Ci a ion: Machado, B.; de Fa ia, P.L.;
A aújo, I.; Ca idade, S. Cybe
In e pe sonal Violence: Adolescen
Pe spec i es and Digi al P ac ices. In .
J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2024,21,
832. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/
ije ph21070832
Academic Edi o : Michelle F. W igh
Recei ed: 24 May 2024
Re ised: 22 June 2024
Accep ed: 24 June 2024
Published: 26 June 2024
Copy igh : © 2024 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
This a icle is an open access a icle
dis ibu ed unde he e ms and
condi ions o he C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps://
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In e na ional Jou nal o
En i onmen al Resea ch
and Public Heal h
A icle
Cybe In e pe sonal Violence: Adolescen Pe spec i es and
Digi al P ac ices
Bá ba a Machado 1,*, Paula Loba o de Fa ia 2, Isabel A aújo 3and Sónia Ca idade 4
1NOVA Na ional School o Public Heal h, NOVA Uni e si y o Lisboa, 1600-560 Lisboa, Po ugal
2
In e disciplina y Cen e o Social Sciences (CICS), Comp ehensi e Heal h Resea ch Cen e (CHRC), Na ional
School o Public Heal h, NOVA Uni e si y, 1600-560 Lisboa, Po ugal; [email p o ec ed]
3The A i icial In elligence and Heal h Resea ch Uni , Poly echnic Uni e si y o Heal h, CESPU,
4760-409 Vila No a de Famalicão, Po ugal; [email p o ec ed]
4Psychology Resea ch Cen e, School o Psychology, Uni e si y o Minho, 4710-057 B aga, Po ugal;
[email p o ec ed]
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac : Backg ound: The pe asi e use o echnology, especially among adolescen s, has enabled
cybe communica ion and b ough many ad an ages bu also led o po en ial iolence. The issue
o cybe in e pe sonal iolence (CIV) impac ing young indi iduals is inc easingly ecognized as a
ma e o public heal h; howe e , li le is known abou adolescen s’ pe spec i es o he phenomenon.
This s udy explo es adolescen s’ pe spec i es on CIV. I seeks o unde s and hei in e p e a ions o
abuse, ic im impac and eac ions, iolence escala ion, gende issues, ic imiza ion and pe pe a ion
pa e ns, and bys ande oles. Me hods: This quali a i e s udy used i een ocus g oups o ga he
elemen a y school pa icipan s’ pe spec i es on cybe in e pe sonal iolence. F om ou Po uguese
schools, 108 pa icipan s (M= 12.87 and SD = 0.31) pa icipa ed in he s udy. A hema ic analysis
unco e ed h ee hemes. The esul s e idenced adolescen s’ pe spec i es abou CIV. Due o he
amoun o ime spen online, adolescen s egula ly encoun e cybe ha assmen and ecognize
he impo ance o help-seeking. Men al heal h p oblems and hei in luence on he social and
educa ional li es o adolescen s is a ising as a CIV p oblem. Conclusions: Pa en s play a c ucial ole
in mi iga ing CIV as well as bys ande s. Fu u e p og ams should p omo e heal hy ela ionships, aise
CIV awa eness, in ol e s akeholde s, guide pa en s, in eg a e pe pe a o s in o p og ams, and os e
e ec i e ne wo king.
Keywo ds: adolescen s; cybe iolence; in e pe sonal iolence; digi al p ac ices; public heal h;
men al heal h
1. In oduc ion
Young people and adolescen s a e aking he lead in adop ing new echnologies, as
social ne wo ks and ins an messaging se ices ha e become common i ual pla o ms in
ou cul u e. This new gene a ion is named “digi al na i es” because hey we e bo n in o
and aised in he digi al e a [
1
]. The e m “digi al na i e” i s appea ed in he li e a u e
in he la e 1990s and is c edi ed o P ensky [
2
,
3
] and Tapsco [
4
]. Digi al na i es a e
indi iduals bo n be ween 1980 and 1994, ep esen ing he i s gene a ion o g ow up wi h
new echnology. They spen mos o hei li es ha ing access o digi al communica ion
echnology [
5
]. P ensky [
2
] men ions indi iduals who we e no bo n in o he digi al wo ld
bu adap ed o i la e in li e as “digi al immig an s”. La e , o he au ho s [
5
,
6
] c ea ed
an ex a uni ying concep and labelled i as “digi al lea ne s”. New social ela ionships
and beha io s a e g owing and e ol ing because child en and eenage s ha e access o
compu e s and o he elec onic de ices con inually [
7
]. They canno pic u e in e ac ion
in a wo ld whe e such de ices do no exis . Adolescence is a long pe iod and can be
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2024,21, 832. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/ije ph21070832 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/ije ph
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2024,21, 832 2 o 22
subdi ided in o ou pa s: p eadolescence (ages 11–13), ea ly adolescence (ages 13–15),
middle adolescence (ages 15–17), and la e adolescence (ages 17–19) [8].
S udies [
9
,
10
] indica e ha a ound nine ou o en Po uguese adolescen s aged 9–17 use
mobile phones o access he in e ne daily, like o he Eu opean coun ies [
10
]. Due o he
explosion in he a ailabili y o elec onic ools among young people, many o hei social and
communica ion in e ac ion skills ha e been los [
11
]. These digi al beha io s aise he possibili y
o encoun e ing cybe in e pe sonal iolence (CIV), as mo e and mo e people can access global,
c oss-bo de digi al communica ion. CIV was i s de ined as ac s in ended o damage a ic im’s
in e pe sonal connec ions o sel -concep , such as sha ing in ima e pho os o he ic im online
wi hou pe mission [
10
]. Al hough, adolescen s’ social p ocesses bene i signi ican ly om he
use o digi al ools, hese same p ac ices also expose hem o mo e in e pe sonal in usion,
inc easing hei isk o expe iencing cybe da ing abuse (CDA), cybe s alking, cybe bullying,
and sex ing [
12
,
13
]. CDA concen a es on da ing ela ionships and is an eme gen o m o
da ing abuse ha can be a ha m ul expe ience o adolescen s, igge ing psychological damage
in i s ic ims [
14
,
15
]. Cybe bullying is de ined as he use o elec onic de ices o in en ionally
suppo epea ed and hos ile beha io by an indi idual o g oup, aiming o ha m o he s [
16
].
Nowadays, wi h he ise o new echnology ields, cybe bullying is de ined as su e ing o some
conside a ion by esea che s [17].
