides b oade ins i u ional and socie al bene i s. In schools,
g ea e gende balance os e s inclusi e p ac ices in eache ec ui men , e en ion, and
1No e ha empi ical e idence on p incipals’ impac on s uden pe o mance yields mixed esul s, wi h some s udies inding no
signi ican e ec s (Ba anen e al.,2024;Ten B uggenca e e al.,2012).
2
1 INTRODUCTION
di e si y p omo ion (Husain e al.,2018;G issom e al.,2012;Ba anen and G issom,
2021;B anch e al.,2012;Campos-Ga cía and Zúñiga-Vicen e,2019). Female leade s
o en adop pa icipa i e leade ship s yles, encou aging collabo a ion and inclusion
(Eagly and Ka au,2002;Shaked e al.,2018;Con o e al.,2023), and hey se e as
ole models, posi i ely in luencing he aspi a ions and achie emen s o emale s uden s
(Beaman e al.,2012;Be inge and Long,2005;Ca ell e al.,2010;Dee,2005;Lim and
Mee ,2017;Pa edes,2014). Howe e , challenges such as inadequa e childca e, in lexible
wo k policies, and gende biases ec ui men p ac ices con inue o limi women’s access
o leade ship posi ions (G issom, Timme , Nelson and Blisse ,2021;Bailes and Gu he y,
2020;Angelo e al.,2016;Be and e al.,2010;Be and,2018;Biasi and Sa sons,2022;
Blau and Kahn,2017;Buse e al.,2014;Ca ell e al.,2010;Howe-Walsh and Tu nbull,
2016;Wang and Gao,2022).
Rec ui men p ocesses play a c i ical ole in shaping school leade ship ou comes. Cen-
alized sys ems, like Colombia’s, p omo e equi y by using compe ency-based selec ion
ools o enhance anspa ency and mi iga e disc imina ion (Be and and Mullaina han,
2004;Neuma k e al.,1996;Muñoz and P em,2024;O eopoulos,2011;Riach and Rich,
2002). Howe e , such sys ems a e a e in educa ion globally. In many egions, including
LAC, p incipals a e ypically selec ed a he local le el, whe e subjec i e c i e ia, such as
expe ience and poli ical connec ions, o en ou weigh me i (Ramachand am e al.,2017;
Elacqua e al.,2021;A a ena,2020). Colombia’s cen alized, compe ency-based ec ui -
men app oach s ands ou o i s anspa ency and ai ness, ye i can unin en ionally
ein o ce dispa i ies when s anda dized es s a e hea ily weigh ed, as women may ex-
pe ience es anxie y o ace s uc u al disad an ages in es p epa a ion (A ias e al.,
2023;Azma e al.,2016;Cai e al.,2019;Ju ajda and Münich,2011).
This pape examines how ins i u ional design impac s gende ep esen a ion in educa-
ional leade ship o coo dina o s, u al di ec o s, and school p incipals in Colombia.2
I compa es wo cen alized selec ion p ocesses: he 2016 na ionwide p ocess, which
hea ily weigh ed s anda dized es ing, and he 2018 p ocess, designed speci ically o
egions a ec ed by a med con lic , po e y, and limi ed go e nmen p esence—known
2In Colombia, u al di ec o s a e p incipals o a single, ypically small school in a emo e a ea, while school p incipals lead ei he a
single la ge school o a ne wo k o schools, o en spanning u al and u ban si es. A 2001 e o m me ged some schools in o
ne wo ks, while o he s, pa icula ly u al schools, emained independen . Resea ch indica es ha mul i-si e schools achie e
simila es sco es bu ha e lowe d opou a es compa ed o independen schools (Elacqua and San os,2020).
3
1 INTRODUCTION
as De elopmen P og ams wi h a Te i o ial Focus (P og amas de Desa ollo con En oque
Te i o ial - PDET). To be e add ess he unique challenges in PDET egions, he 2018
p ocess emphasized p ac ical compe encies and con ex ual expe ience, while educing
he weigh o he high-s akes s anda dized exam used in 2016. Al hough a di ec causal
compa ison be ween he wo p ocesses is no easible, desc ip i e da a sugges s ha
he 2018 p ocess na owed he gende gap in eligibili y and educed he in luence o
socioeconomic ac o s.
Ou indings e eal ha he design o he 2016 selec ion p ocess c ea ed signi ican ba -
ie s o women pu suing school leade ship oles. The selec ion ins umen s exace -
ba ed dispa i ies: only 0.3% o emale applican s we e deemed eligible o leade ship
oles, compa ed o 1% o male applican s and an o e all eligibili y a e o 0.7% ac oss
all candida es. Women sco ed lowe on he basic es , pa icula ly in he nume ic and
unc ional componen s, educing hei likelihood o ad ancing beyond he elimina o y
phase. Reg ession analysis u he con i ms hese pa e ns, showing ha only 16% o
leade ship acancies we e ul ima ely illed by women.
The 2018 selec ion p ocess achie ed no able p og ess despi e challenging condi ions in
PDET egions. Female pa icipa ion d opped o 38%, down om 45% in 2016, likely
due o due o he emo e and esou ce-sca ce na u e o PDET a eas. Ne e heless, 19%
o emale applican s quali ied o leade ship oles, compa ed o 21% o male applican s
and an o e all eligibili y a e o 20%. Mo eo e , he o al numbe o eligible candida es
in 2018 a exceeded a ailable acancies by 4.5 imes, wi h 1,787 eligible candida es
compe ing o 405 posi ions–a s a k imp o emen o e 2016, which yielded only 133
eligible candida es o 1,098 acancies.
Fu he analysis o he 2016 selec ion p ocess e eals pe sis en gende dispa i ies e en
among eligible candida es. Women who quali ied o leade ship posi ions ended o
selec oles o he han p incipal (e.g., coo dina o ), likely due o he g ea e wo k lex-
ibili y hese posi ions o e ed. Con e sely, p incipal posi ions we e p edominan ly oc-
cupied by men. Addi ionally, women who a ained school leade ship oles we e mo e
equen ly assigned o u ban schools in less impo e ished a eas wi h lowe isks o ic-
imiza ion—a pa e n consis en ly obse ed ac oss all candida es.
