I anusch, Ch is oph
A icle — Published Ve sion
Whe e do pa ies alk abou wha ? Pa y issue salience
ac oss communica ion channels
Wes Eu opean Poli ics
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
WZB Be lin Social Science Cen e
Sugges ed Ci a ion: I anusch, Ch is oph (2025) : Whe e do pa ies alk abou wha ? Pa y issue
salience ac oss communica ion channels, Wes Eu opean Poli ics, ISSN 1743-9655, Taylo & F ancis,
London, Vol. 48, Iss. 3, pp. 618-644,
h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/01402382.2024.2322234
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Wes eu opean poli ics
2025, Vol. 48, no. 3, 618–644
Whe e do pa ies alk abou wha ? Pa y issue
salience ac oss communica ion channels
Ch is oph I anusch
cen e o ci il socie y esea ch, WZB Be lin social science cen e , Be lin, Ge many
ABSTRACT
Poli ical pa ies add ess he public h ough mul iple communica ion channels
simul aneously, bu his is no e lec ed in con empo a y esea ch. I is la gely
unclea how pa y compe i ion plays ou ac oss di e en communica ion chan-
nels and whe he issue salience s a egies depend on he channel used. In
o de o answe his ques ion, his a icle ains a s a e-o - he-a language
model (BERT) on labelled mani es os and applies i o c oss-domain opic clas-
si ica ion o p ess eleases, pa liamen a y speeches and wee s om pa ies
and indi idual pa y membe s in Aus ia, Ge many and Swi ze land. The esul s
show ha ce ain channel cha ac e is ics in luence pa ies’ issue salience. The
ex en o which a pa y add esses i s issue p e e ences (ideal agenda) is mod-
e a ed by he deg ee o cen alised communica ion (pa y s. indi iduals) and
he p esence o absence o a p e-gi en agenda, whe eas a channel’s
p ima y audience (di ec s. media ed channel) plays a much smalle ole han
expec ed. These indings illus a e he complexi y o pa y compe i ion in
con empo a y mul i-channel and hyb id media en i onmen s.
KEYWORDS Pa y compe i ion; issue salience; communica ion channels; c oss-domain opic
classi ica ion
Wha poli ical pa ies alk abou is a cen al ques ion in poli ical sci-
ence. Which issues a e discussed de ines he locus o poli ical con lic
(e.g. G een-Pede sen and Walg a e 2014), in luences o ing decisions
(e.g. Al a ez and Nagle 1995) and shapes public discou se as well as
dynamics o pa y compe i ion (e.g. G een-Pede sen 2007). A la ge body
o esea ch examines poli ical pa ies’ issue salience s a egies and he
e ec s o such s a egies on how ( ep esen a i e) democ acies unc ion.
Exis ing s udies co e se e al di e en pa y communica ion channels,
such as mani es os (e.g. G een-Pede sen 2007; Guinaudeau and Pe sico
2014), p ess eleases (e.g. Gessle and Hunge 2022; Hopmann e al.
2012), pa liamen a y speeches (e.g. Debus and Tosun 2021; Quinn e al.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/01402382.2024.2322234
© 2024 he au ho (s). published by in o ma uK limi ed, ading as aylo & F ancis G oup
CONTACT ch is oph i anusch ch is oph.i [email protected]
supplemen al da a o his a icle can be accessed online a h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/01402382.20
24.2322234.
his is an open access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he c ea i e commons a ibu ion license (h p://
c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/), which pe mi s un es ic ed use, dis ibu ion, and ep oduc ion in any
medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed. he e ms on which his a icle has been published allow he
pos ing o he accep ed Manusc ip in a eposi o y by he au ho (s) o wi h hei consen .
WEST EuRoPEAn PolITICS 619
2010) o social media (e.g. Ba be á e al. 2019; Gila di, Gessle ,
e al. 2022).
These s udies o e mul iple aluable insigh s, bu one c ucial aspec
has la gely no ye been e lec ed. Poli ical communica ion is a apidly
changing ield wi h new (digi al) channels de eloping cons an ly. Thus,
dynamics o poli ical communica ion and pa y compe i ion a e no longe
es ic ed o pa icula channels. Poli ical ac o s use he e e -g owing
numbe o channels o communica e policies and connec wi h di e en
audiences and social g oups. Hence, pa y compe i ion akes place wi hin
and (po en ially) ac oss mul iple enues simul aneously, wi h po en ial
implica ions o public discou se, o ing beha iou and democ a ic ep e-
sen a ion. Mos exis ing esea ch, howe e , exclusi ely s udies one pa ic-
ula communica ion channel in isola ion. Compa a i e esea ch is a e
and limi ed o speci ic (sho ) ime pe iods, such as du ing elec ion cam-
paigns (Elmelund-P æs ekæ 2011; G een and Hobol 2008; No is e al.
1999; T esch e al. 2018). I emains la gely unclea o wha ex en and
– mos impo an ly – why pa ies adap hei beha iou acco ding o di -
e en communica ion channels. Do pa ies’ issue salience s a egies change
depending on he channel used? I so, why?
Exis ing compa a i e esea ch does o e some insigh s, bu signi ican
gaps emain. While No is e al. (1999), Elmelund-P æs ekæ (2011) and
T esch e al. (2018) ind di e ences in issue salience ac oss mul iple
channels, his is no he case o G een and Hobol (2008). C ucially, we
s ill lack a cohe en heo e ical amewo k o de ec he p ecise ac o s
ha in luence pa ies’ issue salience s a egies in di e en channels
(Elmelund-P æs ekæ 2011). G asping how pa ies use di e en channels
is key o unde s anding he dynamics o pa y compe i ion in he
apidly changing poli ical communica ion en i onmen o con empo a y
democ acies.
This a icle con ibu es o he li e a u e by s udying he ex en o which
pa ies’ issue salience changes depending on he communica ion channel
and why. I a gue ha issue salience is in luenced by he cha ac e is ics o
communica ion channels. Mo e speci ically, depending on he channel,
pa ies ocus on hei issue p e e ences (ideal agenda) o di e en deg ees.
