Le man, Michael; Ju, Huiqing; Nikolae , Bo is N.
A icle
Towa d a coping-in-combina ion app oach: The bene i s o
combining coping s a egies o pu pose in li e o he sel -
employed
BRQ Business Resea ch Qua e ly
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Asociación Cien í ica de Economía y Di ección de Emp esas (ACEDE), Mad id
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Le man, Michael; Ju, Huiqing; Nikolae , Bo is N. (2025) : Towa d a coping-in-
combina ion app oach: The bene i s o combining coping s a egies o pu pose in li e o he sel -
employed, BRQ Business Resea ch Qua e ly, ISSN 2340-9444, Sage Publishing, London, Vol. 28, Iss.
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In oduc ion
Coping . . . is cha ac e ized by change. One migh a i s
engage in a oidan o denial-like s a egies o wa d o he
signi icance o an e en , hen decide o deal head-on wi h he
p oblem; o . . . a pe son migh cope by a oiding con ac wi h
o he s bu a li le la e seek emo ional suppo om a iend.
-Susan Folkman and Richa d Laza us
Pu pose in li e (he ea e PIL), which e e s o a “cen al,
sel -o ganizing li e aim,” is a c i ical aspec o human lou -
ishing (McKnigh & Kashdan, 2009, p. 242; Ry & Singe ,
1998). As a co e aim and aspi a ion o li e, PIL gi es a
cohe en meaning o ou ac ions (F ankl, 1959; Geo ge &
Pa k, 2013; Ma ela & S ege , 2016). Fo his eason, PIL is
conside ed he “exis en ial co e o eudaimonic well-being,”
wi h i s oo s deeply embedded in human quali ies unda-
men al o exis ence (Ry , 2019, p. 649).
PIL has s a ed o ecei e a en ion as an essen ial well-
being a iable o he sel -employed (e.g., Dwye e al.,
2023) because, as a sel -de e mined ca ee choice, sel -
employmen is likely conduci e o gene a ing pu pose and
meaning (Nikolae e al., 2022). Fo example, s udies ha e
ound ha he sel -employed pe cei e a highe le el o
meaning and pu pose a wo k han he employed (e.g.,
Nikolo a e al., 2023; S ephan e al., 2020). G owing e i-
dence u he sugges s ha pu pose and meaning a e associ-
a ed wi h a ange o impo an ou comes o he sel -employed
o en ep eneu s in gene al, such as subjec i e i ali y
(S ephan e al., 2020), job sa is ac ion (B iege e al., 2021),
and hedonic well-being (Nikolae e al., 2020).
The e o e, unde s anding how business owne s may
de elop PIL ia sel -employmen is o cen al impo ance
Towa d a coping-in-combina ion app oach:
The bene i s o combining coping s a egies
o pu pose in li e o he sel -employed
Michael Le man1, Huiqing Ju1 and Bo is Nikolae 2
Abs ac
The sel -employmen coping li e a u e ypically ea s coping s a egies sepa a ely. In con as o his app oach, we
in oduce a con ol pe spec i e o examine he e ec s o combining coping s a egies on a highly salien well-being
ou come o he sel -employed: pu pose in li e. D awing on he Midli e in he Uni ed S a es (MIDUS) da ase (N = 693),
mode a ion analysis e eals ha pe sis ence and posi i e eapp aisal mi iga e he nega i e e ec o lowe ing aspi a ions
on pu pose in li e. In obus ness es s, we ind consis en esul s ac oss simila well-being indica o s. Ou e idence
highligh s he need o s udy speci ic coping s a egies in andem and p o ides a mo e nuanced pe spec i e on he
di e en ial e ec s o bo h p ima y (i.e., pe sis ence) and seconda y (i.e., posi i e eapp aisal and lowe ing aspi a ions)
coping s a egies.
JEL CLASSIFICATION: I - Heal h, Educa ion, and Wel a e
Keywo ds
Eudaimonic well-being, Pu pose in li e, PIL, p ima y and seconda y con ol, psychological unc ioning, sel -employmen
1Iowa S a e Uni e si y, Ames, IA, USA
2College o Business, Colo ado S a e Uni e si y, Fo Collins, CO, USA
Co esponding au ho :
Michael Le man, Iowa S a e Uni e si y, 2167 Union D ., Ames, IA
50011, USA.
Email: [email p o ec ed]
1297996BRQ0010.1177/23409444241297996Business Resea ch Qua e lyLe man e al.
esea ch-a icle2024
Special Issue: En ep eneu ship and
Well-Being: Resea ch P og ess and Challenges Ahead
Le man e al. 601
o heo y and p ac ice. Ye , ou unde s anding o he ac-
o s con ibu ing o he cul i a ion o pu pose and meaning
in sel -employmen is qui e limi ed. Cla i ying he ac o s
con ibu ing o PIL is in ellec ually in iguing because
sel -employmen p esen s clea pa hways o PIL, e en as i
seemingly p oduces ba ie s o PIL. On one hand, sel -
employmen is inhe en ly a sel -d i en p ocess ha g an s
eedom and au onomy o pa e one’s own pa h, which can
uel he sea ch o meaning and pu pose (Dik e al., 2015;
Nikolae e al., 2022; S ephan e al., 2020; W zesniewski
& Du on, 2001). On he o he hand, sel -employmen ea-
u es highly axing ci cums ances ull o unce ain y,
ambigui y, se backs, loneliness, and excessi e wo kload,
which migh hinde he o ma ion and de elopmen o pu -
pose (S ephan e al., 2023). Ye empi ical e idence sug-
ges s ha he sel -employed pe cei e a s onge sense o
pu pose and meaning han he employed despi e hese
challenges (S ephan e al., 2020). How is i ha some sel -
employed de elop high PIL despi e inhe en ly challenging
occupa ional con ex s?