4
2 THE COLOMBIAN SCHOOL MANAGER SELECTION SYSTEM
The emainde o his pape is o ganized as ollows. Sec ion 2 desc ibes Colombia’s
school manage selec ion sys em and he ea u es o he 2016 and 2018 PDET p ocesses.
Sec ion 3 p esen s he da a and empi ical app oach. Sec ion 4 discusses he esul s, and
Sec ion 5 concludes wi h policy implica ions.
2 The Colombian School Manage Selec ion Sys em
Be ween 1979 and 2002, bo h he selec ion and p omo ion o school s a in Colombia
occu ed h ough di ec appoin men by local go e no s and mayo s. This changed sig-
ni ican ly in 2002 when he Na ional Ci il Se ice Commission (Comisión Nacional de
Se icio Ci il - CNSC) implemen ed a cen alized public compe i ion sys em o illing
school manage and eache posi ions. This shi was mean o p omo e anspa ency,
me i oc acy, and equal oppo uni y, b eaking away om egionally in luenced p ac ices.
The new sys em was a eac ion o a long-s anding issue, whe e selec ion p ocesses a-
o ed pe sonal and poli ical in e es s o e me i —a common p oblem when decisions
ely on commi ees, ju ies, o local au ho i ies (A a ena,2020;Donoso-Díaz e al.,2019;
So o A ango,2013).
To manage he selec ion p ocess, he CNSC es ablished he Equal Me i and Oppo u-
ni y Suppo Sys em (Sis ema de Apoyo pa a la Igualdad de Mé i o y la Opo unidad - SIMO).
This pla o m s eamlines he applica ion p ocess by making in o ma ion publicly ac-
cessible o candida es and p o iding anspa ency on a ailable posi ions h ough he
Public O e ing o Ca ee Jobs (O e a Pública de Empleos de Ca e a - OPEC). Addi ion-
ally, he CNSC es ablished call ag eemen s wi h each ce i ied e i o ial en i y, equi ing
de ailed in o ma ion on acancies. These legally binding and publicly a ailable ag ee-
men s ou line he selec ion p ocess and speci ied posi ions a ailable o u al di ec o s,
coo dina o s, and p incipals. I posi ions emained un illed a e he compe i ion, local
au ho i ies can make empo a y appoin men s.
This cen alized app oach di e s subs an ially om hose used in o he La in Ame ican
coun ies. While Colombia uses anspa en e alua ions and clea me i -based c i e ia
o ensu e an equi able selec ion p ocess o all candida es, o he coun ies in he e-
gion employ di e en models, anging om democ a ic o poli icized, each wi h a y-
5
3 DATA
g adua e deg ee (mas e ’s o doc o a e), while in he 2018 p ocess he e was a modes
inc ease in pa icipan s wi h STEM backg ounds.
Despi e hese wo cen alized selec ion p ocesses, da a om 2023 shows a pe sis en un-
de ep esen a ion o women wi hin school managemen oles: women make up 65% o
he eaching wo k o ce bu accoun o jus 43% o manage ial posi ions (Figu e 2). This
disc epancy highligh s he need o g ea e emale pa icipa ion in cen alized selec ion
p ocesses and he impo ance o add essing he s uc u al ba ie s ha hinde women’s
ca ee ad ancemen in educa ion.
Figu e 2: Sha e o Teache s and Manage s by Gende in 2023
Ou 2016 selec ion p ocess analysis examines h ee dimensions: con es ou come, em-
ploymen s a us in he school labo ma ke , and cha ac e is ics o he municipali y home
o he managemen posi ion.12 The mo e limi ed 2018 PDET selec ion p ocess da a al-
12The i s dimension conce ns sco es om he basic es and i s ou componen s (nume ical, e bal, pedagogical, and unc ional),
he psycho- echnical es , and he likelihood o candida es passing he wo key elimina ion s ages (i.e., he basic es and
minimum equi emen e i ica ion). The labo ma ke dimension cap u es whe he indi iduals secu ed a posi ion, using bina y
a iables o indica e i a candida e held a school managemen ole o a speci ic posi ion such as u al di ec o , coo dina o , o
p incipal, dis inguishing be ween in e im and pe manen appoin men s. We also analyze sala ies using he loga i hm o sala ies.
Finally, he hi d dimension ega ds he a ibu es o municipali ies whe e posi ions exis , whe e we use bina y a iables o
indica e whe he jobs exis in he poo es o leas poo qua ile and hei le el o ic imiza ion isk (high, medium-high, low).
Addi ional a iables include he e hnic popula ion pe cen age, whe he he school is in a u al a ea, and he loga i hm o GDP
12
4 RESULTS
lows o assess con es ou comes, including sco es om he basic and psychome ic es s
and he likelihood o candida es passing he basic es and mee ing minimum equi e-
men s. We also employ an addi ional analy ical app oach o e alua e he 2018 con es
ou comes and o conduc a desc ip i e compa ison wi h he 2016 con es esul s.
4 Resul s
4.1 Na ionwide 2016 Selec ion P ocess o School Manage s
This sec ion explo es which ac o s shaped ou comes in he 2016 selec ion p ocess, o-
cusing on candida es’ pe o mance ac oss s ages and componen s and hei p og ession
h ough each phase. We ocus on he p ocess’s design and assessmen ools, pa icula ly
he basic es , which disp opo iona ely hinde ed emale candida es’ ad ancemen .
An analysis o es sco es and pass a es, di e en ia ed by gende , e eals signi ican dis-
pa i ies. Women sco ed lowe on he gene al basic es , especially on he nume ic and
unc ional componen s, bu ou pe o med male candida es on he pedagogical compo-
nen .13 These pe o mance dispa i ies c ea ed gaps in passing a es o he basic es ,
wi h only 0.5% o women ad ancing compa ed o 1.4% o men (Table 1).
Table 1: Desc ip i e S a is ics o he 2016 Selec ion P ocess by Gende
Male Female Di .