Th ee ac o s should be impo an .
Fi s , pa ies each di e en audiences h ough a ious communica ion
channels. While media ed channels a e p ima ily aimed a jou nalis s (e.g.
p ess eleases), o he s allow pa ies o connec di ec ly wi h he public
(e.g. social media). Second, pa y communica ion can be cen alised in
he hands o he pa y leade ship and cen al o ice (e.g. o icial pa y
p ess eleases o social media pos s om pa y accoun s) o decen alised
(e.g. social media pos s om indi idual pa y membe s). Thi d,
620 C. IVAnuSCH
communica ion in some channels is s uc u ed by some so o p e-gi en
s uc u e o agenda (e.g. legisla i e agenda). The e o e, I di e en ia e
p e-s uc u ed (e.g. pa liamen a y speeches) and non-p e-s uc u ed com-
munica ion channels (e.g. wee s, p ess eleases). I expec hese h ee ac-
o s o mode a e he in luence o pa y p e e ences on issue salience in
he espec i e communica ion channels.
Me hodologically, I use an ad anced ex -as-da a echnique o analyse
a b oad ange o ex s p oduced by poli ical pa ies. I ain a
ans o me -based model (BERT) on labelled mani es os and apply i
c oss-domain o classi y p ess eleases, pa liamen a y speeches and wee s
om pa ies and indi idual pa y membe s in o issue ca ego ies. The
s udy co e s he cases o Aus ia, Ge many and Swi ze land be ween
Janua y 2019 and Sep embe 2021. O e all, he da a se consis s o mo e
han 41,000 pa liamen a y speeches and 34,000 p ess eleases, nea ly
72,000 wee s om pa y accoun s and mo e han 420,000 wee s om
indi idual pa y membe s.
The empi ical esul s show ha poli ical pa ies’ issue salience is in lu-
enced by he communica ion channel. I obse e di e en issue agendas in
each examined channel and ind e idence ha salience is mode a ed by
speci ic channel cha ac e is ics. Pa y p e e ences ha e a g ea e in luence
on issue salience in cen alised communica ion channels, bu play a
smalle ole in p e-s uc u ed channels. Bo h obse a ions ollow he he-
o e ical expec a ions. This is, howe e , no he case o media ed s. di ec
channels; he e, he esul s deli e no s a is ically signi ican di e ence.
These indings ha e se e al implica ions and unde sco e he impo -
ance o s udying di e en sou ces o pa y communica ion. Fi s o all,
his a icle shows ha a single, uni ied poli ical agenda does no exis .
Poli ical pa ies send di e en policy signals in di e en enues. This is
d i en by he na u e and cha ac e is ics o communica ion channels.
Fu he mo e, dynamics and pa e ns o pa y compe i ion – such as he
esponsi eness o public opinion o he le el o issue engagemen be ween
pa ies – may he e o e also shi depending on he channel. This can
esul in di e en public pe cep ions o he pa ies and he compe i ion
be ween he pa ies. In e es ingly, howe e , pa ies do no appea o adap
hei communica ion signi ican ly when he channel’s audience consis s
p ima ily o jou nalis s. A i s glance, his is a su p ising and coun e -
in ui i e inding, bu i ac ually i s hyb id media sys em heo y. In hyb id
media en i onmen s, jou nalis s inc easingly make use o al e na i e
sou ces o in o ma ion (e.g. social media) o lea n abou poli ical p o-
cesses (Chadwick 2017). Poli ical ac o s, in u n, adap hei beha iou o
his de elopmen and also add ess jou nalis s in di ec channels, such as
on X, o me ly Twi e . This mode n combina ion o mul i-channel and
WEST EuRoPEAn PolITICS 621
hyb id media en i onmen , which simul aneously leads o a seg ega ion
and blu ing o audiences, helps o explain why pa ies do no change
hei issue salience s a egies conside ably be ween media ed and di ec
channels.
In he ollowing, I will lay ou he heo e ical amewo k ha cap u es
he ac o s in luencing pa y issue salience in di e en communica ion
channels. Then, I will desc ibe he da a se and ex -as-da a app oach
used o s udy issue communica ion in di e se ypes o ex . Finally, I will
p esen he esul s and conclude wi h e lec ions on he b oade implica-
ions o he indings.
Theo e ical amewo k
Poli ical ac o s a e subjec o mul iple sou ces o in luence when i comes
o communica ion s a egies. Fo s udying pa ies’ issue salience ac oss
di e en communica ion channels, wo ac o s iden i ied by G een-Pede sen
and Walg a e (2014) a e especially ele an : p e e ences and ins i u ions.
Fi s , poli ical ac o s ha e ce ain p e e ences. In he case o pa ies –
he uni o analysis in his a icle – issue p e e ences mainly s em om
ideological and s a egic sou ces. On he one hand, pa ies ha e ce ain
issues ha a e closely connec ed o hei ideology. The issue o he en i-
onmen is, o example, a he co e o G een pa y ideology, while Social
Democ a ic pa ies ha e a s ong ideological in e es in labou and wel-
a e s a e issues. Thus, pa ies ha e ideologically d i en issue p e e ences.
On he o he hand, pa y p e e ences also esul om s a egic conside -
a ions ela ed o issue owne ship. Issue owne ship heo y sugges s ha
pa ies ‘own’ ce ain issues, ei he because hey a e associa ed wi h he
issue by he public o a e ega ded as he mos compe en on i (Walg a e
e al. 2012). I he public sees a pa icula pa y as ‘be e able’ o handle
a speci ic issue han o he pa ies, ha pa y has owne ship o ha issue
(Pe ocik 1996). Thus, issue owne ship schola s a gue ha ‘owning’ an
issue b ings ad an ages in pa y compe i ion.
Pa ies he e o e y o aise he salience o issues ideologically o s a e-
gically impo an o hem, while a oiding a di ec issue-con lic wi h o he
pa ies (Budge 2015; Budge and Fa lie 1983). This leads o a compe i ion
o e he poli ical agenda (Ca mines and S imson 1993; G een-Pede sen
2007). Based on such ideological and s a egic p e e ences, pa ies de elop
a so-called ideal agenda and y o push i in he poli ical deba e. The ideal
agenda e lec s he impo ance o indi idual issues o a pa y and is bes
e lec ed in pa y mani es os (Budge e al. 1987; No is e al. 1999).