Despi e hese ypes o abuse, we unde s and ha adolescen s in his gene a ion ha e access
o mo e educa ional oppo uni ies, a g ea e amoun o in o ma ion abou en e ainmen , heal h,
and o he opics, and a libe a ing pla o m o exp ess hemsel es, make iends, and o m social
bonds hanks o communica ion echnologies [
18
]. Howe e , hey also ha e o deal wi h he
po en ially ha m ul side e ec s o he digi al en i onmen ’s e olu ion, such as unsa e in e ne
usage [
19
,
20
]. Despi e es ic ions o young child en on popula social media pla o ms, hei
use can s ill endange child en’s psychological and physical well-being. A s udy o 14 social
media companies’ policies and in e iews wi h hei ep esen a i es ound ha cybe bullying
con inues despi e hese measu es [
21
]. Some pla o ms ha e imp o ed by allowing use s o
epo cybe bullying and equi ing eal names [22].
Da a om se e al a eas show us ha CIV has inc eased. In Ko ea, di e en s udies
e ealed ha he a es o cybe ic imiza ion ose om 19% in 2019 o 19.7% in 2020 [
23
], wi h
he highes p e alence inc easing om 25.8% in 2019 o 32.7% in 2020 among elemen a y school
s uden s [
24
]. In Aus alia, om 2015 o 2020 [
25
], he e was an inc ease in he endency o cybe
ic imiza ion o e ime, wi h highe a es in 2017 and 2019 compa ed o 2015; CIV a es in 2020
we e also highe han hose s a ed in 2015 and 2019.
In Po ugal, a s udy among adolescen s shows ha 23% o esponden s epo ed ha ing
had a si ua ion ha bo he ed hem in he las yea , and o 5% his happened a leas once a
mon h [
26
]. Also, he p opo ion o Po uguese adolescen s ha assed online inc eased om
7% in 2000 o 10% in 2014 [
27
]; by 2022, mo e han 60% o Po uguese adolescen s epo ed
being cybe ic ims [
28
]. Managing he ad e se e ec s o CIV calls o a hough ul heo e ical
explo a ion o i s oo s. Li es yle- ou ine ac i i ies heo y (L-RAT) unde lines beha io al and
con ex ual isk ac o s, con empla es o ganiza ional chance as a causal mechanism o CIV
ic imiza ion, and allows iden i ica ion o he cybe ou ines ha inc ease o dec ease such
isks, di ec ly e ealing oppo uni ies o si ua ional p e en ion and in e en ion [
29
]. Al hough
adolescen s a e bo n and aised wi h socio and in e ne skills, hei naï e use o echnology,
hei high isk o exposu e o CIV, and a gene al de ici o coping skills o such expe iences
make hem ulne able [
10
,
30
]. Vale e al. [
28
] epo ed ha olde adolescen s who published
pho og aphs online, including ex s, music, and ideos sha ed wi h s ange s, and who had
pa en s wi h less knowledge o hei online ac i i ies we e a high isk o being ic imized. The
sex o adolescen s was no conside ed a p edic i e cha ac e is ic.
Gi en hese po en ial isks, pa en s play a c ucial ole in p o ec ing hei adolescen s
online. They can do his by implemen ing educa ional media ion s a egies (such as supe ision,
deba ing con en , co- iewing, and encou agemen o solu ion-o ien ed communica ion) and
aking a p e en i e app oach (including con ols, se ing ules, es ic i e sc een ime, and
es ic ed con en ). These measu es no only sa egua d child en bu also os e hei sel -
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2024,21, 832 3 o 22
su iciency and sel - egula ion [
30
]. Po uguese adolescen s could bene i om he eassu ing
suppo o he Po uguese Sa e In e ne Cen e’s ee helpline, wi h p o essionals ha p o ide
ic ims suppo in online c imes, such as in o ma ion, emo ional suppo , and legal suppo ,
as hey can epo o au ho i ies [
29
]. Adolescen s can ind guidance in na ional awa eness
campaigns (e.g., Po uguese Associa ion o Vic im Suppo , an i-cybe bullying campaign in
schools, Segu aNe ) and media campaigns [
30
]. Finally, adolescen s can alk wi h psychologis s
in schools and nu ses om ca e cen e s who isi schools pe iodically. They can also discuss
hese ma e s wi h eache s, who may p o ide some aining acco ding o hei own ini ia i e o ,
a imes, he school’s ini ia i e. L-RAT s udies [31,32] ound ha e ealing p i a e in o ma ion
also con ibu ed o becoming a ic im. Mo e ex ensi e social ne wo ks, esul ing in many
iends on social media, appea o be a sha ed isk ac o . Connec ion wi h s ange s can p o ide
access o p i a e in o ma ion, such as daily ou ines o physical appea ance. Adolescen s ealize
he impo ance o no alking wi h s ange s as a p e en i e measu e. They also conside
pa en al moni o ing o hei kids’ ac i i ies an essen ial p o ec i e measu e [
33
]. Pa en s should
y o adop pa en al con ol and media ion s a egies o hei child en’s online ac i i ies [
30
].
Conside ing he echnical di icul ies ha pa en s can ace, p e en ion p og ams should in eg a e
in e ne opics in ended o pa en s.
The me a-analysis conduc ed by Ca idade and B aga [
15
] emphasized h ee c i ical
con ex s o isk ac o s o you h CIV: indi iduals, in ima e ela ionships, and pee s. Young
people who ha e expe ienced ic imiza ion and s uggle wi h men al heal h issues, use
alcohol and d ugs, o ha e pee s who use and a e in ol ed in o line domes ic iolence a e
conside ed a high- isk g oup. Despi e hei sociodemog aphic cha ac e is ics, p e en ion
p og ams could ocus on his speci ic g oup [
15
]. This me a-analysis also p oposes ha
he impac o pee s as a isk elemen needs conside a ion when add essing Cybe Da ing
Violence (CDV) pe pe a ion. Aligning wi h social lea ning p ocesses, i is c ucial o os-
e app op ia e and posi i e social ole models wi hin in ima e and pee ela ionships o
dis up he cycle o iolence. Addi ionally, his s udy e ealed ha indi idual sociodemo-
g aphic ac o s like gende , age, and e hnici y showed no co ela ion wi h you h CDV [
15
].
Taylo and Xia, in hei sys ema ic e iew, con i med ha bo h men and women engage in
CDV a simila a es, emphasizing he signi icance o ecognizing dis inc demog aphic
aspec s in p e en ion s a egies [34].
Exis ing p og ams ha e ocused on indi idual and pee isk ac o s, which, in ou
iew, should emain a p io i y [
35
]. I is also c ucial o design p og ams using inno a i e
s a egies, such as he bys ande app oach [
36
], which has shown p omise, o example, in
p e en ing da ing iolence [
37
]. This me hod aims o empowe young people o in e ene
and dis up po en ially abusi e si ua ions hey wi ness, wi h a ocus on he in luence
o pee s and o he social ci cles. While aising awa eness is i al o p e en ing CIV, i
alone is no enough o add ess he complexi y o his issue. E ec i e p e en ion equi es
sus ained e o s ha in ol e a mul idimensional and mul i-agen app oach, inco po a ing
skill-building componen s [35].