Li e a u e on PIL sugges s one answe could ela e o
how en ep eneu s cope wi h ad e se ci cums ances.
Indeed, he pu sui o pu pose is a delibe a e and e o ul
p ocess ha elies hea ily on pe sonal agency (McKnigh
& Kashdan, 2009). The eme gence and de elopmen o
PIL is no a sudden occu ence; ins ead, i in ol es a cog-
ni i e p ocess o con inuously di ec ing and con ibu ing
physical and men al ene gies o a se o objec i es (Wa ,
2018). The sea ch o pu pose is shaped by a complex
in e wining o indi idual’s in e nal psychological p o-
cessing and ex e nal ac ions in esponse o en i onmen al
demands (Ca e & Whi e, 1994; Valle and e al., 1987).
The e o e, o achie e PIL in he sel -employmen con ex ,
indi iduals need o u ilize di e se coping s a egies o deal
wi h he di e se se o demands hey ace (Le man e al.,
2021; S -Jean & T emblay, 2023).
Psychological li e a u e sugges s ha coping is a mul i-
ace ed and dynamic p ocess whe e indi iduals equen ly
employ a ious s a egies simul aneously in esponse o
s esso s (Folkman & Laza us, 1980; Folkman &
Moskowi z, 2004). Howe e , exis ing li e a u e p edomi-
nan ly ocuses on independen e ec s o coping s a egies
(e.g., p oblem- s. emo ion- ocused coping), which we
e m a coping-as-al e na i es app oach. Gi en sel -
employmen ’s highly unce ain and dynamic na u e, and
he impo ance o bo h in e nal and ex e nal coping p o-
cesses o acili a ing PIL, we posi ha combining coping
s a egies is bo h likely and necessa y while ope a ing a
business (Co ne e al., 2017; Eage e al., 2019; Pa zel &
Shephe d, 2011; Schmodde & Wehne , 2024; Singh e al.,
2007) and o he de elopmen o PIL. Thus, we posi ha
u ilizing a coping-in-combina ion app oach and explo ing
coping endencies in andem, such as examining in e ac-
i e e ec s, help de elop a cohesi e amewo k o s udy-
ing PIL.
We d aw on he con ol pe spec i e o coping o de elop
ou coping-in-combina ion app oach o sel -employed
PIL.1 The con ol pe spec i e o coping is one o he p i-
ma y heo e ical o mula ions ha desc ibe human ac ions
owa d hei en i onmen (Skinne e al., 2003). I empha-
sizes u ilizing pe sonal agency o enhance he pe cei ed
con ollabili y o he en i onmen (Heckhausen & Schulz,
1995; Ro hbaum e al., 1982). Fu he mo e, i a gues ha
coping is a p ocess consis ing o bo h p ima y con ol,
which aims a al e ing he en i onmen o i onesel (i.e.,
pe sis ence in goal s i ing), and seconda y con ol, which
aims a adap ing onesel o sui he en i onmen (i.e., posi-
i e eapp aisal, lowe ing aspi a ions) (W osch e al.,
2000). PIL is closely associa ed wi h exe ing meaning ul
con ol o e ou beha io s and cul i a ing a sense o con-
ol o e he en i onmen (McKnigh & Kashdan, 2009)
and likewise equi es bo h in e nal and ex e nal adap a-
ions o e ec i ely cope (Ca e & Whi e, 1994; Valle and
e al., 1987). The e o e, he con ol pe spec i e o coping
p o ides an ideal angle o in es iga e he PIL o he
sel -employed.
U ilizing a coping-in-combina ion app oach, we
explo e he in e ac ion e ec s o di e en combina ions o
con ol-o ien ed coping s a egies on PIL. We a gue ha
di e en coping s a egies will exe independen e ec s
on PIL, some posi i e and o he s nega i e, ye he com-
bined e ec s in oduce mo e nuance. Speci ically, we
de elop heo e ical a gumen s o accen ua ing and mi i-
ga ing e ec s o coping beha io s when used in combina-
ion. To es ou heo y, we use Wa e 2 and Wa e 3 da a
om he Midli e in he Uni ed S a es S udy (Ry e al.,
2012).
Ou s udy ad ances heo y in wo ways. Fi s , we exam-
ine he psychological mechanisms ha d i e PIL in sel -
employmen . We ad ance s udies ha ha e begun
analyzing PIL as a c i ical a iable o in e es in o ganiza-
ional li e a u e and en ep eneu ship (Ca , 1997; Ry ,
2019; S ause e al., 2008) by s udying how he sel -
employed can achie e a g ea e PIL h ough coping.
Second, le e aging a coping-in-combina ion app oach, we
de elop heo y on he in e ac ion e ec s o coping s a e-
gies on PIL, poin ing owa d a new a ea o u u e esea ch.
O e all, ou in es iga ion helps build a mo e holis ic iew
o coping and PIL o he sel -employed.
Theo y
Pu pose in li e
PIL is “a cen al, sel -o ganizing li e aim ha o ganizes
and s imula es goals, manages beha io s, and p o ides a
sense o meaning” (McKnigh & Kashdan, 2009, p. 242).