Va iables (1) (2) (2)−(1)
Basic es sco e 51.62 49.10 −2.516∗∗∗
Nume ic componen sco e 53.96 43.86 −10.10∗∗∗
Ve bal componen sco e 58.09 58.18 0.090
Pedagogical componen sco e 46.89 47.19 0.293∗
Func ional componen sco e 49.58 48.15 −1.431∗∗∗
Psycho- echnical es sco e 49.28 49.49 0.206∗
Final sco e 67.71 66.99 −0.720
P obabili y o Passing Basic es 0.014 0.005 −0.009∗∗∗
P obabili y o Mee ing Minimum Requi emen s 0.010 0.003 −0.007∗∗∗
Obse a ions 11,061 8,946 −
No e: School manage ial posi ions equi e candida es o achie e a minimum sco e o 70 ou o 100 poin s on he Basic es .
∗p<0.10,∗∗ p<0.05,∗∗∗ p<0.01.
pe capi a (sou ced om Ace edo and Bo nacelly Oli ella (2014) and compiled by he Cen e o Economic De elopmen S udies
[Cen o de Es udios sob e Desa ollo Económico - CEDE]; Link).
13Fo a g aphical dis ibu ion o he basic es componen s by gende , see Figu e 4.
13
4 RESULTS
We es ima e a se ies o eg essions con olling o ele an a iables o assess he pe -
o mance o applican s. Column (1) o Table 2shows ha emale candida es sco ed
0.33 s anda d de ia ions lowe han hei male coun e pa s on he basic es (ex ended
analysis in Table A5). The likelihood o women passing he basic es and minimum e-
qui emen s was 0.9 and 0.7 pe cen age poin s lowe espec i ely (columns (7) and (8)).
These educ ions ansla e o disc epancies o 90% and 106% ela i e o baseline pass
a es o 1% and 0.7% o hese s ages, indica ing subs an ial ba ie s disp opo iona ely
a ec ing women, especially a he basic es s age. This dispa i y exis s despi e da a
showing no signi ican gende di e ences in educa ion le els (Table A6).
Table 2: E ec s o Gende on Ou comes in he 2016 School Manage Selec ion P o-
cess
Basic es componen s App o al p obabili y
Basic es Psycho- echnical Ve . o min.
sco e es sco e Nume ic Ve bal Pedagogical Func ional Basic es equi emen s
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
Female -0.325*** 0.025* -0.513*** -0.051*** -0.021 -0.185*** -0.009*** -0.007***
(0.013) (0.014) (0.013) (0.014) (0.014) (0.014) (0.001) (0.001)
Co a ia es Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Obse a ions 20,007 20,007 20,007 20,007 20,007 20,007 20,007 20,007
R-Squa ed 0.18 0.01 0.22 0.11 0.08 0.04 0.01 0.01
No e: Obse a ions include all indi iduals who pa icipa ed in he a ious es s o he compe i ion. Columns 1 and 2 show
s anda dized sco es o he basic es and he psycho- echnical es . The componen s o he basic es —nume ical, e bal,
pedagogical knowledge, and unc ional knowledge—a e p esen ed in columns 3 o 6 and a e also s anda dized. Columns
7 and 8 display he p obabili y o passing each s age o he compe i ion. Co a ia es include e hnici y, age, highes le el
o educa ion achie ed, STEM majo s a us, and esidency cha ac e is ics such as u ali y, po e y, and ic imiza ion isk
indexes. ∗p<0.10,∗∗ p<0.05,∗∗∗ p<0.01.
A mo e de ailed analysis o he basic es e eals ha women pe o med less well ac oss
mul iple componen s, including nume ical and e bal ap i udes, and basic o unc ional
compe encies. The gap is wides o he nume ical componen , e en a e adjus ing o
socioeconomic backg ound and academic quali ica ion.
This dispa i y in pa e lec s he di e en educa ional pa hs chosen by emale pa ici-
pan s, who a e less likely o ha e pu sued STEM- ela ed unde g adua e p og ams com-
pa ed o hei male coun e pa s (38% o women s. 49% o men). In addi ion, his o ical
da a shows ha women gene ally sco e lowe han men on ap i ude es s ac oss edu-
ca ional le els, om p ima y h ough high school (A edondo e al.,2019;Be nal and
Be nal,2016;Gelbe e al.,2016). Resul s om he pas se en yea s o he Sabe 11 es ,
equi ed o highe educa ion admission in Colombia, e eal ha women consis en ly
14
4 RESULTS
sco e lowe han men in bo h ma hema ics and o e all pe o mance. A simila pa e n
appea s on he Sabe PRO es , a manda o y college exi exam.14 I has been a gued ha
his pe o mance gap is due o highe le els o es anxie y among women in high-s akes
exams, pa icula ly in ma hema ics—a ac o heigh ened in compe i i e se ings (A ias
e al.,2023;Azma e al.,2016;Cai e al.,2019;Ju ajda and Münich,2011).
The selec ion p ocess ou comes show women ini ially comp ising 43.6% o applican s,
ye only 24% o his g oup passed, compa ed o 76% o male applican s. This sugges s
ha in placing signi ican emphasis on gene ic compe encies such as nume ical and e -
bal skills, he basic es pu emale candida es a a disad an age. No ably, he basic es is
modeled a e he Sabe P o es , hus indica ing b oade issues wi h educa ional quali y
and unde sco ing he lea ning and pe o ma i e gaps aced by women in Colombia.
4.1.1 E ec s on Labo Ma ke Ou comes
Da a on he applican s in he 2016 selec ion p ocess also allows o examine labo ma ke
ou comes o school manage s in 2023.15 Speci ically, we assess gende di e ences in
school managemen posi ions and explo e how candida es deemed eligible o leade -
ship oles ha e pe o med. The a iable Eligible se es as an explana o y ac o .
Table 3in es iga es he likelihood o secu ing a manage ial posi ion, dis inguishing be-
ween pe manen and empo a y appoin men s (de ailed esul s in Table A7). A pe ma-
nen posi ion implies ha ing passed he compe i i e selec ion p ocess and success ully
comple ed he p oba iona y pe iod, and hus being ull in eg a ed in o he educa ion
manage ial p o ession, including associa ed ca ee igh s.16
14Fo mo e de ails on gende ends in Sabe 11 and Sabe PRO esul s, see Figu es 5,6, and 7.