P esen S udy
This s udy aims o analyze pe spec i es on CIV in a g oup o Po uguese p eado-
lescen s and adolescen s. I is also in ended o unde s and he de ini ions a ibu ed by
pa icipan s on he subjec : meanings a ibu ed o abuse, impac on he ic im and eac-
ions, he e olu ion o iolence, gende issues, si ua ions o ic imiza ion, si ua ions o
pe pe a ion, and he ole o bys ande s.
CIV deep comp ehension is essen ial o sa egua ding young people’s well-being, p o-
mo ing heal hy digi al in e ac ions, and de eloping e ec i e p e en ion s a egies. By unde -
s anding he dynamics o CIV, we can wo k owa ds c ea ing sa e online spaces o e e yone.
Howe e , he e is li le esea ch on he meaning ha adolescen s a ibu e o such phenom-
ena [
38
], al hough his pe spec i e is c ucial o de eloping p og ams ha adjus o hei eali y.
This is why a quali a i e app oach, wi h i s unique abili y o explo e he nuances and complexi-
ies o he issue, is essen ial o be e mapping he p oblem among adolescen s. I allows us
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2024,21, 832 4 o 22
o unde s and in a mo e in-dep h and holis ic way he meanings hey a ibu e o his ype o
abuse. In Po ugal, as in o he coun ies, mos s udies in his a ea a e based on a quan i a i e
app oach [
38
,
39
], which does no allow o he deep unde s anding o CIV ha we aim o
achie e in his s udy on na ional pe spec i es o young s uden s.
2. Ma e ials and Me hods
2.1. Pa icipan s
The esea ch pa icipan s we e (N= 108) 42 boys and 66 gi ls aged 11–15 (M= 12.87 and
SD = 0.31) om 4 schools ac oss no he n egions o Po ugal. The selec ion o schools was
based on he ollowing inclusion c i e ia: adolescen s be ween 6 h g ade and 9 h g ade (middle
and high school).
2.2. P ocedu es
A quali a i e non-expe imen al in es iga ion was planned. Pa icipa ion was olun a y,
and pa icipan s could wi hd aw om he ocus g oup a any ime. To main ain con iden iali y
and due o he sensi i e na u e o he esea ch, pa icipan s we e asked no o use people’s names
when discussing inciden s in ol ing o he s and o a oid linking desc ip ions o beha io s o
speci ic indi iduals. Pa icipan s we e ee o pa icipa e in he ocus g oup om any loca ion
hey p e e ed, and hey we e ne e di ec ly ques ioned one by one.
The schools in ol ed we e all public. Fi s , he headmas e o each selec ed school was
con ac ed o de e mine he school’s in e es in pa icipa ing in he s udy. I he esponse was
a i ma i e, a eache was designa ed o acili a e all p ocesses be ween he school and he
esea che s. This eache con i med which s uden s we e in e es ed in pa icipa ing in he s udy
and checked whe he hei pa en s ag eed. I hey did, he esea che s con ac ed he s uden s’
pa en s/gua dians and p o ided hem wi h he necessa y in o ma ion abou he s udy. A e
ob aining he pa en s’ in o med consen , he esea che s con ac ed he pa icipan s o ask o
hei consen and scheduled he ocus g oup in e iew i consen was gi en. Pa icipan s ag eed
o pa icipa e in he ocus g oup and o ha e i eco ded. In hei consen o ms, pa en s we e
in o med ha he ocus g oup would be eco ded and ha he da a would be used o his
in es iga ion.
In o ma ion, consen , and ec ui men ma e ials we e de eloped and app o ed wi hin
a s ic e hical p ocedu e ha included app o al by he E hical Commi ee o he Na ional
School o Public Heal h, NOVA Uni e si y (numbe 3/2021), he consen o he Minis y o
Educa ion—Moni o ing School Su eys (numbe 0789800001), and in o med consen by he
pa en (s)/gua dian(s) o pa icipan s. Gua an ees we e gi en o p ese e and dissemina e
esea ch ma e ials in a manne ha gua ded esponden s’ con iden iali y.
The me hod o semi-s uc u ed in e iews was applied in ocus g oups. The s udy used a
quali a i e me hodology o explo e CIV om he speci ic con ex ualized pa icipan s’ pe spec-
i e [
40
]. In es iga ing CIV om he pe spec i e o human in e ac ions in a speci ic place, such
as schools, and i s cul u al con ex is possible wi h a quali a i e s udy design [
41
]. Th oughou
he semi-s uc u ed in e iew, we pu sued co e ing all he abo e hemes. The sc ip o he
in e iew had mac o a eas o discussion, such as he de ini ion o CIV and ypologies, mean-
ings a ibu ed o abuse, impac on he ic im and hei eac ion, gende issues, con ac wi h
agg ession, ic imiza ion, and bys ande si ua ions.
The mode a o adop ed a neu al a i ude o ensu e he esponden s’ sa e y and open-
ness. They discussed hei expe iences wi h ex emely sensi i e hemes and abs ained om
judgmen s and in e p e a ions du ing he ocus g oup. The leading esea che mode a ed
he ocus g oup.
Focus g oups ollowed he es ablished c i e ia, such as ha ing only boys o gi ls om
se e al g ades, all picked andomly, o analyze whe he he e we e di e ences in g oups
cons i u ed by gi ls and boys. The es o he g oups included he emaining pa icipan s, also
dis ibu ed in an alea o y way. Focus g oups we e conduc ed in May 2022, du ing a e noons o
mo nings wi hou eaching ac i i y, in class ooms p o ided by he schools, in an en i onmen
whe e p i acy was gua an eed. The du a ion o he ac i i y anged om 45 min o 1 h,
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2024,21, 832 5 o 22
depending on he willingness and eadiness o he esponden s. As we we e dealing wi h
p eadolescen s, i was essen ial o educe he isk o inducing nega i e emo ions in pa icipan s
a e asking hem o ecall episodes o CIV hey migh ha e expe ienced. The e o e, pa icipan s
we e in o med ha hey could be e e ed o he school psychologis whene e necessa y.
Addi ionally, con ac in o ma ion o a ious suppo ins i u ions, such as he Po uguese Vic im
Suppo Associa ion, was p o ided and made a ailable.
2.3. Da a Analysis
The ocus g oup discussion was audio eco ded, e ba im ansc ibed, and e i ied as
accu a e. The double e iew me hod was used, in which wo esea ch eam membe s e iewed
each ansc ip independen ly. This helped o iden i y and co ec possible ansc ip ion e o s.