Second, poli ical ac o s ope a e wi hin a ious ins i u ions, whose ules
shape he amoun o a en ion he ac o s can pay o an issue (G een-Pede sen
622 C. IVAnuSCH
and Walg a e 2014). Hence, ins i u ions can be in e p e ed as s uc u es,
which in luence pa y beha iou in issue communica ion. Ins i u ions ake
mul iple o ms, and he de ini ion o wha cons i u es an ins i u ion is
s ongly con es ed. One o he mos in luen ial concep ualisa ions a gues
ha ins i u ions consis o o mal as well as in o mal ules, anging om
cons i u ional o de s o simple con en ions (Hall and Taylo 1996). Following
om his de ini ion, many di e en enues whe e poli ical p ocesses ake
place can be desc ibed as ins i u ions. This also applies o poli ical pa ies’
communica ion channels. These a e enues whe ein o ins umen s wi h
which poli ical pa ies and hei membe s hemsel es communica e and
discuss policies. I unde s and all channels ha shape he public p o ile o
pa ies, anging om p ess eleases published by cen al o ices o pa lia-
men a y speeches and social media pos s by indi idual pa y membe s, as
pa y communica ion channels.
While esea ch has long ocused on mani es os and p ess eleases,
ecen wo k also poin s ou and acknowledges he impo ance o o he
communica ion sou ces. Fo example, in e es in social media is g owing,
speci ically how bo h pa ies and indi idual poli icians use i , how i
ans o ms he ela ionship be ween pa ies and hei membe s (e.g. MPs)
as well as how i a ec s agenda se ing dynamics (e.g. Gila di, Gessle ,
e al. 2022; Pee e s e al. 2019; Säl ze 2022; Sil a and P oksch 2022).
Fu he mo e, an inc easing numbe o s udies also inds ha pa liamen-
a y speeches a e ano he c ucial a enue o pa ies and hei MPs o
send policy signals (e.g. Debus and Tosun 2021; I anusch 2023; P oksch
and Slapin 2015). These s udies show ha se e al communica ion chan-
nels ha e become impo an ools o pa ies when i comes o issue com-
munica ion. Howe e , he di e en channels also possess dis inguishing
cha ac e is ics, ules and con en ions ha po en ially in luence poli ical
pa ies’ communica ion p o iles (e.g. Dalmus e al. 2017; Elmelund-
P æs ekæ 2011; T esch e al. 2018). Thus, di e en communica ion chan-
nels can be iewed as ins i u ions ha c ea e a s uc u e go e ning he
issue communica ion o pa ies and hei membe s. I he e o e expec
pa y issue salience o be in luenced by he communica ion channel and
i s cha ac e is ics.
As men ioned abo e, pa ies usually aim o communica e hei issue
p e e ences, i.e. ideal agenda. Howe e , communica ion channels and hei
cha ac e is ics p o ide s uc u es ha should mode a e he amoun poli -
ical pa ies ocus on issue p e e ences. Wha a e hese channel cha ac e -
is ics and how do he a ious channels in luence pa y beha iou ?
Two ele an cha ac e is ics can be iden i ied in he li e a u e, namely
he ype o audience and he deg ee o con ol a pa y can exe o e a
gi en channel (Dalmus e al. 2017; Elmelund-P æs ekæ 2011). These
WEST EuRoPEAn PolITICS 623
heo e ical conside a ions o e a s ong ounda ion. Some adap a ions a e,
howe e , needed. The amewo k se o h in he ollowing di e en ia es
h ee cha ac e is ics and pos ula es co esponding hypo heses (H1–H3).
Figu e 1 illus a es hese hypo heses g aphically.
The i s hypo hesis ela es o he di e ing audiences add essed by
each communica ion channel. Ce ain channels allow pa ies o indi idual
poli icians o add ess he public and hei ollowe s di ec ly, especially
social media (Pee e s e al. 2019; Popa e al. 2020). In such di ec chan-
nels, pa ies can ac ( ela i ely) eely and I he e o e expec hem o
communica e s ongly acco ding o hei issue p e e ences. In con as ,
p ess eleases a e a media ed communica ion channel. They a e p ima ily
aimed a jou nalis s and a ely each he b oade public di ec ly (Dalmus
e al. 2017). The e o e, pa ies ha e o conside he needs and in e es s o
jou nalis s in p ess eleases. This applies no only o o mal c i e ia bu
also o he selec ion o issues add essed wi hin a p ess elease. Jou nalis s
a e, o example, s ongly in e es ed in issues ha a e al eady salien in
he media and among o he impo an ac o s. In con as , issues ‘owned’
by a pa y do no ha e a high news alue (Dalmus e al. 2017; Meye
e al. 2020). Hence, I hypo hesise ha pa ies do no ocus solely on hei
issue p e e ences bu on a b oade se o issues in media ed communica-
ion channels in o de o mee he in e es s and needs o jou nalis s.
Hypo hesis 1 (H1): In media ed channels, issue p e e ences (ideal agenda)
ha e a smalle in luence on issue salience han in di ec channels.
The second hypo hesis is based upon communica ion channels a ying
in he deg ee o cen alisa ion. In cen alised channels, messages a e sen
Figu e 1. Fac o s expec ed o in luence pa y issue salience in di e en communica-
ion channels (H1–H3).
624 C. IVAnuSCH
by he pa y leade ship o by he cen al o ice o a leas ha e o pass
h ough one o bo h o hem. He e, he cen al and na ional o ganisa ion
uni – he pa y in cen al o ice (Ka z and Mai 1995) – has igh con ol
o e issue communica ion. In o he channels his is no he case as indi-
idual pa y membe s communica e hemsel es. Examples o such decen-
alised communica ion channels include social media accoun s o
indi idual poli icians. The deg ee o cen alisa ion he eby has implica-
ions o a pa y’s issue communica ion on he whole as well as o i s
public p o ile, leading o an inc easing esea ch in e es , pa icula ly since
he ad en o social media. The e o e, he ac ual in luence o cen alised
and decen alised communica ion channels on he p o ile o a pa y and
i s issue agenda is an impo an opic.