Pu pose guides ou beha io jus as a compass o e s di ec-
ion (Klinge , 1977). Cen e ing on he p edominan heme
o li e, PIL enables indi iduals o di ec cogni i e and
602 Business Resea ch Qua e ly 28(3)
beha io al esou ces o p og ess owa d goals and p o ide
cohe en meaning o hese ac ions (McKnigh & Kashdan,
2009). PIL p o ides ela i ely s able li e na a i es ha
esona e ac oss con ex s and se es as a mo i a ional
d i e h oughou he li espan (Reke e al., 1987).
De elopmen s ac oss disciplines ha e ound PIL o be
essen ial o indi idual ou comes, such as iden i y o ma-
ion, li e expec ancy, wo k and li e sa is ac ion, and men al
and physical heal h (I ing e al., 2017; King & Hicks,
2021). Speci ically, in ela ion o wellness, when pe cei -
ing a clea PIL, indi iduals a e likely o expe ience be e
memo y, cogni ion, mood, and mind ulness (Ry e al.,
2016; Su in e al., 2022b; Woo e al., 2020). On he con-
a y, when he e is a lack o PIL, indi iduals a e inclined
o expe ience exis en ial us a ion, which leads o pa ho-
logical condi ions (F ankl, 1959; Zika & Chambe lain,
1992), such as dep ession, bo edom, loneliness, and anxi-
e y (e.g., Bigle e al., 2001; Fahlman e al., 2009; Ha low
e al., 1986; Su in e al., 2022a). Undeniably, PIL cons i-
u es he “exis en ial co e o eudaimonic well-being”
(Ry , 2019, p. 649). As such, PIL p o ides aluable
insigh s when explo ing he p esence o absence o well-
being s. ill-being (S ephan e al., 2023).
Acco dingly, g owing e idence sugges s ha pu pose
and meaning a e closely ied o psychological cons uc s
ha in luence en ep eneu ial beha io and d i e i m pe -
o mance. Fo ins ance, pu pose can acili a e inspi a ion
(Soui a is e al., 2007) and passion (Smilo , 1997). In addi-
ion, pu pose and meaning a e associa ed wi h a ious
cons uc s ela ed o he sel , such as ole iden i y (Ca don
e al., 2009) and sel - ealiza ion (G ego i e al., 2021).
Pu pose is also ela ed o p osocial mo i a ion (Kim e al.,
2019) and en ep eneu ial in en ion (Xiang & Zhang,
2022).
Despi e i s many bene i s, PIL has ecei ed ela i ely
li le a en ion in he s udy o sel -employmen . Ex an
s udies mainly conside PIL as a dimension in eudaimonic
well-being (e.g., Nikolae e al., 2022), ocus on i s psy-
chological consequences (e.g., S ephan e al., 2020), o
emphasize i s ole in en ep eneu ial pu sui s based on
non-economic p io i ies (e.g., Dwye e al., 2023; Muñoz
e al., 2018). Ye , we know li le abou he psychological
mechanisms he sel -employed use o de elop PIL.
Wi hou a clea unde s anding o i s an eceden s, we can
no de elop a holis ic iew o PIL in sel -employmen .
The e o e, i is essen ial o in es iga e he psychological
p ocesses leading o PIL in he sel -employmen con ex .
Sel -employmen and coping: coping-as-
al e na i es s coping-in-combina ion
The li e a u e shows ha coping is c i ical in managing he
ad e si y inhe en o sel -employmen (Ha mann e al.,
2022; S ephan, 2018). Coping, de ined as “ hough s and
beha io s ha people use o manage he in e nal
and ex e nal demands o si ua ions ha a e app aised as
s ess ul” (Folkman & Moskowi z, 2004, p. 745), has
aken on many o ms and ca ego ies in he en ep eneu -
ship li e a u e, including p oblem- s. emo ion- ocused
coping (e.g., D no šek e al., 2010; Pa zel & Shephe d,
2011), ac i e s. a oidance coping (e.g., Uy e al., 2013),
humani a ian coping (e.g., Schon eld & Mazzola, 2015),
esou ce-induced coping (e.g., Lani ich, 2015), es o a i e
coping (e.g., Williams & Shephe d, 2016), u u e-o ien ed
coping (e.g., Eage e al., 2019), esilience-o ien ed/build-
ing coping (e.g., Pé ez-López e al., 2019), and e ec ual
s. causal coping (e.g., Liu, 2020). While he e is wide-
sp ead ag eemen on he impo ance o coping and bu -
geoning in e es in his opic, he e is no consensus on how
o bes ca ego ize he my iad coping s a egies, and he
indings ega ding coping e ec i eness a e mixed (Eage
e al., 2019).
To da e, mos sel -employmen coping li e a u e has
u ilized a coping-as-al e na i es pe spec i e, in es iga ing
he independen e ec s o coping s a egies sepa a ely. In
gene al, p e ious s udies sugges ha coping s a egies
di ec ly dealing wi h he p oblem a e e ec i e in add ess-
ing s esso s, such as ole expec a ions (Ö q is e al.,
2007), wo k- amily con lic (Jennings & McDougald,
2007), and business ailu e (By ne & Shephe d, 2015;
Singh e al., 2007), and hus can p omo e well-being and
enhance en u e pe o mance (D no šek e al., 2010;
Kleine-S egemann e al., 2024; Ö q is e al., 2007; Pa el
e al., 2019; Pa zel & Shephe d, 2011). On he con a y,
indings ega ding he e ec s o coping s a egies aimed
owa d managing emo ions a e mixed. Some s udies ind
hem e ec i e in educing nega i e emo ions (By ne &
Shephe d, 2015; Pa zel & Shephe d, 2011) o imp o ing
i m pe o mance (Ö q is e al., 2007), while o he s ind
no e ec on allos a ic load (Pa el e al., 2019), well-being,
o i m pe o mance (D no šek e al., 2010).