15Da a cons ain s limi labo ma ke da a o 2023, and p e en ma ching his da a wi h he 2018 selec ion p ocess.
16In passing he selec ion p ocess, choosing a acancy, and ecei ing an appoin men o ha posi ion h ough a public hea ing, he
job emains empo a y o a p oba iona y pe iod. Success ul e alua ion o his pe iod secu es he posi ion, ailu e esul s in
e mina ion. "P o isional" and " empo a y" appoin men s designa e in e im posi ions ha emain open un il illed h ough he
o mal selec ion p ocess. These empo a y appoin men s p o ide con inui y in eaching and managemen oles un il pe manen
s a a e selec ed.
15
4 RESULTS
Table 3: E ec s o Gende on Labo Ma ke Ou comes in he 2016 School Manage
Selec ion P ocess
School Manage Ru al di ec o Coo dina o P incipal
School Manage Pe manen Tempo a y Pe manen Tempo a y Pe manen Tempo a y Pe manen Tempo a y Log(Sala y)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)
Eligible 0.647*** 0.648*** -0.001 -0.010 -0.000 0.243*** -0.000 0.415*** -0.000 0.075***
(0.038) (0.038) (0.003) (0.010) (0.001) (0.033) (0.002) (0.022) (0.001) (0.022)
Female -0.067*** -0.066*** -0.001* -0.005*** -0.000 -0.020*** -0.000 -0.041*** -0.000* 0.018**
(0.006) (0.006) (0.000) (0.001) (0.000) (0.005) (0.000) (0.003) (0.000) (0.007)
Female ×Eligible -0.037 -0.038 0.001 0.005 0.000 0.216*** 0.001 -0.259*** 0.000 -0.049
(0.086) (0.086) (0.006) (0.022) (0.002) (0.074) (0.005) (0.050) (0.003) (0.051)
Co a iables Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Obse a ions 20,007 20,007 20,007 20,007 20,007 20,007 20,007 20,007 20,007 3,978
R-Squa ed 0.07 0.07 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.28
No es: Obse a ions include all indi iduals who pa icipa ed in he a ious es s o he compe i ion, excep o column 10, which is es ima ed only o indi iduals wo king as p incipals
in 2023. Co a ia es include e hnici y, age, highes le el o educa ion achie ed, STEM majo s a us, and esidency cha ac e is ics such as u ali y, po e y, and ic imiza ion isk indexes.
∗p<0.10,∗∗ p<0.05,∗∗∗ p<0.01.
Eligible indi iduals (0.7% o all pa icipan s) had a subs an ially highe likelihood (64.8
pe cen age poin s) o secu ing pe manen leade ship oles in schools. This ad an age
includes an inc ease o 24.3 pe cen age poin s o coo dina o oles and 41.5 pe cen age
poin s o p incipal posi ions, wi h no impac on he likelihood o becoming a u al
di ec o . Eligible candida es ea ned a 7.5 pe cen age poin highe sala y.
Among emale candida es, women had a 7 pe cen age poin lowe chance o a aining
pe manen leade ship posi ions ac oss all oles. The la ges dispa i y appea s o he
ole o p incipal, wi h a 4.1 pe cen age poin gap, ollowed by ha o coo dina o a
2 pe cen age poin s, and u al di ec o s a 0.5 pe cen age poin s. Howe e , women in
leade ship oles ea ned 1.8 pe cen age poin s mo e han hei male coun e pa s, sug-
ges ing ha he women who do secu e hese posi ions end o ha e highe skill le els.
While gende , combined wi h eligibili y, did no signi ican ly impac he o e all like-
lihood o becoming a manage , columns 6 and 8 e eal ha eligible women a e mo e
likely o secu e coo dina o oles han p incipal posi ions compa ed o men. This ind-
ing indica es po en ial s uc u al ba ie s ha limi women’s ad ancemen o p incipal
oles, possibly due o p e e ences o jobs wi h g ea e lexibili y and ewe wo king
hou s.
16
4 RESULTS
4.1.2 E ec s on Geog aphical Ou comes
We u he explo e gende dispa i ies wi hin school managemen by examining he
cha ac e is ics o schools whe e manage s a e employed. These cha ac e is ics a e in-
e ed om municipal-le el a iables, wi h he excep ion o school u ali y, which comes
om he labo ma ke da ase . We analyze how hese dynamics shi based on candi-
da es’ eligibili y s a us in he 2016 selec ion p ocess.
Figu e 3shows ha emale school manage s wo k in municipali ies wi h lowe le -
els o po e y and ic imiza ion isk compa ed o hei male coun e pa s. Men a e
mo e likely o wo k in a eas wi h highe po e y and ic imiza ion le els. On a e age,
bo h gende s chose posi ions in municipali ies wi h lowe po e y and ic imiza ion
isks. Howe e , emale candida es’ choices showed g ea e a iabili y, likely due o
hei lowe ep esen a ion among hose who quali ied as eligible o leade ship oles in
he 2016 selec ion p ocess.
The e hnic composi ion o municipali ies whe e school manage s wo k showed no sig-
ni ican di e ences, ac oss bo h he gene al sample o p incipals and hose who passed
he 2016 selec ion p ocess. Howe e , women wo k less in u al schools. Eligibili y s a-
us in luenced he p e e ence o u ban posi ions, as eligible men and women assumed
leade ship oles in u ban a he han u al se ings.