To unco e pa e ns and hemes in he da a, a hema ic analysis was conduc ed using an
induc i e me hodology, allowing conclusions o be d awn di ec ly om he da a, as p oposed
by Ba din [
42
]. The esea che s comple ed se e al eadings o he ansc ip s o c ea e ini ial
codes, which we e hen e ined by mo e eadings, e lexi e jou naling, mind mapping, and
memo w i ing, o a ange he codes in o meaning ul g oupings o disco e o e a ching hemes.
Themes and sub- hemes we e discussed and ag eed upon wi h he esea ch eam. Du ing ini ial
and subsequen eadings, seman ic and open codes we e gene a ed un il sa u a ion. Fo da a
alida ion, he esea che s p oceeded o a de ailed desc ip ion, and a co-codi ica ion o he
da a was unde aken. Coding was as inclusi e as possible o a oid obscu ing any po en ially
signi ican ex ac s in he heme. The NVi o 14.0 so wa e was used o o ganize, code, and
in e p e he da a. Valida ion was ca ied ou o ensu e he eliabili y and c edibili y o he
esul s. Thus, wo independen esea che s wi h expe ience in quali a i e da a analysis me hods
and who did no know he pa icipan s coded he ansc ibed in e iews. One o he esea che s
independen ly coded he en i e sample, and he o he esea che 20% o he sample ( ou ocal
g oups in e iews), ob aining 89% ag eemen o he hemes. A senio esea che audi ed he
en i e coding p ocess.
3. Resul s
In a global analysis, and conside ing he ca ego ies wi h an excellen ep esen a ion,
i e s and ou : 1. Cybe In e pe sonal Violence (CIV); 2. con ac s wi h cases o ic imiza ion;
3. bys ande s; 4. isk ac o s o cybe in e pe sonal iolence; 5. impac o cybe in e -
pe sonal iolence, and 6. cybe in e pe sonal iolence and gende . Se e al subca ego ies
eme ged om hese ca ego ies, which will be shown below.
3.1. Cybe In e pe sonal Violence
Ele en subca ego ies eme ged h ough he pa icipan s’ epo s abou cybe in e pe -
sonal iolence (Table 1).
Table 1. Sys ems o ca ego ies, subca ego ies, and speci ic ca ego ies ega ding cybe in e pe sonal iolence.
Ca ego ies Subca ego ies Speci ic Ca ego ies
Cybe In e pe sonal
iolence
Abusi e o ms Emo ional abuse
Sexual abuse
Physical abuse
Abuse ypologies Cybe bullying
Cybe da ing abuse
Cybe s alking
Mo i a ion Fun
Punishmen
Disc imina ion
Jealously

In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2024,21, 832 6 o 22
Table 1. Con .
Ca ego ies Subca ego ies Speci ic Ca ego ies
Violence acili a o s Digi al p ac ices
Indi idual cha ac e is ics
Lack o pa en al
con ol/supe ision
Abusi e beha io s Telling lies
Sp eading umo s
F aming
Pos ing and sha ing pho os,
ideos, and nudes
Hacking
Show o p i a e li e
Image manipula ion
Th ea s
Insul
Take pho os
Violence p oli e a ion Recidi ism
Escala ion o iolence
Agg esso p o ile Gende (male)
Social s a us
Pe sonal cha ac e is ics
Vic im p o ile Sociodemog aphic
cha ac e is ics (gende , sexual
o ien a ion, e hnici y)
Physical cha ac e is ics
Psychological cha ac e is ics
Social unc ioning
Vic im eac ions Main ain ela ionship
Talking wi h iends
Being passi e
Con on a ion
Lea ing he g oup
P i a e accoun s
Show no ea !
Ask o help
Help ypologies In o mal help (pee s,
amily. . .)
Fo mal help (police,
p o esso s, heal h
p o essionals. . .)
Sel -p o ec i e beha io s Do no in e ac wi h s ange s
Do no sha e in o ma ion
Limi age o access o social
ne wo ks
Pa en al con ol
Pa en al educa ion
School educa ion
Limi ed con en
Cybe secu i y
Specialized o ices
Censu ed con en
Do no ake nudes
Child en’s educa ion
Reliable pe son
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2024,21, 832 7 o 22
Pa icipan s desc ibed se e al o ms o cybe in e pe sonal iolence, highligh ing
h ee abusi e s a es, namely emo ional, physical, and sexual abuse. Pa icipan s o en said
ha hey had su e ed o assis ed in all hese o ms, which can be p ac iced in isola ion o
in conjunc ion wi h one ano he (“Many kids insul people ia ex o email”—P1; “Many
imes, we saw agg essi e and mean commen s in cha s o on social media”—P2; “Sp ead
umo s abou he pe son”—P3; “Sp ead ake news”—P4).
Sexual abuse was less common bu also men ioned by he pa icipan s (“A gi l om
school had e e yone sha e a nude o he ; i was ho ible”—P5; “The gi ls a e e y mean
o each o he and commen on each o he ’s bodies on social media, o assaul each
o he ”—P1
). Pa icipan s also no e ha “Online h ea s a e o en me in pe son, wi h
physical agg ession”—P6.
They also epo se e al abuse ypologies, namely cybe bullying (“I hink he mos
common a e insul s h ough digi al media; hey happen all he ime hese days”—P7;
“Many people pos pho os o o he s wi hou pe mission and e en make un o hem”—P8);
Cybe da ing abuse (“Some young people da e each o he and exchange insul ing messages
wi h each o he ”—P7; “Some imes gi ls da e boys, sha e in ima e pho os wi h hem, and
hey pos hem o e e yone o see”—P9), and cybe s alking (“A gi l was s alked by a boy
online. He was always bo he ing he , and e en i she old him o s op, he would no s op.
One day a e school, he e en ollowed he home”—P10).