This app oach has led o a gene al unde s anding ha
p oblem- ocused coping is ideal, whe eas emo ion- ocused
coping is no —howe e , in e ms o unde s anding PIL, his
assump ion may no hold ue. As a sup ao dina e goal man-
age , de eloping PIL ia sel -employmen has jus as much
o do wi h coping psychologically wi hin onesel as i has o
do wi h hands on coping. In ac , one could a gue ha he
g ea es challenge o pu suing a business is no he ex e nal
demands hemsel es bu he en ep eneu ’s abili y o suc-
cess ully manage hei in e nal mo i a ion o main ain esil-
ience in he ace o hose demands and ul ima ely o e come
hem. In o he wo ds, i is he combina ion o managing one-
sel and managing ex e nal en i onmen s ha ul ima ely
allows he sel -employed o cope success ully.
The e o e, we see a p omising oppo uni y o ad ance
he con e sa ion on en ep eneu ’s coping and on PIL by
adop ing a coping-in-combina ion app oach. Indeed, se -
e al s udies o he sel -employed p o ide ini ial e idence
o he u ili y o his pe spec i e (Eage e al., 2019). Fo
Le man e al. 603
ins ance, in a quali a i e s udy o en ep eneu ial business
ailu e, Singh and colleagues (2007) ind ha he sel -
employed use bo h p oblem- and emo ion- ocused coping
in lea ning and eco e ing om ailu e. Simila ly, Co ne
and colleagues (2017) ind ha di e en coping s a egies
can help p omo e emo ional and psychological unc ioning
a e expe iencing business ailu e. In addi ion, Shephe d
and Pa zel (2011) ind ha sel -employed use coping
s a egies o sol e p oblems and adjus emo ions simul a-
neously; bo h ypes o s a egies help educe nega i e
emo ions. These s udies p o ide empi ical e idence
ega ding he in eg a ion o di e en coping beha io s.
Using a quali a i e app oach, By ne and Shephe d (2015)
ound ha he sel -employed who used bo h p oblem- and
emo ion- ocused s a egies made mo e p og ess in making
sense o business ailu e han hose who used a single
app oach. Finally, Uy and colleagues (2013) ound ha
a oidance coping could bene i long- e m well-being i
accompanied by app oach-o ien ed coping.
Based on he heo e ical impo ance o mul iple o ms
o coping o de eloping PIL, as well as exis ing e idence
ha combining coping beha io s bene i s he sel -
employed, we posi ha a coping-in-combina ion app oach
is aluable o complemen ing exis ing coping-as-al e na-
i es li e a u e. As such, we now de elop heo izing con-
sis en wi h ou heo e ical model in Figu e 1.
Con ol pe spec i e in coping: independen
e ec s
The con ol pe spec i e o coping is an es ablished heo-
e ical o mula ion in psychological li e a u e ha empha-
sizes indi iduals’ basic mo i a ional endencies o exe
con ol o e he en i onmen (Heckhausen & Schulz,
1995; Skinne e al., 2003). The con ol pe spec i e o cop-
ing assumes ha coping in ol es an in e ac i e p ocess
consis ing o p ima y and seconda y con ol (W osch
e al., 2000), which makes i an e ec i e heo e ical
amewo k o explo e a coping-in-combina ion app oach.
P ima y con ol (e.g., pe sis ence in goal s i ing) e e s o
he indi idual’s “a emp s o change he wo ld so ha i i s
he sel ’s needs,” while seconda y con ol (e.g., posi i e
eapp aisal and lowe ing aspi a ions) e e s o he indi id-
ual’s “a emp s o i in wi h he wo ld,” bu bo h se e he
same pu pose o de eloping a sense o con ol o enhance
well-being (Ro hbaum e al., 1982, p. 8).
We examine one p ima y con ol s a egy in his s udy,
pe sis ence in goal s i ing, which e e s o ac i e engage-
men and sus ained e o s owa d a icula ed goals e en
when encoun e ing se backs and s esso s (W osch e al.,
2000, p. 388). We a gue ha pe sis ence in goal s i ing
will acili a e g ea e PIL o he sel -employed (Lewis,
2020). Kashdan and McKnigh (2009) sugges ha PIL
may be de eloped om a p oac i e pa hway, indica ing a
g adual o ma ion o PIL h ough he con inuous pu sui o
goals. Acco dingly, by acili a ing cons an engagemen
h ough pe sis ence and ensu ing consis en lea ning, he
sel -employed a e mo e likely o main ain a sense o mean-
ing and di ec ion (F ankl, 1959; Ry , 2019). Mo eo e , as
s a ed by Deci and Ryan (2000), s i ing o and achie ing
goals sa is ies basic psychological needs, while he expe i-
ence o pu pose and meaning is con ingen upon ul illing
hese needs (Baumeis e , 1991). Making p og ess owa d
goals leads o posi i e expe iences, which will also lead o
enhanced eelings o pu pose and meaning in li e (King
e al., 2006). Fo example, a es au a eu ying o expand
hei business o new loca ions migh ace challenges in
a ious aspec s, such as alloca ing unds, choosing loca-
ions, and ec ui ing s a . These challenges could limi
he en ep eneu ’s abili y o pu sue hei pu pose (e.g.,
sha ing hei culina y cul u al adi ions wi h as many
people as possible). A es au a eu u ilizing a pe sis en
goal-s i ing s a egy will ake a p oac i e app oach o
ackle he p oblems, such as sea ching o iable inanc-
ing op ions, collabo a ing wi h local businesses, and con-
duc ing igo ous esea ch. This e o ul engagemen can
Figu e 1. Concep ual model.