17
4 RESULTS
Figu e 3: Cha ac e is ics o P incipal’s School Loca ion by Gende in he 2016 School
P incipal Selec ion P ocess
0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1
Sha e
All Eligible
om con es
Male Female
(A): Mid-High Mul idim. Po e y
0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1
Sha e
All Eligible
om con es
Male Female
(B): Mid-Low Mul idim. Po e y
0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1
Sha e
All Eligible
om con es
Male Female
(C): Mid-High Vic imiza ion Risk
0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1
Sha e
All Eligible
om con es
Male Female
(D): Mid-Low Vic imiza ion Risk
0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1
Sha e
All Eligible
om con es
Male Female
(E): % E hnic
0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1
Sha e
All Eligible
om con es
Male Female
(F): Ru al A ea
4.2 Selec ion P ocess o School Manage s in PDET Te i o ies in 2018
We ex end he analy ical app oach om Sec ion 4.1 o analyze he PDET 2018 selec-
ion p ocess. As desc ibed abo e, his p ocess in oduced subs an ial modi ica ions de-
signed o ec ui applican s o he ha d- o-s a PDET e i o ies. I add essed he unique
demands o hese a eas by p io i izing ele an compe encies and knowledge and inco -
po a ing a es o ma ha included case s udies e lec i e o he PDET con ex . Unlike
he 2016 p ocess, which emphasized nume ical abili ies, he 2018 p ocess p io i ized ex-
pe ience and awa ded addi ional poin s o candida es a ec ed by con lic o o igina ing
om he PDET e i o ies.
Table 4 e eals no signi ican gende dispa i ies in basic es sco es, indica ing equal op-
po uni ies in passing his ini ial s age. Howe e , women sco ed lowe on he psycho-
echnical es , leading o lowe o e all sco es. A wo-pe cen age-poin gap in mee ing
minimum equi emen s eme ged, la gely a ibu able o di e ences in expe ience and
emale candida es’ quali ica ions. This shi in selec ion c i e ia o he 2018 PDET p o-
18
4 RESULTS
cess e lec s an e o o imp o e candida e sui abili y o posi ions in hese challenging
egions.
Table 4: Desc ip i e S a is ics o he PDET 2018 Selec ion P ocess by Gende
Male Female Di .
Va iables (1) (2) (2)-(1)
Basic es sco e 63.75 63.43 -0.314
Psycho- echnical es sco e 64.90 64.32 -0.580∗∗
Final sco e 59.12 57.79 -1.327∗∗∗
P obabili y o Passing Basic es 0.282 0.281 -0.001
P obabili y o Mee ing Minimun Requi emen s 0.211 0.191 -0.020∗∗
Obse a ions 5,477 3,290 -
No e: School manage ial posi ions equi e candida es o achie e a minimum sco e o 70 ou o 100 poin s on he basic es .
∗p<0.10, ∗∗ p<0.05, ∗∗∗ p<0.01.
We es ima e a se ies o eg essions using s anda dized sco es on he basic and psycho-
echnical es s, and he p obabili y o passing he elimina ion s ages (basic es and min-
imum equi emen s e i ica ion) as dependen a iables. These es ima es con ol o
con ounding ac o s, consis en wi h he 2016 analyses. Table 5suppo s he p e ious
esul s, showing ha women sco ed 0.06 s anda d de ia ions lowe in bo h assessed a -
eas. They we e also 2.4 pe cen age poin s less likely o mee he minimum equi emen s
(see Table A8 o an ex ended analysis). Unlike he 2016 p ocess, he 2018 PDET con es
p esen ed ewe ba ie s o women, sugges ing ha adjus men s o he selec ion c i-
e ia and p ocess design con ibu ed o na owing he gende gap in school leade ship
selec ion.
19
4 RESULTS
Table 5: E ec s o Gende on Ou comes in he PDET 2018 School Manage Selec ion
P ocess
App o al p obabili y
Basic es Psycho- echnical Ve . o min.
sco e es sco e Basic es equi emen s
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Female -0.063*** -0.064*** -0.011 -0.024***
(0.022) (0.022) (0.010) (0.009)
Co a iables Yes Yes Yes Yes
Obse a ions 8,767 8,767 8,767 8,767
R-Squa ed 0.07 0.03 0.04 0.03
No e: Obse a ions include all indi iduals who ook he a ious es s o he compe i ion.
Columns 1 and 2 show s anda dized sco es o he basic es and he psycho- echnical
es . Columns 3 and 4 display he p obabili y o passing each s age o he compe i ion.
Co a ia es include e hnici y, age, highes le el o educa ion achie ed, STEM majo s a us,
and esidency cha ac e is ics such as u ali y, po e y, and ic imiza ion isk indexes. ∗
p<0.10,∗∗ p<0.05,∗∗∗ p<0.01.
Focusing on candida es who quali ied as eligible, we compa e applican cha ac e is ics
be ween he 2016 selec ion p ocess and he 2018 PDET compe i ion. In Table A9, we ob-
se e minimal gende dispa i ies be ween he wo con es s. Howe e , he gende gap in
p og ession h ough he compe i ion s ages was smalle in he PDET 2018 p ocess com-
pa ed o ha o 2016. The 2018 con es also saw a la ge ep esen a ion o pa icipan s
om economically disad an aged municipali ies wi h highe a es o ic imiza ion, in
line wi h he ocus on PDET e i o ies whe e candida es had highe chances o quali-
ying as eligible o leade ship oles. While indi iduals holding a pos g adua e deg ee
mo e equen ly quali ied in bo h yea s, his ac o was less decisi e in 2018 as he p o-
po ion o pos g adua es emains consis en om egis a ion o eligibili y quali ica ion.
This desc ip i e compa ison be ween he 2016 and 2018 con es s highligh s how selec-
ion p ocess design can in luence he p o ile o quali ying candida es, in his case in-
c easing he ep esen a ion o women and indi iduals om disad an aged egions. The
2018 basic es con ibu ed o his ou come by emphasizing compe encies mo e ele an
o u al con ex s, p o iding a mo e equi able e alua ion. No ably, he PDET p ocess
also illed mo e acancies: 16% illed in 2016 compa ed o 86% in 2018, leading o mo e
women secu ing pe manen posi ions in 2018. Because he 2018 PDET p ocess a ge ed
speci ic egions wi h dis inc cha ac e is ics, di ec causal compa isons wi h he 2016
na ionwide p ocess a e no possible. None heless, ou analysis demons a es how selec-
20
5 DISCUSSION
ion c i e ia can a ec gende ep esen a ion in leade ship oles. The indings sugges
ha ca e ully designed selec ion p ocesses may help educe gende gaps in educa ional
leade ship, o e ing impo an conside a ions o u u e policy design.