Acco ding o Sil a and P oksch (2022), communica ion by indi idual
pa y membe s (i.e. decen alised communica ion) may se e wo pu poses.
On he one hand, decen alised communica ion can ampli y cen al pa y
messages, since indi idual poli icians (pa icula ly in sys ems wi h s ong
pa ies) ha e s ong incen i es o ollow he pa y line (e.g. Kam 2009;
Siebe e 2006) and pa ies simul aneously y o en o ce uni y (e.g. P oksch
and Slapin 2015). On he o he hand, decen alised communica ion can
se e as a subs i u e o cen al pa y communica ion channels and ep e-
sen an a enue o send a a ie y o policy signals (Sil a and P oksch 2022).
I a gue ha h ee ac o s a e impo an he e. Fi s , s a egic communi-
ca ion acco ding o issue p e e ences equi es coo dina ion. Cen alised
communica ion in he hands o he cen al pa y o ice allows o be e
coo dina ion and communica ion close o he pa y line and issue p e -
e ences. Second, pa ies a e in i m con ol in cen alised channels, while
decen alisa ion allows indi idual membe s o po en ially ci cum en pa -
isan cons ains and push hei own p e e ences (Enli and Skoge bø 2013;
Sil a and P oksch 2022). Thi d, decen alised communica ion may also
p o ide an incen i e o pa ies o expand hei appeal by ocusing on a
b oade se o issues. Thus, decen alised channels may also be a s a egic
ool o ocus less on issue p e e ences bu on a a ie y o issues. Based
on hese conside a ions, I expec he communica ion o poli ical pa ies
o be mo e in line wi h issue p e e ences when communica ion is cen-
alised han when i is decen alised.
Hypo hesis 2 (H2): Highe deg ees o cen alised communica ion wi hin a
channel lead o a s onge in luence o issue p e e ences (ideal agenda) on
issue salience.
The hi d hypo hesis deals wi h a channel’s deg ee o p e-s uc u edness
and he in luence he eo on issue communica ion. In highly p e-s uc u ed
channels, he opical ocus is p e-gi en o a ce ain ex en , and pa ies
WEST EuRoPEAn PolITICS 625
only ha e limi ed con ol o e issue selec ion. Hence, issue communica-
ion is p e-s uc u ed. Examples o such an en i onmen a e pa liamen-
a y deba es. Pa liamen a y deba es a e one o he mos impo an a enas
o poli ical communica ion and a key ool o pa ies o send policy sig-
nals in pa y compe i ion (P oksch and Slapin 2015). This also applies o
he issues discussed in pa liamen a y speeches, as ecen esea ch inds
ha pa ies and hei MPs use speeches o ad ance hei issue p e e ences
(Debus and Tosun 2021; I anusch 2023). Howe e , pa liamen a y
speech-making is also subs an ially in luenced by he legisla i e agenda.
Mos o he ime, bills o speci ic opics a e deba ed in pa liamen
(P oksch and Slapin 2015). Ce ain issues a e gi en om he s a ; hese
in u n s uc u e issue communica ion du ing pa liamen a y deba es. This
is he p ocess ha is encompassed by he concep o p e-s uc u edness.
Such an en i onmen makes i mo e di icul o pa ies and hei mem-
be s o communica e acco ding o hei ideal agenda. Mo eo e , pa ies
may ha e di e en oppo uni y s uc u es o in luence he p e-s uc u edness
o a channel. Fo example, pa isan con ol o e he legisla i e agenda
o en p o ides go e nmen pa ies wi h mo e in luence o e he issues
discussed in pa liamen a y deba es han opposi ion pa ies (Cox and
McCubbins 2005; Dö ing 1995).
These dynamics show ha impo an pa y communica ion channels,
such as pa liamen a y speeches, a e subjec o e y speci ic ins i u ional
con ex s. In hese channels, issue communica ion is signi ican ly
p e-s uc u ed, es ic ing pa ies when i comes o discussing hei issue
p e e ences. Thus, al hough ecen esea ch shows ha pa ies ind a leas
some oom o ocus on hei issue p e e ences in p e-s uc u ed channels
(e.g. pa liamen a y speeches), I s ill expec issue p e e ences o be much
less e lec ed he e han in o he communica ion channels.
Hypo hesis 3 (H3): Highe deg ees o p e-s uc u ed communica ion wi hin
a channel lead o a smalle in luence o issue p e e ences (ideal agenda) on
issue salience.
Case selec ion
Fo he analysis, I d aw on a da a se comp ising a a ie y o ex s p o-
duced by poli ical pa ies in Aus ia, Ge many and Swi ze land be ween
Janua y 2019 and Sep embe 2021. I ely on his case selec ion o h ee
main easons.
Fi s , he selec ed coun ies ep esen ypical Wes e n Eu opean
mul i-pa y sys ems while s ill allowing o con ol o po en ial a ia ions
s emming om di e en elec o al sys ems and poli ical cul u es (e.g.
go e nmen -opposi ion dynamics). While Ge many uses a mixed elec o al
632 C. IVAnuSCH
egula basis. The same canno be said o mani es os, which a e gene ally
nego ia ed a leng h inside pa ies and only published ahead o elec ions.
Con e sely, issues ha a e compa a i ely impo an in mani es os (e.g.
‘labou ’, ‘wel a e s a e’) ecei e signi ican ly less a en ion in he o he
channels. P ess eleases, pa liamen a y speeches and wee s om pa y
accoun s o indi idual pa y membe s, howe e , also show clea di e -
ences be ween hem. While ‘Eu opean Union’ ecei es compa a i ely
g ea e a en ion in p ess eleases and wee s om pa y accoun s, pa lia-
men a y speeches show a ela i ely s ong ocus on ‘equali y’ and ‘ o eign
a ai s’. Simila ly, ‘ag icul u e’ is compa a i ely salien in pa liamen a y
speeches and p ess eleases, bu no in wee s. Hence, we can clea ly
obse e di e en issue agendas ac oss pa y communica ion channels,
lending u he suppo o pas indings (Elmelund-P æs ekæ 2011;
No is e al. 1999; T esch e al. 2018).