604 Business Resea ch Qua e ly 28(3)
make he es au a eu eel close o achie ing hei goals
and, he e o e, enhance pe cei ed PIL. Fo example, by
pe sis ing in o e coming challenges, he es au a eu may
eel hey a e acili a ing be e oppo uni ies o sha e hei
culina y cul u al adi ions. Taken oge he , e idence
shows ha pe sis en goal s i ing con ibu es o indi idu-
als’ sense o ision and di ec ion (McKnigh & Kashdan,
2009; Ry , 2019). The e o e, we sugges ha hose who
a e pe sis en owa d hei goals expe ience a g ea e
sense o meaning and di ec ion in hei li es.
Al e na i ely, we in es iga e he e ec s o wo second-
a y con ol s a egies—lowe ing aspi a ions and posi i e
eapp aisal—on he PIL o he sel -employed. We expec a
nega i e ela ionship be ween lowe ing aspi a ions and
PIL. Lowe ing aspi a ions in ol es main aining “ambi-
ions commensu a e wi h pe sonal esou ces and si ua-
ional cons ain s” when oppo uni ies become in easible
by lowe ing he desi abili y o goals in he ace o an ici-
pa ed o expe ienced ailu e (B and s äd e & Ro he mund,
1994, p. 266; Child & Whi ing, 1949). The p ocess o e-
e alua ing goals can lowe he well-being o he sel -
employed because i may be unclea wha he u u e holds
(W osch e al., 2000). While ul illing goals con ibu es o
ealizing pe sonal po en ial, lowe ing aspi a ions indica es
a ailu e in ul illing goals, hus nega i ely a ec ing PIL
(Ry , 1989, 2019; W osch e al., 2000). Fo example, a
es au a eu d i en by a pu pose o culina y inno a ion
may con on inancial p essu e due o ope a ing in a
highly compe i i e indus y. Suppose he es au a eu low-
e s hei aspi a ion, disengages om new menu de elop-
men , and se les wi h o e ing ypical ood (i.e., engaging
in less inno a ion, despi e i being a cen al pu pose o
hei en ep eneu ial e o s). In ha case, hey migh expe-
ience less inancial bu den bu may also expe ience a
dec ease in PIL due o no accomplishing hei goals.
Finally, we p opose ha posi i e eapp aisal can bene-
i PIL. Posi i e eapp aisal is cha ac e ized by e aming
nega i e pe cep ions o s esso s in a mo e posi i e ligh
(W osch e al., 2000). The eapp aisal o a nega i e si ua-
ion may become an oppo uni y o lea n and g ow, de el-
oping pu pose h ough a “ eac i e pa hway” (Kashdan &
McKnigh , 2009). The e o e, he sel -employed who use
his s a egy a e a guably be e able o app aise unce -
ain y as a challenge o be engaged wi h as opposed o a
h ea o be a oided (M. A. LePine, 2022; J. A. LePine
e al., 2005; Le man e al., 2021). In addi ion, posi i e
eapp aisal may allow he sel -employed o ind mo i a-
ion e en in he aspec s o sel -employmen ha many ind
mundane. Re u ning o he example o he es au a eu ,
conside a si ua ion when he es au a eu expe iences a
sudden loss o cus ome s ollowing nega i e online
e iews. The es au a eu engaging in posi i e eapp aisal
will conside he empo a y loss as an oppo uni y o
iden i ying exis ing p oblems and imp o ing cus ome
expe iences o long- e m gain. Posi i e eapp aisal can
allow he es au a eu o ea he ailu e as a lea ning
expe ience and os e g ea e PIL (e.g., a pu pose based on
sha ing hei culina y cul u al adi ions wi h as many peo-
ple as possible) despi e he se back. Taken oge he , we
p opose he ollowing hypo hesis:
Hypo hesis 1a: Pe sis ence in goal s i ing has a posi-
i e ela ionship wi h PIL.
Hypo hesis 1b: Lowe ing aspi a ion has a nega i e
ela ionship wi h PIL.
Hypo hesis 1c: Posi i e eapp aisal has a posi i e
ela ionship wi h PIL.
Coping-in-combina ion: accen ua ing e ec s
We expec pe sis ence in goal s i ing will s eng hen he
posi i e e ec o posi i e eapp aisal on PIL. Theo y sug-
ges s ha “hyb id de elopmen ” o pu pose may occu
h ough pe sis ence and posi i e eapp aisal o s esso s
(Kashdan & McKnigh , 2009). Fo example, when pe sis-
ence is high, indi iduals will pe sis owa d hei goals no
ma e he obs acles s anding in hei way. This indica es a
complemen a y, posi i e mind-se o hose who eapp aise
di icul si ua ions. Thus, high pe sis ence in goal s i ing
should inc ease he e ec o posi i e eapp aisal on PIL
because pe sis ence in ensi ies he posi i e men ali y o
hose who a e posi i ely eapp aising hei s esso s. In
o he wo ds, he sea ch o good, meaning, and di ec ion
b ough abou by posi i e eapp aisal is in ensi ied by high
le els o pe sis ence, esul ing in a highe le el o PIL.
Hypo hesis 2: The posi i e ela ionship be ween posi-
i e eapp aisal and PIL is mode a ed (s eng hened)
by pe sis ence in goal s i ing.