5 Discussion
Ensu ing women’s ep esen a ion in leade ship posi ions is c i ical o ad ancing gen-
de equi y and os e ing inclusi e de elopmen ac oss all sec o s. Resea ch highligh s
hei signi ican con ibu ions o socie al ou comes, pa icula ly in he p o ision o
public goods such as in as uc u e, educa ion, and heal h. Women leade s a e also
less likely o engage in co up p ac ices (Baska an and Hessami,2023;Bhalo a and
Clo s-Figue as,2014;B ollo and T oiano,2016;Cha opadhyay and Du lo,2004;Clo s-
Figue as,2012). In educa ion, emale leade s play a pi o al ole in c ea ing collabo a i e
en i onmen s, implemen ing inclusi e policies, and se ing as c ucial ole models (Ba -
anen and G issom,2021;B anch e al.,2012;Eagly and Ka au,2002;Shaked e al.,2018;
Xu and Yao,2015). These bene i s ex end o s uden ou comes, wi h e idence show-
ing ha emale leade ship posi i ely in luences academic achie emen and aspi a ions,
pa icula ly o emale s uden s (Be inge and Long,2005;Ca ell e al.,2010;Dee,2005;
Lim and Mee ,2017;Pa edes,2014;Xu and Yao,2015).
Despi e hese documen ed bene i s, gende gaps pe sis ac oss sec o s in La in Ame ica
and he Ca ibbean (LAC), including educa ion. Women occupy less han one- hi d o
leade ship oles in go e nmen , co po a e boa ds, and mul ila e al o ganiza ions (Gon-
zalez and Ibanez,Ma ch 8, 2024). In Colombia, women make up 65% o eache s bu
only 34% o school p incipals, unde sco ing s uc u al ba ie s ha limi hei ad ance-
men . These include inadequa e childca e, in lexible wo k schedules, male-domina ed
leade ship ne wo ks, and geog aphic mobili y cons ain s—pa icula ly o oles in e-
mo e a eas. Addi ionally, ec ui men and selec ion p ocesses may inad e en ly a o
male candida es, pe pe ua ing exis ing inequi ies.
Ou analysis o wo cen alized school manage selec ion p ocesses in Colombia high-
ligh s how ins i u ional design can ei he ein o ce o help mi iga e hese ba ie s. The
2016 na ionwide p ocess illus a es how seemingly neu al c i e ia, such as an o e e-
21
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29
A
Appendix A:
Socioeconomic Cha ac e iza ion o Municipali ies
To cap u e applican s’ socioeconomic backg ound, we used a se o a iables associ-
a ed wi h hei municipali y o bi h as a p oxy. Fi s , we employed 2018 da a om he
Na ional Adminis a i e Depa men o S a is ics (DANE) o de e mine he p obabili y
ha an indi idual belongs o an e hnic g oup, based on whe he hey we e bo n in a
municipali y whe e 70% o mo e o he popula ion iden i ies as such (e.g., Indigenous,
A o-Colombian, Romani, o Palenque o).17
We also use he 2018 DANE da a o cha ac e ize each municipali y by i s mul idimen-
sional po e y le el.18 This index, which anges om 0 o 1, comp ises i e dimensions
and 15 indica o s, each con ibu ing o a municipali y’s sco e. We di ided he o al sam-
ple o Colombian municipali ies (1,122 adminis a i e en i ies) in o qua iles based on
mul idimensional po e y le els, anging om leas poo o mos poo .
To app oxima e he impac o a med con lic on applican s’ bi h municipali y, we used
2022 da a on ic imiza ion isk om he Vic ims Uni (Unidad pa a las Víc imas).19 This
index p o ides insigh on he h ea le el, ic imiza ion, and ulne abili y expe ienced
wi hin each municipali y.
We inco po a ed all o his in o ma ion in o he da a p ocessing o he school manage
selec ion con es , c ea ing a comp ehensi e da ase o 1,122 municipali ies, each asso-
cia ed wi h i s DANE code and ele an socioeconomic a iables. We hen linked his
da ase o each indi idual’s municipali y and depa men o bi h.
17See he DANE Geopo al, Geo iso de Au o econocimien o É nico.
18The mul idimensional po e y measu e includes 15 indica o s spanning i e dimensions: educa ion, heal h, employmen ,
housing, and childhood, cap u ing ac o s such as li e acy, school a endance, ea ly childhood ca e, heal h insu ance, and access
o imp o ed wa e sou ces. See Mul idimensional po e y measu e - dane.go .co
19The ic imiza ion isk index is based on h ee dimensions: h ea (p esence o a med g oups and inciden s a ec ing ci ilians),
ic imiza ion ( es ic ions on mo emen , pe sonal sa e y, and li e secu i y), and ulne abili y (co up ion, demog aphics,
geog aphy, ins i u ional and socioeconomic ac o s). See IRV (unidad ic imas.go .co).
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Modi ica ions in he Design o he PDET 2018 Selec ion P ocess
In he 2016 na ionwide selec ion p ocess, p io i y was placed on educa ional aining
and ad ancemen in he e alua ion o candida e’s backg ounds, while wo k expe ience
was gi en seconda y impo ance. Candida es’ sco es inc eased wi h highe le els o
educa ion, and addi ional poin s we e awa ded o hose wi h quali ica ions in educa ion
as opposed o o he ields.20 When compa ing he weigh assigned o educa ion e sus
wo k expe ience—which emphasized school managemen — he o me could esul in
an accumula ed 70 poin s, compa ed o jus 30 poin s o he la e .
In calcula ing he inal sco e, di e en pe cen age weigh s we e also alloca ed o each
es o assessmen s age, which in u n de e mined he lis o candida es deemed eligible
o leade ship oles. These weigh s we e as ollows: he basic es , 55%; psycho- echnical
es , 15%; backg ound assessmen , 20%; and in e iew, 10%. This s uc u e emphasized
gene al abili ies and knowledge, wi h g ea alue placed on educa ion and pos g adua e
quali ica ions in he educa ional ield.