In he nex s ep, he analysis ocuses on how di e en communica ion
channel cha ac e is ics a ec issue salience. Th ough he di e en samples
in oduced ea lie , I compa e channels ha a e simila on a numbe o
dimensions excep he speci ic cha ac e is ic unde in es iga ion in o de
o isola e he e ec o a pa icula channel cha ac e is ic. Acco ding o
hypo heses H1–H3, he in luence o pa y p e e ences (ideal agenda) on
issue salience wi hin a communica ion channel should be mode a ed by
he speci ic channel cha ac e is ics. As discussed ea lie , he issue p e e -
ences o pa ies (ideal agenda) a e ep esen ed by he a iable mani es o
salience in he models.
Figu e 2. issue salience ac oss communica ion channels compa ed o mani es os.
WEST EuRoPEAn PolITICS 633
Table 3 displays eg ession esul s ha measu e he mode a ing e ec
o channel cha ac e is ics on he in luence o mani es o salience.14 The
i s model compa es wee s om pa y accoun s (di ec ) and p ess
eleases (media ed), bu i does no ind any s a is ically signi ican di e -
ences be ween hem, as indica ed by he in e ac ion e m. The e o e, H1
canno be suppo ed based on his inding. This con adic s a common
a gumen in he li e a u e. Exis ing esea ch a gues ha media ed chan-
nels, such as p ess eleases, a e ailo ed o he needs and in e es s o jou -
nalis s, who a e usually in e es ed in issues ha a e al eady salien in he
media and among o he impo an ac o s, bu no so much in he com-
munica ion o issue p e e ences (i.e. ‘owned’ issues). This is he case
because he la e o e no hing ‘new’ and he e o e do no ha e a high
news alue (Dalmus e al. 2017; Meye e al. 2020).
Al hough su p ising a i s sigh , he lack o di e ence be ween di ec
and media ed channel i s well wi h hyb id media sys em heo y. In
hyb id media en i onmen s, ac o s simul aneously use ‘olde ’ and ‘newe ’
logics in p oducing, dis ibu ing and consuming news and poli ical in o -
ma ion (Chadwick 2017). Jou nalis s nowadays ely no only on adi-
ional sou ces o in o ma ion (e.g. p ess eleases), bu le e age al e na i e
sou ces (e.g. social media) as well. Poli ical ac o s, in u n, adap o his
Table 3. in luence o communica ion channel cha ac e is ics on pa y issue salience.
Dependen a iable: issue salience
Model 1 Model 2 Model 3
Mani es o salience 0.549*** 0.386*** 0.399***
(0.033) (0.028) (0.032)
Media ed 0.289
(0.305)
Mani es o salience: media ed −0.055
(0.041)
cen alised −0.701***
(0.254)
Mani es o salience: cen alised 0.133***
(0.034)
p e-s uc u ed 0.623**
(0.287)
Mani es o salience: p e-s uc u ed −0.118***
(0.038)
Qua e s since las elec ion −0.000 −0.000 0.000
(0.017) (0.015) (0.015)
coun y Fes Yes Yes Yes
pa y Fes Yes Yes Yes
issue Fes Yes Yes Yes
Qua e Fes Yes Yes Yes
20.452 0.562 0.466
adj. 20.448 0.559 0.462
num. obs. 6859 7106 6992
no e: s anda d e o s a e in pa en heses.
***p < .01; **p < .05; *p < .1.
634 C. IVAnuSCH
new logic and now also add ess jou nalis s h ough di ec channels (e.g.
Twi e aka X). Fu he mo e, he ime and pe sonnel equi ed o d a
social media pos s is compa a i ely small. Pa ies can he e o e discuss a
b oade se o issues and s ic p io i isa ion acco ding o he ideal
agenda may no be highly ele an on many social media pla o ms.
The e o e, hyb id media en i onmen s and he low cos s o p oducing
social media con en can explain he lack o di e ence be ween di ec
and media ed channels obse ed in his s udy.
The second eg ession model e alua es he in luence o cen alised
communica ion on pa ies’ issue salience. Al hough decen alised commu-
nica ion a guably can se e as an ampli ie o cen al pa y messages, H2
s ill expec s ha pa y p e e ences ha e a g ea e in luence on issue
salience in cen alised channels han in decen alised ones. This should be
he case as cen alisa ion allows be e coo dina ion and i m con ol o
con en by he pa y o ice. Fu he mo e, decen alised communica ion
may also p o ide an incen i e o pa ies and hei membe s o expand
hei appeal by ocusing on a b oade o di e en se o issues. The e o e,
communica ion along he ideal agenda should be mo e p e alen in cen-
alised channels han in decen alised ones. In he model, I compa e
(cen alised) wee s om pa y accoun s wi h (decen alised) wee s om
indi idual pa y membe s. The esul s indeed show a s onge e ec o
mani es o salience in he cen alised channel (see in e ac ion e m). The
e ec is s a is ically signi ican and H2 can he e o e be suppo ed.
The hi d model in es iga es whe he p e-s uc u ed channels nega-
i ely a ec he in luence o pa y p e e ences on issue salience. The
model compa es pa liamen a y speeches (p e-s uc u ed) wi h p ess
eleases (no p e-s uc u ed). The in e ac ion e m indica es ha he ideal
agenda (i.e. mani es o salience) has a signi ican ly smalle e ec on issue
salience in p e-s uc u ed channels. This inding con i ms he expec a-
ions pos ula ed in H3. P e-gi en agendas (e.g. legisla i e agenda in pa -
liamen a y speeches) o ce pa ies o ocus on a speci ic se o issues and
limi hei oom o manoeu e. This nega i ely in luences he abili y o
poli ical pa ies o communica e acco ding o hei issue p e e ences.