Coping-in-combina ion: mi iga ing e ec s
The goal engagemen li e a u e sugges s ha disengaging
om a goal o lowe ing aspi a ions can be de imen al o
well-being unless i is combined wi h ano he mechanism
o mi iga e he sense o loss and disappoin men
(Heckhausen e al., 2010; W osch e al., 2000). Schola s
sugges ha lowe ing aspi a ions se es a c i ical unc-
ional pu pose; namely, he disengagemen om u ile
goals o allow o a g ea e sense o con ol. Ye , schola s
ha e sugges ed ha an a enue owa d o e coming he
associa ed well-being loss ollowing goal disengagemen
is he addi ion o o he e ec i e coping s a egies, such as
pe sis ence owa d new goals (Aspinwall & Rich e , 1999;
Duke e al., 2002; Heckhausen e al., 2010). Along hese
lines, lowe ing aspi a ions acili a es a shi om an un ea-
sonable goal o a mo e ealis ic one. In u n, indi iduals
wi h high pe sis ence a e e ec i e in sel - egula ing hei
Le man e al. 605
mo i a ion o pu sue a new goal (W osch e al., 2000).
Con e sely, hose low in pe sis ence may exhibi low
mo i a ion o pu sue a new goal because o he demo al-
izing e ec o lowe ing one’s aspi a ions (B and s äd e &
Ro he mund, 1994; Ry , 2019; W osch e al., 2000).
Hypo hesis 3a: The nega i e e ec o lowe ing aspi a-
ions on PIL is mode a ed by pe sis ence in goal s i -
ing such ha he ela ionship becomes weake .
Finally, we expec ha high le els o eapp aisal can
mi iga e he nega i e ela ionship be ween lowe ing aspi-
a ions and PIL. Lowe ing aspi a ions ypically occu s
when a goal becomes in easible o an indi idual
(Aspinwall & Rich e , 1999; Babb e al., 2010; Ebne
e al., 2006; Heckhausen e al., 2010; W osch e al., 2000).
Howe e , indi iduals high on posi i e eapp aisal e ec-
i ely ede ine wha lowe ing aspi a ions means o hem
pe sonally, o hei en u e, and o hei goals, di ec ion,
and ision o he u u e. Con e sely, indi iduals low on
posi i e eapp aisal may adop nega i e mindse s a ound
why i was necessa y o lowe aspi a ions (e.g., “I am jus
no good enough”; “maybe an oppo uni y is no he e o
his business”). In ha sense, hose who posi i ely eap-
p aise he pe sonal meaning o lowe ing aspi a ions likely
exhibi g ea e PIL han hose who lowe aspi a ions wi h-
ou such eapp aisals.
Hypo hesis 3b: The nega i e e ec o lowe ing aspi a-
ions on PIL is mode a ed by posi i e eapp aisal such
ha he ela ionship becomes weake .
Me hods
Sample
To es ou hypo heses, we ga he ed da a om he Na ional
S udy o Midli e in he Uni ed S a es (MIDUS), a na ion-
ally ep esen a i e sample o adul s (ages 25–74 yea s)
unded by he Na ional Ins i u e on Aging (B im e al.,
2019; Radle & Ry , 2010). We pool da a o ou O dina y
Leas Squa es (OLS) eg ession om Wa e 2 (MIDUS II)
and Wa e 3 (MIDUS III).2 All da a we e collec ed wi h a
30-minu e phone in e iew, ollowed by wo sel - epo ed
ques ionnai es. Ou sample consis s o 540 unique indi-
iduals who iden i ied as sel -employed and comple ed a
leas one o he su eys (N = 434 in Wa e 2 and N = 259 in
Wa e 3). As his is a panel da ase , 153 indi iduals
appea ed in bo h wa es, esul ing in 306 obse a ions (153
in Wa e 2 and 153 in Wa e 3). The e we e 281 unique
indi iduals in Wa e 2 and 106 unique indi iduals in Wa e
3. In o al, he e we e 693 obse a ions ac oss he wo
wa es (281 + 106 + 306), which is e lec ed as a no e a
he bo om o each able (N = 693). The o al numbe o
obse a ions is highe han he numbe o unique indi idu-
als because some indi iduals appea in bo h wa es. All
pa icipan s we e pooled o ou main analysis—combin-
ing da a om all pa icipan s ac oss bo h wa es in o a sin-
gle da ase — ea ing each obse a ion as an independen
da a poin (Came on & T i edi, 2005). To accoun o his
dependence, we clus e ed he da a a ound indi iduals and
u he used andom-e ec s (RE) models in ou obus ness
es s (Came on & T i edi, 2005). Pa icipan s ecei ed
mone a y compensa ion anging om $20 o $60. The
a e age age o sel -employed people in ou sample was
56.15 (SD = 10.48). The ypical pa icipan epo ed ha ing
a leas 2 yea s o college educa ion, wi h a e age house-
hold income o $102,077 (SD = 81,776).
Measu es
Pu pose in li e. PIL was assessed wi h a se en-i em scale,
which is a componen o Ry ’s (1989) scale o psycho-
logical well-being. The scale consis s o se en i ems (e.g.,
“I ha e a sense o di ec ion and PIL.” “I enjoy making
plans o he u u e and wo king o make hem a eali y.”