Se e al modi ica ions we e made o he 2018 PDET selec ion p ocess ha al e ed he de-
si ed candida e p o ile. Fi s ly, he basic es ocused mo e on compe encies and knowl-
edge di ec ly ela ed o he posi ion, including si ua ional judgmen ques ions o sce-
na ios speci ic o PDET e i o ies. Secondly, he backg ound assessmen placed g ea e
emphasis on wo k expe ience, assigning he la e a maximum o 70 poin s, while ed-
uca ion was capped a 30 poin s. Expe ience in con lic -a ec ed and communi y-based
se ings was pa icula ly alued, indica ing a p e e ence o candida es wi h he skills
o e ec i ely manage schools in challenging con ex s. Poin s we e also awa ded o can-
dida es wi h a his o y o being a ec ed by con lic o s ong local ies. Thi dly, he in e -
iew s age was elimina ed, and he weigh ing o he di e en s ages acco dingly eallo-
ca ed: he basic es was educed o 45%, he backg ound assessmen doubled o 40%,
and he psycho- echnical es emained a 15%. This ealloca ion placed g ea e alue
on candida es wi h he necessa ily skills o succeed in a eas a ec ed by dep i a ion and
a med con lic . Addi ionally, a policy was in oduced o encou age he e en ion o se-
lec ed candida es in hese egions: applican s appoin ed o pe manen posi ions could
20Fo example, a candida e wi h a eaching deg ee and a mas e ’s in educa ion could ecei e up o 20 poin s, while a candida e
wi h equi alen quali ica ions in a di e en ield would ecei e only hal hose poin s.
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only eques ans e s o o he PDET e i o ies, he eby limi ing mobili y.
Table A1: Assessmen S ages in he School Manage Selec ion P ocess Ac oss Se-
lec ed La in Ame ican and Ca ibbean Coun ies
Tes s and assessmen
momen s
A gen ina B azil Chile Colombia Ecuado Mexico Pe u Dom. Rep.
Minimum equi e-
men s and/o back-
g ound assessmen
X X X X X X X X
Technical es X X X X X X X
Psycho- echnical es X X
In e iew o collo-
quium
X X X X
Case s udy and/o
p ojec solu ion
X X X X
P oba ion pe iod X X
Sou ce: Own elabo a ion.
Table A2: Vacancies o School Managemen Posi ions in CNSC Selec ion P ocesses
o he Special Teaching Ca ee Sys em
Yea
Posi ion 2006 2009 2012 2012 bis 2016 2018 2021 2006-2021
Coo dina o 1,197 1,695 1,126 173 572 138 1,676 6,577
Ru al Di ec o 270 577 55 9 159 94 98 1,262
P incipal 324 652 577 49 367 173 931 3,073
To al 1,791 2,924 1,758 231 1,098 405 2,705 10,912
Sou ce: Au ho ’s elabo a ion based on call ag eemen s o each selec ion p ocess.
No e: The 2012 bis con es e e s o a special e hnic-based p ocess conduc ed ha yea o A o-
Colombian, Raizal, and Palenque o e hnic g oups.
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Table A3: Desc ip i e S a is ics o Co a ia es in he 2016 School Manage Selec ion
P ocess
Va iable Obs. Mean S d. De . Min. Max.
Female 20,007 0.447 0.497 0 1
E hnic g oup 20,007 0.057 0.232 0 1
Age 20,007 42.6 7.846 18 67
Ru ali y 20,007 0.12 0.325 0 1
Mul idimensional po e y index
1s qua ile 20,007 0.478 0.500 0 1
2nd qua ile 20,007 0.184 0.387 0 1
3 d qua ile 20,007 0.200 0.400 0 1
4 h qua ile 20,007 0.138 0.345 0 1
Risk o ic imiza ion index
Low 20,007 0.254 0.435 0 1
Medium-Low 20,007 0.439 0.496 0 1
Medium 20,007 0.188 0.391 0 1
Medium-High 20,007 0.089 0.285 0 1
High 20,007 0.029 0.169 0 1
Highes le el o educa ion
High School/Technician 20,007 0.001 0.032 0 1
No mal School 20,007 0.004 0.067 0 1
Bachelo ’s/Unde g adua e 20,007 0.250 0.433 0 1
Specializa ion 20,007 0.409 0.492 0 1
Pos g adua e 20,007 0.336 0.472 0 1
STEM P og am 20,007 0.445 0.497 0 1
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Table A4: Desc ip i e S a is ics o Co a ia es in he 2018 PDET School Manage
Selec ion P ocess
Va iable Obs. Mean S d. De . Min. Max.