Conce ning CIV, pa icipan s conside ha he e a e some mo i a ions o p ac ice
hese ac s, such as un (“Some people enjoy making un o o he s”—P11), punishmen
(“Some imes people a e hu by some pas si ua ion and y o ge e enge”—P12), disc im-
ina ion (“Cybe bullying o en happens due o disc imina ion, skin colo , way o d essing
and e en sexual o ien a ion”—P13), and jealously (“They a e o en jealous o ha pe son
and y o pu him/he down”—P14). They also conside he e a e some acili a o s o
implemen his kind o iolence, such as digi al p ac ices (“Nowadays almos all young
people ha e access o he in e ne e e ywhe e, bo h a school and a home”—P1; “We
ha e he in e ne on mobile phones, so i is always a ailable”—P14; “A school, we all
ha e cell phones o compu e s. Many also ha e able s and o he elec onic de ices whe e
cybe iolence can be commi ed”—P19; “E en in games, wi h he PlayS a ion, we can be
agg esso s o ic ims”—P20) and indi idual cha ac e is ics (“Young people s ay a home
mo e, especially in big ci ies, so hey use digi al media mo e han in he old days when
ou pa en s used o play in he s ee ”—P17; “Child en ha e social ne wo ks e y ea ly
on and some imes hey do no e en ealize he p oblems hey a e ge ing in o”—P18; “We
all ha e social ne wo ks, and we can pos hings in eal ime, hings ha a e o en bad
and ha hu o he people”—P2). Many pa icipan s also no e ha nowadays, he lack
o pa en al con ol is a iolence acili a o (“Pa en s do no ha e ime and do no con ol
hei child en’s ac i i ies, so hey do no know i hey a e agg esso s o ic ims”—P22;
“Young people now ha e much eedom, hey can do wha e e hey wan and he e is no
much con ol”—P5; “We ha e much eedom, we can alk o whome e we wan ”—P15),
associa ed wi h he wo ldwide in o ma ion sp ead (“Things a e exposed igh away, and i
is all e y as . And he wo s pa is ha i s ays o e e , once published he e is no way o
dele e i ”—P23).
In his ca ego y, a subca ego y o abusi e beha io s su aced, whe e he pa icipan s
iden i ied a ious ac ions. These include lying (“Lying is a se ious ma e ”—P27), dis-
semina ing umo s (“Ci cula ing umo s o alse in o ma ion abou us is e y se ious
and ha m ul”—P28), aming o he s (“Implica ing someone in cybe -a acks”—P29), and
pos ing pho os o ideos wi hou consen (“Uploading o he people’s pho os wi hou pe -
mission is e y se ious”—P5; “Sha ing ideos and pho os is also se ious, no jus pos ing
hem. I hey a e explici , i becomes e en mo e se ious”—P11; “I belie e ha bo h pos ing
and sha ing pho os and ideos a e se ious ac ions”—P30).
O he s iden i ied ac ions like hacking (“In il a ing social ne wo ks, as we discussed
in ha case, is e y se ious”—P31), exposing someone’s p i a e li e (“Re ealing aspec s o
someone’s p i a e li e is se ious”—P32), manipula ing images (“I ’s also e y se ious when
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2024,21, 832 8 o 22
indi iduals c ea e pho o collages and hen pos hem”—P15), making h ea s (“Th ea ening
he indi idual o hei amily is e y se ious”—P22), hu ling insul s (“Insul s a e less se e e
because i ’s easie o igno e he pe son”—P33), and aking pho os wi hou consen (“Taking
pho os o he pe son is less se ious as long as hey a en’ pos ed”—P34). Pa icipan s
we e also conce ned abou iolence p oli e a ion. They men ion ecidi ism (“No mally,
cybe iolence does no happen jus once, i epea s i sel o e ime”—P35; “The ic im is
a ic im se e al imes because iolence is epea ed”—P36) and he escala ion o iolence
(“I hink i usually s a s mild, hen o e ime i ge s wo se. Some imes i s a s wi h
insul s and hen hey s a pos ing mo e in ima e hings abou he ic im”—P1). P o iles o
bo h he ic im and he agg esso we e also discussed. The p o iles o he agg esso and
he ic im we e o en associa ed wi h gende (“I ’s mo e common o gi ls o be ic ims
and boys o be agg esso s”—P36; “When he agg esso is a gi l, i ’s usually gi l agains
gi l”—P37; “I ’s mo e common o gi ls o be ic ims and boys o be agg esso s”—P32). The
p o ile o he agg esso is also linked o social s a us (“Bullies a e no always he popula
ones. Some imes hey sha e cha ac e is ics wi h he ic ims, and hey ac his way o eel
supe io ”—P38) and pe sonal ai s (“Bullies a e no always he popula ones. Some imes
hey sha e cha ac e is ics wi h he ic ims, like being shy, and hey ac his way o eel
supe io ”—P38).
Rega ding he ic im p o ile, i also included physical cha ac e is ics (“People who
wea glasses o ha e a disabili y a e also subjec ed o mean commen s”—P39; “Young peo-
ple wi h acne a e also made un o ”—P40; “I we a e oo sho , hey make un o ou pho os
on social ne wo ks, bu i we a e oo all, oo”—P41), psychological cha ac e is ics (“Ve y
shy people a e also easy a ge s because hey don’ complain o ell anyone, hey usually
su e in silence”—P27), sociodemog aphic cha ac e is ics (“People who a e ic ims a e also
ic ims because hey e eal on social ne wo ks ha hey a e, o example, homosexuals, ha
hey a e no Ch is ians and some imes ha e e hnici ies ha a e di e en om ou s”—P42;
“Being a o eigne can also lead o cybe iolence, wi h mean commen s because people
don’ exp ess hemsel es so well in ou language”—P43), and social unc ioning (“The ac
ha hey always ake pic u es wi h he same clo hes, because hey a e poo , can al eady
make he pe son a possible cybe ic im”—P11).
Re e ing o CIV, ic im eac ions we e also ci ed, such as main aining a ela ionship
(“Mos ic ims a i s do no hing, hey y o igno e i and see i he agg esso s ops”—P33)
and being passi e. Some no ed ac ing (“When i was wi h me, I old my pa en s, and
hey helped o esol e he si ua ion”. “I old my mo he and my mo he spoke o he
police”—P7), alking wi h iends (“Some ic ims wen o hei iends”—P44), alking
o eache s (“When his happens he e a school, we alk o eache X, and he sol es he
si ua ion”—P45), con on a ion (“The ic im should alk o he abuse o y o unde s and
why he/she is doing ha ”—P4), and lea ing he g oup (“Many imes, when i happens in a
Wha sApp g oup, he ic im simply lea es he g oup”—P46). Pa icipan s also men ioned
hey c ea e p i a e accoun s (“Ha e p i a e accoun s (
. . .
)”—P50), show no ea (“As i is
online, i is easie o he ic im no o show ea , which can de e he agg esso ”—P21),
and ask o help (“People should always ask o help, e en i i akes ime o hey hink
i will no do any good because some imes i wo ks and p oblems a e sol ed”—P44). In
he ma e ela ed o asking o help, o he subca ego ies eme ged, including in o mal
help such as alking wi h an adul (“Talk o pa en s”. “Fi s , hey should alk o a close
ela i e”—P1) o alking wi h pee s (“I old my bes iend wha was happening so she
could ind a way o help me”—P42). Some also no ed o mal help, which includes alking
o a p o essional (“Tell he school psychologis , and he/she migh be able o help”—P48),
o a police o ice (“I i is an ex eme case wi h h ea s and exposu e o pho os, I hink we
should alk o he police”—P5), and o school s a (“Talk o he class di ec o ”—P17; “Tell
he eache s”—P22; “Tell he ope a ional assis an s”—P35).