Figu e 3 shows he p edic ed in luence o communica ion channel
cha ac e is ics on pa y issue salience. The indi idual plo s illus a e he
s a is ically signi ican di e ence in issue salience esul ing om cen-
alised and p e-s uc u ed channels, bu no om media ed ones.
Fu he mo e, I conduc se e al obus ness checks and addi ional anal-
yses con olling o po en ial e ec s caused by pa y-le el ac o s (e.g.
go e nmen pa icipa ion, mains eam/niche pa y s a us) and con ex ual
ac o s (e.g. elec ion campaigns, Co id-19 pandemic). Fi s , Online
Appendix A.9 shows ha he main esul s a e compa a i ely s able o all
WEST EuRoPEAn PolITICS 635
h ee coun ies unde in es iga ion, al hough some di e ences do exis .
Simila o he main model, I ind suppo o H2 and H3 in he case o
Swi ze land, while o Aus ia all h ee hypo heses a e suppo ed, and in
he case o Ge many only H2 inds empi ical suppo .
Second, Online Appendix A.10 ocuses on po en ial di e ences be ween
go e nmen and opposi ion pa ies. In gene al, his analysis inds simila
e ec s o he main in e ac ion e ec s o in e es o bo h ypes o pa ies.
Howe e , issue p e e ences (i.e. mani es o salience) a e mo e s ongly
e lec ed in he communica ion o opposi ion pa ies in gene al, as hey
a e (p obably) less obliged o espond o a b oad se o issues han pa ies
in go e nmen . A he same ime, howe e , opposi ion pa ies a e mo e
s ongly cons ained by media ed and p e-s uc u ed channels (see nega-
i e e ec s in in e ac ion e ms). Pa icula ly he la e inding is no su -
p ising, as go e nmen pa ies ha e mo e con ol o e he legisla i e
agenda han opposi ion pa ies. Thus, I do ind some di e ences be ween
pa ies caused by hei espec i e (legisla i e) agenda se ing powe .
Thi d, Online Appendix A.11 gi es a compa ison o mains eam and
niche pa ies. He e, I ind simila e ec s as hose o he compa ison
be ween go e nmen and opposi ion pa ies. In gene al, niche pa ies
s ick mo e closely o hei issue p e e ences han mains eam pa ies, bu
a e a he same ime mo e s ongly a ec ed by p e-s uc u ed channels,
such as he legisla i e agenda in pa liamen a y speeches.
Fou h, Online Appendices A.12 and A.13 show how I con ol o
po en ial di e ences be ween ‘ ou ine imes’ o poli ics and campaign
pe iods as well as o po en ial e ec s caused by he Co id-19 pandemic.
Figu e 3. p edic ed in luence o communica ion channel cha ac e is ics on pa y issue
salience.
636 C. IVAnuSCH
In bo h cases, I ind no sys ema ic e ec s on he analysis caused by cam-
paigns o he Co id-19 pandemic. The only excep ion is a s a is ically
signi ican e ec o he in e ac ion e m be ween he a iables mani es o
salience and media ed be o e he ou b eak o he Co id-19 pandemic and
du ing pe iods wi h compa a i ely low p oblem p essu e, while his is no
he case du ing pe iods wi h compa a i ely high p oblem p essu e caused
by he Co id-19 pandemic. Thus, he null inding o he i s hypo hesis
migh be due no only o changing poli ical communica ion and media
en i onmen s (e.g. hyb id media en i onmen s) bu also he in luence o
he Co id-19 pandemic on pa y compe i ion.
Finally, I con ol o po en ial issue-speci ic e ec s ollowing a jack-kni e
logic (see Online Appendix A.14). He e, I calcula e he main eg ession
analysis epo ed in he pape bu exclude each issue ca ego y om he
analysis once. Again, he esul s emain la gely s able ac oss he di e en
models. Thus, he esul s do no appea o be ela ed o issue-speci ic
e ec s o de e io a ed esul s o speci ic issues caused by he ex analysis.
Discussion and conclusion
Poli ical pa ies use an e e -g owing amoun o communica ion channels
simul aneously. These channels di e on a numbe o dimensions. Each
channel gi es access o di e en audiences, and each one has i s own
ules and con en ions. These cha ac e is ics po en ially a ec he con en
o poli ical communica ion and he dynamics o pa y compe i ion in
many ways. Mos exis ing esea ch has, howe e , me ely analysed single
communica ion channels in isola ion. Dynamics o pa y compe i ion
wi hin and ac oss mul iple channels ha e la gely been a blind spo in he
li e a u e. In his a icle, I ha e aken a s ep owa ds closing his esea ch
gap by compa ing p ess eleases, pa liamen a y speeches, wee s om
pa y accoun s and wee s om indi idual pa y membe s. The a icle
he eby con ibu es o he li e a u e in h ee ways.
Fi s , he a icle de elops and es s a heo e ical amewo k ha cap-
u es he ac o s in luencing pa y issue salience in di e en channels. I
expec he main audience (di ec s. media ed channels), he deg ee o
cen alisa ion (pa y s. indi idual membe s) and he deg ee o
p e-s uc u edness (p esence s. absence o p e-gi en agenda) o mode a e
he in luence o pa y issue p e e ences (ideal agenda) on issue salience
wi hin a channel. The esul s con i m a s onge ocus on pa y p e e -
ences in cen alised channels han in decen alised ones (H2). Thus,
decen alised communica ion (e.g. wee s om indi idual pa y membe s)
is no simply an ampli ica ion o cen al pa y messages. In ac , decen-
alised communica ion wi h he ela ed coo dina ion challenges as well as
he lack o con ol by he pa y leade ship and cen al o ice make
WEST EuRoPEAn PolITICS 637
adhe ence o he ideal agenda mo e di icul . Fu he mo e, decen alised
communica ion may e en incen i ise pa ies and hei membe s o de i-
a e om he ideal agenda and send di e gen policy signals. The analysis
also shows ha he p e-s uc u edness o a channel has nega i e e ec s
on pa ies’ abili y o communica e acco ding o issue p e e ences, con-
i ming he hi d hypo hesis. Thus, al hough pa ies a e indeed able o
send policy signals in p e-s uc u ed channels, such as pa liamen a y
speeches, his is mo e limi ed compa ed o o he channels, such as p ess
eleases. Howe e , he cons aining ac o is he eby much s onge o
opposi ion and niche pa ies han o go e nmen and mains eam pa ies.