“Some people wande aimlessly h ough li e, bu I am no
one o hem.”). Each i em was assessed on a se en-poin
scale anging om (1) “s ongly ag ee” o (7) “s ongly
disag ee.” The o e all scale was c ea ed summing each
se o se en i ems. The PIL scale has a easonably good
eliabili y in he o e all MIDUS da ase (Wa e 2 C on-
bach’s alpha = .70; Wa e 3 C onbach’s alpha = .72). Scale
i ems we e e e se coded as needed, and sco es we e con-
s uc ed by he MIDUS esea che s o cases wi h missing
i ems i a leas ou i ems we e p esen using mean
impu a ion.
Con ol s a egies. Con ol s a egies we e assessed wi h a
14-i em ins umen using a ou -poin Like - ype scale
anging om 1 “no a all” o 4 “a lo ” (W osch e al.,
2000). An explo a o y ac o analysis e ealed a heo e i-
cally d i en h ee- ac o model (W osch e al., 2000), wi h
h ee sub-scales o con ol s a egies measu ing (1) pe sis-
ence in goal s i ing (p ima y con ol; “when I encoun e
p oblems, I don’ gi e up un il I sol e hem”), (2) posi i e
eapp aisal (seconda y con ol; “I can ind some hing posi-
i e, e en in he wo s si ua ions”), and (3) lowe ing aspi-
a ions (seconda y con ol; “To a oid disappoin men , I
don’ se my goals oo high”). All scales we e cons uc ed
by calcula ing he mean ac oss he se o i ems. Some
i ems we e e e se coded so ha highe sco es e lec ed
highe s anding in he scale (e.g., g ea e pe sis ence in
goal s i ing). The h ee sub-scales (lowe ing aspi a ions,
posi i e eapp aisal, and pe sis ence in goal s i ing) had
adequa e eliabili y in he o e all MIDUS da ase (Wa e 2
C onbach’s alpha = .61, .78, and .78; Wa e 3 C onbach’s
alpha = .63, .78, .78) and showed ex e nal alidi y (W osch
e al., 2000). Scale i ems we e e e se coded as needed,
606 Business Resea ch Qua e ly 28(3)
and sco es we e cons uc ed by he MIDUS esea che s o
cases wi h missing i ems i a leas hal o he i ems we e
p esen using mean impu a ion.
Con ol a iables. All models included con ol a iables.
Age and i s quad a ic (Ry , 2017); sex (a dummy equal
o 0 i he esponden was a male, and 1 i emale); ma i-
al s a us (a dummy equal o 1 i he esponden was ma -
ied); educa ion (an o dinal a iable anging om 1 o
12, whe e 1 = no school/some g ade school and 12 = Ph.D.
o ano he p o essional deg ee; Nikolae , 2016; Ry &
Lachman, 2018a, 2018b); numbe o child en, and sel -
epo ed (p e- ax) household income (Ry , 2017). Con-
ols we e included based on hei po en ial o in luence
indi idual-le el egula o y p ocesses ha can in luence a
sense o con ol o e ime. Fo example, olde indi idu-
als end o ha e mo e obus coping s a egies by expe i-
encing mo e li e e en s, and ma ied indi iduals may
ha e g ea e le els o social suppo (Dehle e al., 2001;
W osch e al., 2000). Finally, a wa e a iable3 was
included o accoun o a ia ion ha occu s na u ally
o e ime.
Analysis
To es s ou hypo heses, we used pooled OLS. Due o he
na u e o ou da a and he o e lapping pa icipan s in each
wa e, we clus e ed he da a a ound pa icipan iden i ica-
ion numbe s o accoun o he non-independence o ou
esponses (Came on & T i edi, 2005). To es o mode a-
ion, we an indi idual eg ession models (6–8 in Table 3)
wi h in e ac ion e ms be ween he coping a iables. As ou
mode a ing a iables a e con inuous, we isualize hese
a iables in Figu es 2–4 by showing he ela ionship
be ween he independen a iable and PIL in each model a
low, medium, and high le els o he mode a o . These le -
els o he mode a o a e de ined as one s anda d de ia ion
below he mean o he a iable, he mean, and one s anda d
de ia ion abo e he mean.
Resul s
Table 1 shows summa y s a is ics o all a iables used in he
s udy, and Table 2 p esen s he co ela ion ma ix. Table 3
p esen s baseline eg ession es ima ions and es s o ou
hypo heses. An analysis o mul i-collinea i y showed app o-
p ia e Va iance In la ion Fac o (VIF) sco es o ou a ia-
bles in ou eg ession models. Speci ically, he highes VIF
sco e was 1.53 o he a iable goal pe sis ence, which was
well below he conse a i e h eshold o 5 (e.g., Came on
& T i edi, 2005). We ind in Model 5 ha pe sis ence
(B = 3.32, p < .01) and posi i e eapp aisal (B = 2.11,
p < .01) a e bo h posi i ely co ela ed wi h PIL (suppo ed
H1a and H1c) while lowe ing aspi a ions is nega i ely co -
ela ed wi h pu pose (suppo ing H1b; B = −2.53, p < .01).
The coe icien s in Model 5 (Table 3), o example, indica e
ha a uni inc ease in pe sis ence is associa ed wi h a 3.32
(p < .01) uni inc ease in PIL. This coe icien implies ha
a one s anda d de ia ion inc ease in goal pe sis ence is
associa ed wi h .42 s anda d de ia ion inc ease in PIL.
Table 4 shows s anda dized coe icien s om Table 3.
S anda dized es ima es we e calcula ed by sub ac ing he
Figu e 2. In e ac ion o pe sis ence in goal s i ing and
posi i e eapp aisal. Figu e 3. In e ac ion o pe sis ence in goal s i ing and
lowe ing aspi a ions.