The las heme ha eme ged was ela ed o sel -p o ec i e beha io s, such as do no
in e ac wi h s ange s (“I p e e o play online wi h people I know because i ’s sa e ”—P47;
“Some imes playing online wi h people we al eady know can lead o iolence as e , because
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2024,21, 832 9 o 22
hey know us be e and so hey know how o a ack us wi h insul s o example”—P48),
do no sha e in o ma ion (“Do no sha e ou passwo ds wi h o he people”—P49; “No
sha ing in o ma ion abou ou li es wi h people we only mee online”—P8), limi he age
o access o social ne wo ks (“Limi he age o access o child en o social ne wo ks”—P32),
pa en al con ol (“Pa en s mus con ol wha hei child en do online”—P2), pa en al and
school educa ion, espec i ely (“Pa en s should alk o hei child en abou cybe iolence
and each hem how o de end hemsel es”—P40; “We should hea mo e abou hese
ma e s a school”. “The school could p omo e mo e lec u es on his opic”—P40), limi ed
con en (“We sha e e y li le o ou s u on social media, o example, we shouldn’ e en
pos pic u es o ou sel es”—P38), cybe secu i y (“Ha ing an an i i us ins alled on ou
compu e , so hey don’ hack ou accoun s”—P50), specialized o ices (“In schools, c ea e
o ices wi h p o essionals such as psychologis s and eache s o deal wi h hese ma e s”—
P17), censu ed con en (“The people who manage he social ne wo ks should censo his
con en , so ha i doesn’ sp ead”—P1), do no ake nudes (“Ne e ake nudes, so he e
is no isk o hem being sha ed”—P43), child en’s educa ion (“Educa ing child en no o
be mean o o he people, eaching hem ha cybe iolence is some hing e y bad and
ha i can do a lo o ha m o someone else’s li e”—P3) and exis ence o a eliable pe son
(“C ea e a e e ence pe son in schools ha all pa icipan s know hey can u n o in hese
si ua ions”—P52).
3.2. Con ac s wi h Cases o Vic imiza ion
Pa icipan s epo ed se e al con ac s wi h cases o ic imiza ion in hei daily li es
(c . Table 2)
, which can be di ided in o ypes o ic imiza ion ha include sexual ic im-
iza ion, whe e he mos men ioned kind was “nudes” (“When I was in 5 h g ade, a gi l
in my class sen nudes o a boy and he sp ead hem all o e he school”—P45), cybe bul-
lying wi h pho o sha ing (“This yea he e was a case in my class wi h a 7 h-g ade gi l.
I all s a ed wi h ange , hen e e yone made un o he and eco ded ideos and ook
pic u es and hen pos ed hem online, in g oups, on social ne wo ks”—P8), meme c ea ion
(“I happened
he e a school, a g oup o pa icipan s c ea ed memes o o he pa icipan s
and e en eache s and sp ead hem on Ins ag am, in he class g oup”—P1), sexual o ien-
a ion disc imina ion (“I was a boy who in a g oup called him gay. Then hey s a ed o
pu i on his social ne wo ks and in o he g oups he was in and make un o him”—P53),
sp eading umo s
(“I happened
o me, hey s a ed w i ing alse in o ma ion abou me on
Twi e and Ins ag am and sp eading lies”—P48), hacked accoun s (“Du ing he pandemic,
a gi l in my class educed he numbe o gues s o he bi hday pa y. A boy, because he
was no in i ed, hacked he Ins ag am accoun , and s a ed pos ing emba assing hings
in he name”—P15; “In ou class, a pe son has al eady hacked ano he colleague’s email
accoun and sen emails wi h e ible hings o all con ac s”—P22), gaming iolence (“I ha e
su e ed om iolence while playing ideo games. They s a ed insul ing me in messages,
and hen hey eco ded he game and made un o me in Wha sApp g oups saying I was
a agile playe ”—P54), and sexual ha assmen (“A boy om ano he class made many
commen s o a sexual cha ac e on Messenge o a gi l. He e en ha assed he and e en
ollowed he home.”—P36).
In his s udy, pa icipan s only had con ac wi h CIV as ic ims (“I happened o me,
hey s a ed w i ing alse in o ma ion abou me on Twi e and Ins ag am and sp eading
lies”—P18) o bys ande s (“I happened he e a school, a g oup o pa icipan s c ea ed
memes o o he pa icipan s”—P27). In bo h cases, hey s a e ha a eques o help is
necessa y. Tha help could be om a p o essional (“She wen o ell he psychologis
(
. . .
)”—P13; “We old eache X, and he ook ca e o he si ua ion”—P1; “We wen o alk o
he school boa d (
. . .
)”—P33), which pa icipan s men ioned being a psychologis , a eache ,
and an ope a ional assis an , among o he s; om pa en s (“I old my mo he (
. . .
)”—P25;
“The a he saw he con e sa ion on Wha sApp (
. . .
)”—P55); om he police (“My mo he
wen o ell he police wha was going on (
. . .
)”—P25); o om pee g oup (“The gi l old
he iends, who epo ed i ”—P56). Howe e , i was ecognized ha some imes he e is
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2024,21, 832 16 o 22
mobile de ice o li , plead, o exp ess desi e is known as sex ing [
68
]. Many o he ic ims
said ha hey s a ed exchanging messages wi h someone hey knew, and he asked o send
sexual pic u es a e a ew yea s o con e sa ion and mu ual in e es . The li e a u e s a es
ha sex ing is equen ly used as a lead-up o ac ual sexual ac i i y, as i can be seen as an ex-
ension o concu en sexual con ac o p omo e bonding and communica ion a ac ion [
54
].
This cha ac e is ic sugges s ha ic ims need assis ance in ully unde s anding he isks o
sending online sexual con en . Ou pa icipan s ela ed o his conce ning eali y because
a conside able numbe o hem admi ed o ha ing ecei ed o sen semi-nude pic u es
by message, a eali y also epo ed in ano he s udy [
69
]. Sex ing can gene a e eelings in
adolescen s such as amusemen , en husiasm, ulne abili y, humilia ion, and dis ess. Many
o hem ecognize ha when his ype o pic u e comes o public a en ion, adolescen s
ha e a e ible ime; hey mo e om one school o ano he school o a oid colleagues
ha ha e seen he pic u e, hey eel e y ashamed, sad, anxious, and exposed, and some
also mo e o ano he ci y. Pa icipan s a e awa e ha his ype o publica ion leads, many
imes, o child en commi ing suicide o ha ing men al heal h p oblems, such as dep ession.