Con a y o hese indings, I obse e no s a is ically signi ican di e -
ences be ween media ed and di ec channels (H1). This esul poin s o
he exis ence and ele ance o so-called hyb id media en i onmen s. In
hyb id media en i onmen s, jou nalis s inc easingly use al e na i e sou ces
o in o ma ion (e.g. social media), and poli ical ac o s adap o his new
logic, leading o a blu ing o di ec and media ed channels. Fu he mo e,
he Co id-19 pandemic may ha e in luenced pa y communica ion in his
ega d, as an addi ional obus ness check has shown.
Second, he esul s add dep h o indings om p e ious s udies and se
he s age o po en ial u u e esea ch. The a icle shows ha mul iple poli i-
cal agendas exis in pa allel and can e en o igina e om he same ac o . On
he one hand, his suppo s and s eng hens p e ious indings and, on he
o he hand, highligh s he need o esea ch o ocus mo e s ongly on he
he e ogenei y o poli ical agendas as well as hei e ec s wi hin poli ical sys-
ems. Mode n mul i-channel poli ical communica ion and agenda se ing
po en ially ha e nume ous he e ogeneous e ec s on di e en publics, poli ical
ac o s and ins i u ions. The e o e, i is c ucial o di e e en deepe in o hese
p ocesses and hei e ec s on a ious democ a ic p ocesses. Fu he mo e, he
esul s illus a e ha schola s should ca e ully conside he choice o pa y
communica ion channel in hei esea ch. I can be p oblema ic o simply
selec a channel and assume ha i ep esen s pa y policy wi hou conside -
ing he implica ions o ha choice. Pa icula ly in con empo a y agmen ed
and high-choice poli ical communica ion en i onmen s, i may no be use ul
o pa ies o limi hemsel es o a single ideal agenda. Di e en social g oups
ha e di e en p e e ences and his may incen i ise pa ies o adjus hei
issue agendas o b oaden hei (elec o al) appeal. Thus, pa ies may ailo
hei messages and issue agendas o i di e en communica ion channels and
he a ious social g oups ha can be eached h ough hem. The e o e, a
heo y-d i en selec ion o communica ion channels is impe a i e o esea ch
on pa y compe i ion and poli ical communica ion.
Thi d, he a icle uses an ad anced ex -as-da a app oach o iden i y
issues in a di e se se o documen s. The applica ion o he
638 C. IVAnuSCH
ans o me -based model BERT o c oss-domain opic classi ica ion
allows mul iple di e en ypes o ex o be s udied in a cohe en and
e icien way. C oss-domain lea ning is a compa a i ely esou ce-e icien
and p omising echnique wi h a ious po en ial use cases in poli ical sci-
ence, such as he acking o issue a en ion a di e en s ages o he
poli ical p ocess (i.e. in mani es os, coali ion ag eemen s).
O e all, his a icle has shown ha pa ies’ issue salience is in luenced
by communica ion channels and hei cha ac e is ics. Unde s anding his
beha iou is c ucial o keep up wi h dynamics o pa y compe i ion in an
e e - agmen ing in o ma ion and poli ical communica ion en i onmen .
Al hough his a icle ook a i s s ep in o his di ec ion, mo e wo k is
necessa y. This a icle has been limi ed o p ess eleases, pa liamen a y
speeches and wee s. Tes ing he p oposed heo e ical amewo k on o he
channels (e.g. Facebook, pa y newsle e s, pa y websi es) would add
aluable in o ma ion and igou . This may be pa icula ly ele an o
a ious ypes o social media. In his s udy, I ha e elied on wee s as a
social media channel. Howe e , each social media pla o m has di e en
ypes o audiences and ollows i s own logics, po en ially in luencing he
beha iou o poli ical ac o s. Al hough X (Twi e a he ime o da a
collec ion) is widely used by bo h poli ical ac o s and o he s, i s audience
is compa a i ely ‘eli is ’ in Ge man-speaking coun ies. Facebook o
Ins ag am, in con as , each a b oade audience. Thus, in es iga ing di -
e ences be ween social media channels migh unco e u he in e es ing
pa e ns. Addi ionally, i would be c ucial o di e deepe in o he causal
mechanisms behind he mode a ing in luence o communica ion channels
on pa y communica ion. This a icle maps ou di e ences in pa y agen-
das ac oss a ious communica ion channels and how his ela es o ce -
ain channel cha ac e is ics. T acing he exac causal mechanisms behind
hese dynamics is beyond he scope o his a icle, bu u u e esea ch
should ocus on how exac ly channel cha ac e is ics in luence he commu-
nica ion o poli ical ac o s. Fo example, po en ial u u e esea ch should
in es iga e which indi idual pa y membe s a e mos likely o de ia e
om he pa y agenda o unde which ci cums ances he p e-s uc u edness
o a channel cons ains poli ical ac o s in hei communica ion.
Fu u e esea ch should also expand o add u he coun y cases. This
a icle ocuses on ypical Wes e n Eu opean mul i-pa y sys ems. Simila
s udies o o he ypes o pa y and elec o al sys ems as well as media
sys ems would ce ainly deepen ou knowledge abou pa y compe i ion
ac oss a wide ange o poli ical communica ion en i onmen s. Fo exam-
ple, di e en elec o al sys ems (e.g. weakly o s ongly pe sonalised elec-
o al sys ems) may p o ide mo e o less incen i es o ampli y o blu
cen al pa y messages in decen alised channels. Meanwhile, he ype o
WEST EuRoPEAn PolITICS 639
go e nmen (e.g. single-pa y majo i y, coali ion) o he ules o p oce-
du e wi hin pa liamen s may in luence he ex en o which di e en go -
e nmen and opposi ion pa ies a e cons ained by he legisla i e agenda
in pa liamen a y speeches.