Figu e 4. In e ac ion o posi i e eapp aisal and lowe ing
aspi a ions.
Le man e al. 607
mean om each obse a ion and di iding he sco e by he
s anda d de ia ion. Va iables included in he in e ac ion
e ms we e s anda dized be o e being included in he
eg ession equa ions so as no o con ound he in e p e a-
ion o he mode a ion e ec s (Hayes, 2017).
The join e ec o con ol s a egies
Nex , we examined he complemen a y e ec s o pe sis-
ence in goal s i ing (p ima y con ol) on he ela ionship
be ween posi i e eapp aisal (seconda y con ol) and PIL.
Hypo hesis 2 p edic ed ha he posi i e ela ionship
be ween posi i e eapp aisal and PIL would be s eng h-
ened by pe sis ence in goal s i ing. Su p isingly, we did
no ind e idence o his e ec (Table 3, Model 7, B = −0.11,
p > .05). These indings sugges ha he e is no an ad an-
age o sel -employed indi iduals o engage in bo h coping
mechanisms and sugges s, o a ce ain ex en , ha hese
speci ic coping mechanisms a e subs i u able. Fo ease o
in e p e a ion, hese indings a e depic ed in Figu e 2.
Hypo hesis 3a sugges s ha he nega i e ela ionship
be ween lowe ing aspi a ions and PIL would be mode a ed
(weakened) by pe sis ence in goal s i ing. This in e ac-
ion was suppo ed (Table 3, Model 6, B = 1.76, p < .05),
sugges ing ha pe sis ence in goal s i ing (a p ima y con-
ol s a egy) can bu e agains maladap i e endencies
sel -employed indi iduals migh ha e o lowe hei
expec a ions and goals (Figu e 3). Finally, Hypo hesis 3b
sugges s ha he nega i e ela ionship be ween lowe ing
aspi a ions and PIL could also be mode a ed (weakened)
by ano he seconda y con ol s a egy, posi i e eapp aisal.
The esul s indica e a signi ican in e ac ion (Table 3,
Model 8, B = 1.81, p < .05), suppo ing Hypo hesis 3b
(Figu e 4). Figu e 5 p o ides a isual ep esen a ion o he
Table 2. Pai wise co ela ions.
Va iables (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12)
PIL
Pe sis ence in goal s i ing 0.44†
Posi i e eapp aisal 0.36†0.53†
Lowe ing aspi a ion –0.29†–0.17†–0.03
Age 0.04 0.03 –0.04 –0.07
Age squa ed 0.04 0.03 –0.04 –0.07 0.99†
Race –0.03 0.00 0.03 0.01 0.00 0.00
Hispanic 0.00 –0.07 0.00 –0.05 –0.02 –0.02 0.37†
Sex –0.02 –0.08 0.11†0.24†–0.21†–0.20†0.02 0.04
Ma ied 0.12†0.05 –0.03 –0.06 –0.08 –0.09 –0.07 –0.04 –0.08
Educa ion 0.02 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.16†0.16†–0.02 0.00 0.01 0.25†
Child en 0.17†0.02 0.02 –0.19†0.06 0.06 0.04 0.01 –0.16†0.00 –0.12†
Household income 0.17†0.11†0.02 –0.14†0.01 0.00 –0.05 –0.07 –0.16†0.22†0.00 0.36†
N = 693. PIL: pu pose in li e.
**p < .01, *p < .05, †p < .1.
Table 1. Desc ip i e s a is ics o bo h wa es.
Va iable Mean SD Minimum Maximum
PIL 40.07 6.34 19 49
Pe sis ence in goal s i ing 3.25 0.55 1.60 4
Posi i e eapp aisal 3.12 0.59 1 4
Lowe ing aspi a ions 2.14 0.52 1 4
Age 56.15 10.48 30 87
Age squa ed 3262.30 1200.11 900 7,569
Race 0.12 0.46 0 2
Hispanic 0.02 0.15 0 1
Sex 0.40 0.49 0 1
Ma ied 0.80 0.40 0 1
Educa ion 7.90 2.50 1 12
Child en 2.43 1.58 0 9
Household income 102,077.36 81,775.78 0 300,000
No e. N = 693. The coding o he ca ego ical a iables is as ollows: Race: 0 = “Whi e,” 1 = “Black,” 2 = “O he ”; Ma ied: 0 = “No Ma ied,”
1 = “Ma ied”; Sex: 0 = “Male,” 1 = “Female”; Hispanic: 0 = “No Hispanic,” 1 = “Hispanic.” PIL: pu pose in li e; SD: s anda d de ia ion.
614 Business Resea ch Qua e ly 28(3)
con ol o e hei wo k ac i i ies and en i onmen s as a
co e componen o e ec i e coping (Van de Doe & Maes,
1999). We le e age he con ol pe spec i e o coping wi hin
his s udy o bes i ou measu es, which we e designed spe-
ci ically o es he con ol pe spec i e o coping. Howe e ,
we no e ha job demand-con ol could also be applied o
unde s and coping and PIL.
2. We use only Wa es 2 and 3 o he da ase because Wa e 1
included sho ened ( h ee-i em) scales o pe sonal g ow h
ha had ela i ely low eliabili y. MIDUS 2 (Wa e 2) da a
we e collec ed be ween 2004 and 2006. MIDUS 3 (Wa e 3)
da a we e collec ed be ween 2013 and 2014.
3. The e we e only wo ca ego ies o his wa e, one o Wa e
2, which was ea ed as he baseline, and one o Wa e 3,
which is included in he eg ession ou pu .
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