Adolescen s ecognize sex ing and e enge po n as wo o he mos impac ul o ms o
CIV due o hei emo ional changes in ic ims. Mos o hem we e eminded o he ic ims
hey knew when hey men ioned he impac o CIV, namely emo ional changes (e.g., ea ,
insecu i y, sel -es eem p oblems) and beha io changes (e.g., suicide, social isola ion, ea ing
diso de s).
4.6. Bys ande s’ Role in CIV
Adolescen s belie e ha he ole o bys ande s is o suppo he ic im and epo o
alk o he agg esso in o de o s op he iolence ci cle. Howe e , many esponden s also
ecognized ha bys ande s o en igno e hese si ua ions because hey do no belie e hey
ha e any hing o do wi h hem and do no wan o ge in ol ed.
A ecen sys ema ic e iew ound ha in 100% o he s udies, he ole o a cybe - ic im
was iden i ied; in 39%, he ole o a cybe -agg esso ; in 16%, he ole o a cybe -obse e [
70
].
4.7. Reques o Help
Adolescen s eques o mal and in o mal help, and help-seeking is conside ed one o
he mos common coping s a egies among ic ims [
38
]. Howe e , a smalle numbe o
cybe ic ims seek help when compa ed o ic ims in eal space [
71
], e en hough mos o
hem unde s and i is a help ul s a egy in con olling he impac o CIV and s opping he
iolence cycle [
72
], as ecognized by pa icipan s. They seek assis ance om p o essionals
such as psychologis s, eache s, school boa ds, and ope a ional assis an s. They also
men ioned con ac ing police o ice s. On he o he hand, hey seek in o mal help om
pa en s and pee g oups. A leas some adolescen s ecognize ha some imes hey do no
seek help because hey a e being mocked. These da a align wi h he li e a u e, which says
less han 30% o people who expe ienced echnology- acili a ed abuse sough p o essional
help [
73
]. Ou esul s a e a li le bi di e en om o he esul s, as pa icipan s men ioned
ha adolescen s eques in o mal (e.g., pa en s, iends) and o mal help
(e.g., eache s
,
police o ice s), wi hou any p e e ence [
74
,
75
]. These esul s could be because many o he
pa icipan s men ioned being bys ande s. As a esul , hey ecognize he impo ance o
seeking help om au ho i ies, o example, due o he e ec i eness o his in s opping CIV.
In his line, pa icipan s e e o ic ims’ eac ions o CIV, and mos o hem a e
desc ibed as passi e (e.g., main aining he ela ionship o simply doing no hing). In
con as , o he s a e ac i e (e.g., alking wi h iends, lea ing he agg essi e g oup, showing
no ea , asking o help).
4.8. Sel -P o ec i e Beha io s
Pa icipan s also men ioned some sel -p o ec i e beha io s ha could be implemen ed
o educe CIV. They iden i ied he need o hea mo e abou he subjec a school. A s udy
showed [
76
] ha mos pa icipan s discussed he alue o a con inuous educa ion campaign

In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2024,21, 832 17 o 22
and aising awa eness abou CIV as a p ope p e en a i e s a egy ha should in eg a e
and con inue o educa e kids in all g ades. In he same s udy, a school counsello exp essed
simila iews ega ding he e ec o educa ion on his subjec and how educa ional p o-
g amming has aised awa eness and communica ion ega ding CIV. He also men ioned
ha some school p og ams ha e been bene icial in ge ing hings ou in he open and
ge ing people o alk abou cybe bullying, o example. I was also no ed ha hose who
engage in CIV should be awa e o he legal consequences, which a e poo ly add essed in
school p og ams [
76
]. The ollowing a e also conside ed necessa y p o ec i e measu es:
do no in e ac wi h s ange s and ins ead limi in e ac ion o iends; do no sha e in o -
ma ion such as passwo ds, and do no ake and sha e nudes. Finally, many pa icipan s
epo ed he need o pa en al con ol as a p o ec i e measu e as well as pa en al educa ion.
They belie e ha pa en s should con ol hei kids’ digi al p ac ices and limi access o
inapp op ia e con en . In he cu en li e a u e, pa en al in ol emen wi h echnology
is no ed as c ucial in p e en ing CIV. Pa en s a e an essen ial esou ce o minimizing
and esol ing you h CIV issues, namely because adolescen s a e mos likely o alk abou
pa en al echnology use, pa icula ly as a ac ic o s op o s ep in when cybe bullying
occu s [
76
]. Pa icipan s also no e ha pa en s a e esponsible o child en’s educa ion and
should each hem o be kind o one ano he and ecognize se e al o ms o iolence o
p o ec hemsel es agains . In he end, pa icipan s alked abou he possibili y o c ea ing
specialized o ices in school wi h a mul idisciplina y eam ha is able o suppo hem in
he case o CIV, as ic ims, bys ande s, o e en agg esso s. This o ice could also include a
poin pe son o whom adolescen s could go o suppo . We also e i ied ha some schools
al eady ha e his pe son, e en in an in o mal o m.
Fo una ely, o he s akeholde s in he li e a u e appea eady o emb ace such educa-
ional endea o s in hei schools. G adinge e al. [
77
] examined he opinions o eache s
and pa en s abou cybe bullying p e en ion and disco e ed ha 95% o pa en s and 90% o
eache s ha e posi i e iews ega ding acili a ing and pa icipa ing in an i-bully educa ion
s a egies. Consequen ly, eache s and pa en s would likely be suppo i e and in es ed in
implemen ing such educa ional p og amming [
77
]. O he esea ch has documen ed ha
eache s and educa ional suppo p o essionals ha e indica ed a desi e o ecei e addi ional
aining ela ed o CIV in e en ions [
78
]. Addi ionally, a s udy in es iga ed he e ec i e-
ness o such p og ams and acknowledged he alue o implemen ing such educa ional
p og ams [
79
]. The esul s o his s udy speak o hose sugges ions, as CIV awa eness, digi-
al ci izenship aining, empa hy, espec , and con lic managemen exe cises can be easily
implemen ed as new modules wi hin exis ing p og ams on he speci ic ma e s o CIV,
such as cybe bullying and cybe da ing iolence. A las , Yu dakul and Ayhan’s s udy [
80
]
concluded ha he Cybe bullying Awa eness P og am success ully enhanced he unde -
s anding and coping abili ies o eenage s in he in e en ion g oup owa ds cybe bullying.
Based on hese indings, ecommenda ions a e pu o h o educa o s and policymake s,
as men ioned abo e by o he au ho s. Policymake s a e ad ised o inco po a e p e en ion
p og ams wi h ega d o cybe bullying in o na ional cu iculums. This would help o aise
eenage s’ awa eness abou cybe bullying and s eng hen hei esilience. Educa o s should
also deli e hese p og ams o child en and eenage s na ionwide.