Finally, esea ch on he e ec s o issue salience o poli ical p ocesses
and ep esen a ion ac oss di e en channels is equi ed. A e he e di e -
ences wi h ega d o agenda se ing dynamics and success be ween di e -
en channels? In es iga ing such ques ions would add aluable insigh s on
dynamics o pa y compe i ion and poli ical ep esen a ion in he apidly
changing poli ical communica ion en i onmen o con empo a y
democ acies.
No es
1. In he case o Swi ze land, I only include ex s in Ge man.
2. Some p ess eleases a e d a ed by pa y o ices, bu many a e d a ed by
indi idual pa y membe s (e.g. MPs). Howe e , he pa y o ice emains
impo an . E en i p ess eleases a e d a ed by indi idual pa y membe s,
he p ess eam o he pa y o pa liamen a y pa y g oup publishes hem
and is o en gi en as con ac o co espondence. Hence, p ess eleases a e
some so o hyb id communica ion channel wi h ega d o he cha ac e -
is ic o cen alisa ion and a e he e o e assigned he alue o 0.5. Simila ly,
pa liamen a y speeches a e assigned he alue o 0.5. Al hough pa liamen-
a y speeches a e held by indi idual MPs, in many coun ies pa liamen a y
pa y g oup leade s a e in i m con ol o e he selec ion o speake s in
legisla i e deba es (e.g. P oksch and Slapin 2015).
3. The Twi e da a se only includes o iginal wee s. Simila o Ba be á e al.
(2019) and Gila di, Gessle , e al. (2022), I exclude eplies and e wee s.
4. A mo e de ailed desc ip ion o he co pus and i s p ope ies is p o ided in
Online Appendix A.1. Fu he in o ma ion on he included Twi e accoun s
om indi idual pa y membe s is desc ibed in Online Appendix A.2.
5. The adap ed codebook used in his a icle is displayed in Online Appendix A.3.
6. The p e- ained model is a ailable ia he HuggingFace py hon lib a y
(Wol e al. 2020).
7. A de ailed s ep-by-s ep explana ion o he c oss-domain applica ion wi h
he BERT model is p o ided in Online Appendix A.4.
8. In o ma ion on he manually coded ‘gold s anda d’ is a ailable in Online
Appendix A.5. The ‘gold s anda d’ consis s o manually labelled p ess e-
leases, pa liamen a y speeches and wee s om pa y accoun s.
9. A mo e de ailed b eakdown o he model pe o mance is gi en in Online
Appendices A.6 and A.7.
10. Osnab ügge e al. (2021), o example, also use anno a ed mani es os om
he Mani es o P ojec as aining da a o hei classi ica ion model. Thei
model achie es an accu acy o 41% (44 ca ego ies) and 51% (8 ca ego ies)
in a c oss-domain opic classi ica ion o pa liamen a y speeches om New
Zealand.
640 C. IVAnuSCH
11. Pa liamen a y speeches a e o example no held e e y single mon h.
Pa liamen s usually ha e a summe b eak and o he longe b eaks spanning
mul iple weeks, especially in he case o Swi ze land.
12. As no ed ea lie , p ess eleases a e a special case wi h ega d o he cha -
ac e is ic o cen alisa ion. Some p ess eleases a e d a ed by pa y o ices,
bu many a e d a ed by indi idual pa y membe s (e.g. MPs) as well. In
bo h cases, howe e , he p ess eam o he pa y o pa liamen a y pa y
g oup is impo an as hey publish he p ess eleases and a e o en gi en as
con ac o co espondence.
13. Online Appendix A.8 p o ides he o e all pe cen o issue salience in
mani es os, pa liamen a y speeches, p ess eleases, wee s om pa y ac-
coun s and wee s om indi idual pa y membe s ac oss all h ee coun ies
and pa ies.
14. To accoun o po en ial biases esul ing om limi ed da a, I exclude hose
obse a ions when a pa y has published less han 10 p ess eleases, wee s
o pa liamen a y speeches du ing a qua e .
Acknowledgemen s
I wish o hank he edi o and he anonymous e iewe s o hei aluable com-
men s and guidance. I am also e y g a e ul o Heiko Gieble , Pola Lehmann,
Ch is o e G een-Pede sen, Ch is ian Czyma a, Lisa Zehn e and he pa icipan s
a he ECPR Gene al Con e ence 2022 in Innsb uck o help ul commen s on
ea lie e sions o his a icle, as well as Tobias Bu s o his g ea inpu ega ding
he me hodological app oach. Fu he mo e, I am g a e ul o Juliane Hanel, Sa ah
Hegazy and Leonie Schwich enbe g o hei an as ic esea ch suppo .
Disclosu e s a emen
No po en ial con lic o in e es was epo ed by he au ho (s).
Funding
This wo k was suppo ed by he WZB Be lin Social Science Cen e; he Eu opean
Union’s Ho izon 2020 Resea ch & Inno a ion Ac ion unde g an ag eemen no. 951832;
and he Ge man Resea ch Founda ion (DFG) unde g an ag eemen WE 1974/7-4.
No es on con ibu o
Ch is oph I anusch is a esea ch ellow in he Mani es o Resea ch P ojec on
Poli ical Rep esen a ion (MARPOR) and he H2020 p ojec ‘OPTED Obse a o y
o Poli ical Tex s in Eu opean Democ acies’ a he WZB Be lin Social Science
Cen e. Fu he mo e, he is a doc o al s uden in poli ical science a he Be lin
G adua e School o Social Sciences (BGSS), Humbold -Uni e si ä zu Be lin. His
esea ch in e es s include poli ical pa ies, pa y compe i ion, poli ical communi-
ca ion and ex -as-da a. [ch is oph.i [email protected]]
WEST EuRoPEAn PolITICS 641
ORCID
Ch is oph I anusch h p://o cid.o g/0000-0002-9313-2007
Da a a ailabili y s a emen
Replica ion ma e ial o his s udy is openly a ailable in Ha a d Da a e se a
h ps://doi.o g/10.7910/DVN/JNQUOD.
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