Female 8,767 0.375 0.484 0 1
E hnic g oup 8,767 0.078 0.267 0 1
Age 8,767 41.5 8.353 19 68
Ru ali y 8,767 0.13 0.336 0 1
Mul idimensional po e y index
1s qua ile 8,767 0.435 0.496 0 1
2nd qua ile 8,767 0.178 0.382 0 1
3 d qua ile 8,767 0.215 0.411 0 1
4 h qua ile 8,767 0.172 0.377 0 1
Risk o ic imiza ion index
Low 8,767 0.145 0.352 0 1
Medium-low 8,767 0.424 0.494 0 1
Medium 8,767 0.228 0.42 0 1
Medium-High 8,767 0.146 0.353 0 1
High 8,767 0.057 0.233 0 1
Highes le el o educa ion
High School/Technician 8,767 0.005 0.073 0 1
No mal School 8,767 0.019 0.135 0 1
Bachelo ’s/Associa e’s 8,767 0.408 0.491 0 1
Specializa ion 8,767 0.293 0.455 0 1
Pos g adua e 8,767 0.275 0.447 0 1
STEM P og am 8,767 0.493 0.500 0 1
Figu e 4: Sco e Dis ibu ion by Basic Tes Componen and Gende
0
.005
.01
.015
.02
.025
Densi y
0 20 40 60 80 100
Nume ic componen sco e
Male Female
0
.01
.02
.03
Densi y
0 20 40 60 80 100
Ve bal componen sco e
Male Female
0
.01
.02
.03
.04
Densi y
0 20 40 60 80 100
Pedagogical componen sco e
Male Female
0
.01
.02
.03
.04
.05
Densi y
0 20 40 60 80
Func ional componen sco e
Male Female
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Figu e 5: T ends in Sabe 11 Tes Resul s by Gende
240
245
250
255
260
265
Global Sco e
2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
Yea
Female
Male
49
50
51
52
53
Ma h Sco e
2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
Yea
Female
Male
Figu e 6: Resul s by Gende on Sabe 11 and Sabe PRO Tes s
46 48 50 52 54
Male Female
Ma h sco e pe cen ile
Sabe 11 - 2022
46 48 50 52 54
Male Female
Global sco e pe cen ile
Sabe 11 - 2022
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Figu e 7: Resul s by Gende in Sabe 11 and Sabe PRO Tes s in he Field o Educa ion
40 45 50 55
Male Female
Quan . sco e pe cen ile
A ea: Educa ion | Sabe PRO - 2022
40 45 50 55
Male Female
Global sco e pe cen ile
A ea: Educa ion | Sabe PRO - 2022
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Table A5: Tes Resul s and P obabili y o Passing S ages in he 2016 Selec ion P ocess
Basic es componen s App o al p obabili y
Basic es Psycho- echnical Ve . o min.
sco e es sco e Nume ic Ve bal Pedagogical Func ional Basic es equi emen s
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
Female -0.325*** 0.025* -0.513*** -0.051*** -0.021 -0.185*** -0.009*** -0.007***
(0.013) (0.014) (0.013) (0.014) (0.014) (0.014) (0.001) (0.001)
E hnic g oup -0.160*** -0.002 -0.077** -0.136*** -0.168*** -0.094*** 0.001 0.001
(0.031) (0.034) (0.030) (0.032) (0.033) (0.034) (0.003) (0.003)
Age -0.023*** 0.002** -0.024*** -0.021*** -0.014*** -0.004*** -0.001*** -0.000***
(0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.000) (0.000)
Ru ali y 0.100*** -0.097*** 0.118*** 0.086*** 0.065*** 0.008 0.000 -0.000
(0.022) (0.024) (0.021) (0.022) (0.023) (0.023) (0.002) (0.002)
Mul idimensional Po e y Index
2nd Qua ile -0.134*** 0.018 -0.123*** -0.151*** -0.104*** -0.012 -0.002 0.000
(0.018) (0.020) (0.017) (0.019) (0.019) (0.019) (0.002) (0.002)
3 d Qua ile -0.296*** -0.018 -0.172*** -0.304*** -0.227*** -0.155*** -0.006*** -0.003*
(0.018) (0.020) (0.018) (0.019) (0.020) (0.020) (0.002) (0.002)
4 h Qua ile -0.343*** 0.016 -0.259*** -0.369*** -0.244*** -0.115*** -0.005* -0.003
(0.024) (0.026) (0.023) (0.024) (0.025) (0.025) (0.003) (0.002)
Vic imiza ion Risk Index
Medium-Low 0.008 0.038** -0.029* 0.037** 0.020 0.011 0.002 0.002
(0.016) (0.018) (0.016) (0.017) (0.017) (0.017) (0.002) (0.001)
Medium -0.034* -0.012 -0.000 -0.029 -0.064*** -0.018 0.002 0.002
(0.020) (0.022) (0.019) (0.021) (0.021) (0.021) (0.002) (0.002)
Medium-High -0.035 0.022 -0.022 -0.024 -0.050* -0.009 0.001 0.002
(0.028) (0.031) (0.027) (0.029) (0.030) (0.030) (0.003) (0.002)
High -0.074* 0.107** -0.110*** -0.040 -0.074* 0.017 -0.001 0.002
(0.041) (0.046) (0.040) (0.043) (0.044) (0.045) (0.005) (0.004)
Fo mal educa ion
No mal School 0.685*** 0.120 0.488** 0.364 0.580** 0.486** 0.010 -0.001
(0.224) (0.247) (0.219) (0.233) (0.238) (0.242) (0.025) (0.020)
Bachelo ’s/Unde g adua e 0.633*** 0.208 0.348* 0.497** 0.507** 0.458** 0.004 0.003
(0.203) (0.223) (0.198) (0.211) (0.215) (0.219) (0.022) (0.018)
Specializa ion 0.893*** 0.293 0.522*** 0.657*** 0.664*** 0.682*** 0.005 0.004
(0.203) (0.223) (0.198) (0.211) (0.215) (0.219) (0.022) (0.018)
Pos g adua e 1.295*** 0.412* 0.823*** 0.977*** 0.980*** 0.885*** 0.018 0.012
(0.203) (0.223) (0.198) (0.211) (0.215) (0.219) (0.022) (0.018)
STEM P og am 0.153*** -0.009 0.448*** -0.022 -0.047*** -0.067*** 0.007*** 0.005***
(0.013) (0.014) (0.013) (0.014) (0.014) (0.014) (0.001) (0.001)
Cons an 0.228 -0.426* 0.563*** 0.357* 0.009 -0.333 0.024 0.016
(0.207) (0.227) (0.201) (0.215) (0.219) (0.223) (0.023) (0.018)
Obse a ions 20,007 20,007 20,007 20,007 20,007 20,007 20,007 20,007
R-Squa ed 0.18 0.01 0.22 0.11 0.08 0.04 0.01 0.01
No e: Obse a ions include all indi iduals who pa icipa ed in he a ious es s o he compe i ion. Columns 1 and 2 show s anda dized sco es o he basic es and he psycho-
echnical es . The componen s o he basic es —nume ical, e bal, pedagogical knowledge, and unc ional knowledge—a e p esen ed in columns 3 o 6 and a e also s anda dized.
Columns 7 and 8 display he p obabili y o passing each s age o he compe i ion. ∗p<0.10,∗∗ p<0.05,∗∗∗ p<0.01.
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