5. P ac ical Implica ions
Pa icipan s iden i ied emo ional, physical, and sexual abuse ela ed o CDA, cybe -
bullying, and cybe s alking. Adolescen digi al p ac ices, jealousy, and a lack o pa en al
con ol con ibu e o he sp ead o CIV. Pos ing, sha ing pho os and ideos, and elling
lies a e some o he abusi e beha io s ha adolescen s p ac ice o su e om. Vic ims
should seek help, especially o mal help, and he bys ande ’s ole in s opping he cycle
o iolence should be ecognized. Pa en al con ol, child en’s educa ion, and sa e digi al
p ac ices a e some p o ec i e measu es o be conside ed. CIV has a signi ican impac on
adolescen s’ men al heal h, wi h emo ional changes (e.g., sadness, ea , ange ) ha can lead
o social isola ion o e en suicide. Conside ing his, ou esea ch emphasizes he need o
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2024,21, 832 18 o 22
p e en ion h ough educa ion. Resea ch has highligh ed ha less han hal o he p og ams
de eloped o comba CIV inco po a e educa ional con en o pa en s. Howe e , such
p og ams a e among he mos success ul a educing cybe ic imiza ion [
81
].
So, schools
mus ha e a clea objec i e and policy o gua d agains he many cybe h ea s ha young
people encoun e nowadays. Schools mus also ha e a p og am in eg a ing CIV as a
mul idimensional and mul idisciplina y issue di ec ed a pa en s, ic ims, agg esso s, and
bys ande s. Resea che s should explo e bys ande s’ oles in s opping CIV, as hey can
be allies in he igh agains CIV, o en as in o mal suppo s o whom ic ims and e en
agg esso s u n.
Heal h p o essionals, such as psychologis s, school nu ses, and o he s, mus suppo
and counsel adolescen s, as he mos epo ed as he o mal help o whom ic ims and e en
bys ande s u n when looking o ad ice. Taking in o conside a ion he e idence-based
suppo p o ided by his s udy, we sugges ha u u e educa ional and in e en ion p o-
g ams emphasize he ollowing: (1) p omo ion o heal hy ela ionships; (2) disclosu e o
media campaigns; (3) awa eness abou he na u e and consequences o CIV; (4) he inclu-
sion o pa en s, eache s, and o he s akeholde s; (5) p o iding guidance and in o ma ic
assis ance o pa en s; (6) in eg a ing agg esso s in educa ion and es uc u ing p og ams;
and (7) e ec i e ne wo king (e.g., amilies, educa ion, legal, heal h).
6. Limi a ions and Fu u e Resea ch
This s udy has limi a ions, al hough i s indings ha e subs an ial implica ions lead-
ing o se e al impo an ecommenda ions. This s udy b ings a Po uguese pe spec i e
p o ided by adolescen s on he CIV opic. Howe e , he indings o his s udy a e based
on a sample om a limi ed geog aphical a ea ( he no he n egion o he coun y). The e-
o e, samples o adolescen s in o he pa s o he coun y should be also in es iga ed o
unde s and his phenomenon o e a wide ho izon. Addi ionally, he sample size is limi ed
and hus only pa ially ep esen a i e o some adolescen s in schools; o example, we
did no in e iew pa icipan s om p i a e schools. Fu he mo e, he leading esea che
also mode a ed he in e iews. In u u e s udies, an addi ional obse e could be p esen
o be e cap u e and analyze pa icipan s’ beha io s. One u u e di ec ion could be o
use he esul s o his s udy o c ea e a su ey o check hese conclusions wi h a b oade
sample. Fu u e esea ch should con inue o ask adolescen s and o he s akeholde s (e.g.,
police o ice s, eache s, and amily suppo p o essionals) abou o he ypes o po en ial
school suppo a ailable in hei geog aphic a ea, as he esponses may p o ide di e en
sugges ions o solu ions.
Fu u e esea ch may also include he ic im’s pe spec i e as well as ha o he o ende s.
7. Conclusions
This s udy complemen s he cu en li e a u e by p o iding e idence abou adoles-
cen s’ pe spec i es on CIV. Fu he mo e, one o he mos ele an con ibu ions o his
s udy abou CIV is he pe spec i e o he phenomenon om he iew o subjec s who li e
his eali y in he i s pe son. Mo eo e , his s udy demons a es ha he ole o pa en s is
inc easingly c ucial in p o ec ing and educa ing hei child en h ough supe ision and e-
educa ion ega ding hei digi al p ac ices. This s udy also indica es ha he e a e speci ic
cha ac e is ics, such as amily issues and gende issues, speci ic o ic ims and agg esso s
and ha he e a e a ia ions in he se e i y and he episodes o CIV. These ac o s can be
used o ecognize mo e suscep ible adolescen s and agg esso s, who pose a g ea e isk o
se ious CIV, esul ing in damage o ic ims. Finally, his s udy in eg a es he bys ande ’s
posi ion on in e ening in CIV as a media o , in e ene , o s oppe o he cycle o iolence.
Au ho Con ibu ions: Concep ualiza ion, B.M., S.C., I.A. and P.L.d.F.; me hodology, B.M. and S.C.;
alida ion, B.M., S.C. and P.L.d.F.; o mal analysis, B.M. and S.C.; in es iga ion, B.M.; esou ces, B.M.; da a
cu a ion, B.M.; w i ing—o iginal d a p epa a ion, B.M.; w i ing— e iew and edi ing, B.M., S.C., I.A.
and P.L.d.F.; isualiza ion, B.M.; supe ision, S.C., I.A. and P.L.d.F.; p ojec adminis a ion, B.M.; unding
acquisi ion, S.C. All au ho s ha e ead and ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip .
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2024,21, 832 19 o 22
Funding: This s udy was conduc ed a he Psychology Resea ch Cen e (PSI/01662), School o
Psychology, Uni e si y o Minho, suppo ed by he Founda ion o Science and Technology (FCT)
h ough he Po uguese S a e Budge (Re .: UID/01662/2020).
Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d S a emen : The s udy was conduc ed in acco dance wi h he Decla a ion
o Helsinki and app o ed by he E hics Commi ee o he Na ional School o Public Heal h, NOVA
Uni e si y (numbe 3/2021) and wi h consen o he Minis y o Educa ion (numbe 0789800001).
In o med Consen S a emen : In o med consen was ob ained om all subjec s in ol ed in he s udy.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen : The da ase s p esen ed in his a icle a e no eadily a ailable because
his p ojec emains in p og ess, and da a analysis is ongoing. Reques s o access he da ase s should
be di ec ed o [email p o ec ed].
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic s o in e es .
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