Democ a ic Legi imacy, In e na ional
Ins i u ions and Cosmopoli an
Disagg ega ion
DAVID ÁLVAREZ
FCT-Uni e si y o Minho/Uni e si y o Vigo
Abs RAc
The pape explo es Thomas Ch is iano’s concep ion o in e na ional
legi imacy. I a gues ha his accoun ails o ully app ecia e he
ins umen al cons ain s ha in e na ional legi imacy imposes on
na ional democ acies. His model o Fai Volun a y Associa ion a icula es
he ansmission o poli ical legi imacy h ough a double agg ega ion o
poli ical consen . Fi s , i “pools” i s au ho i y om he ounda ional
cosmopoli an claims o indi iduals in ol ed in a deeply in e dependen
social wo ld; i hen ansla es his sou ce o legi imacy o in e na ional
o ganiza ions h ough s a e consen . Howe e , his model ails o en o ce
compliance wi h he cosmopoli an s anda ds and commi men s ega ding
ulne able popula ions. The pape a gues (i) ha he global s anda ds o
legi imacy ope a e as objec i e c i e ia o ins umen al legi imacy o he
e lec i e e alua ion o democ a ic s a es, (ii) ha he demand o consis en
compliance wi h hese cosmopoli an goals imposes ex e nal cons ain s
on he ins i u ions o domes ic democ a ic delibe a ion; and inally, (iii)
ha i democ a ic s a es ail o implemen e o ms in his di ec ion, hen
hei ci izens ha e he legi ima e p e oga i e o disagg ega e hei
cosmopoli an con ibu ion and di ec i o he global ins i u ions ha
o icially ealize hese goals.
Keywo ds: In e na ional legi imacy, global jus ice, cosmopoli anism,
democ acy, equali y, Ch is iano.
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1. GLOBAL LEGITIMACY AND STATE CONSENT
Wha is he mos legi ima e o m o global au ho i y we can easonably
hope o ? Thomas Ch is iano (2010) p esen s an insigh ul explo a ion o
his challenging ques ion. His essay con as s he aspi a ion o democ a ize
in e na ional ins i u ions di ec ly and a de ense o a Fai Democ a ic
Associa ion (FDA) among s a es as he bes easible op ion. He hinks an
empi ical e alua ion o he equi ed p econdi ions o he de elopmen o
a legi ima e democ a ic egime a o he la e . Such condi ions p esuppose
equali y o s akes among all hose bound by he poli ical sys em. He e, o
ha e oughly equal s akes means ha he same poli ical sys em shapes
and a ec s one’s main in e es s wi h an o e all in ensi y equi alen o ha
a ec ing o he ellow membe s. This sha ed subjec ion and pa icipa ion
a ies ac oss di e en issues and opics bu he o e all balance o ade-
o s mus be equi alen . The e o e, all membe s subjec ed o his poli ical
decision-making au ho i y ha e s ong easons o iden i y hei wellbeing
and p ospe i y wi h he goods and se ices egula ed by he public
au ho i y. This is wha Ch is iano calls “a common wo ld”. The e o e, he
condi ion o equali y o s akes equi es he exis ence o deep
in e dependency among co-membe s.
Once his condi ion o equali y o s akes is me , Ch is iano hen de ends
his concep ion o legi imacy o he decision-making s uc u e ha
egula es he deep in e dependency o a g oup ha sha es a s ong in e es
in enjoying a common wo ld. The ques ion hen is: by wha igh should
any o hese indi iduals accep he decisions imposed on hem? Ch is iano’s
concep ion o public equali y de ends ha he s onges easons o accep
he poli ical au ho i y unde hese ci cums ances a e hose ha e lec
ha he poli ical decision-making ad ances he in e es s o all membe s in
an equal way. Ch is iano’s concep ion exp esses he in insic alue o
collec i e sel -go e nmen by minimizing he chances o o e -inclusion
and unde -inclusion. The e o e, he dis ibu ion o poli ical in luence has
o p e en ha hose no ele an ly a ec ed by a p oblem could impose he
solu ion on hose a ec ed. Among membe s, his isk is neu alized in he
o e all adeo s o he poli ical game wi hin a common wo ld. When
dis inc i e mino i ies ha e s able p e e ences ha only con ingen ly and
angen ially align hemsel es wi h he hegemonic iew, hen he e is a isk
o consis en subo dina ion o majo i a ian in e es s. The exis ence o
pe manen mino i ies unde mines public equali y because i publically
mani es s a b each in he mechanisms o inclusion, access, in e ac ion,
and delibe a ion “in a common wo ld”.
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This is, howe e , as Ch is iano s a es, a cosmopoli an mo al p inciple,
inso a as all indi iduals’ in e es s a ec ed by he poli ical sys em a e
gi en equal conside a ion (2010: 121). To pu i in di e en e ms, he
concep ion o public equali y holds ha all equal s akeholde s unde a
poli ical o de should be equal sha eholde s in decision-making.
Howe e , o Ch is iano, he p ope poli ical ealiza ion o a
cosmopoli an p inciple o equal conside a ion is no a global democ acy.
The implemen a ion o a democ a ic sys em o a global o de beyond he
na ion-s a e would no ack asymme ies in s akes and would c ea e
pe manen mino i ies. Acco ding o Ch is iano, he s a e communi y
seems o be he mos ealis ic scope o he ealiza ion o public equali y.
Consequen ly, he mos legi ima e o m o global au ho i y ha we could
easonably hope o is a Fai Democ a ic Associa ion (FDA) o highly
ep esen a i e s a es, legi imized h ough he consen o i s so e eign
membe s. The e o e, speci ic ma e s and pa icula in e es s ha
anscend he limi s o he common wo ld a e be e deal wi h h ough
speci ic nego ia ions and ag eemen s ha ep esen he expec ed
con ibu ions and compensa ions among he a ec ed pa ies.
We could econs uc he no ma i e s uc u e o Ch is iano’s p oposal
o a FDA as he a icula ion o h ee main elemen s:
Volun a y Ag eemen : In i s ideal o m, a F ee Democ a ic
Associa ion de e mines i s own e ms o coope a ion h ough
in e na ional nego ia ion, adjus ing hei complemen a y skills,
needs, and con ibu ions. I he exe cise o ba gaining powe
di e en ials p oduces unaccep able condi ions, he weake pa y
can always exi he o ganiza ion. In a simila way o ci il socie y
associa ions, he legi imacy o hese in e na ional associa ions
es s on he olun a y accep ance o he e ms o coope a ion
(“Volen i non i inju ia”).
P o o-Cons i u ional Cons ain s: In addi ion o hese eely
consen ed e ms, Ch is iano admi s a se o ex e nal cons ain s
as p inciples o in e na ional socie y ha a e also jus i ied
h ough i s o mal alue o he cons i u ion and coexis ence o
decen and ep esen a i e socie ies, like secu i y and wa
con en ions, he p inciple o hono ing pac s and ea ies (“pac a
sun se anda”), and he basic p o ec ions o ius cogens and
human igh s. This amily o “ adi ionally obse ed p inciples”
(cus oma y in e na ional law) cons i u es he basic sca olding o
he in e na ional socie y (Ch is iano 2010: 122-123).
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S anda ds o Rein o ced Coope a ion: A subsequen and hinne
le el in his in e na ional a chi ec u e is cons i u ed by he
ne wo k o ins i u ions ha a icula e he coope a ion a ound
he goals o ade, po e y e adica ion, and clima e change
(Ch is iano 2012a: 385-390). These h ee dimensions ep esen
an impo an deg ee o in e dependence ha is also c ucial o
he success o he di e en na ional socie ies. These a eas a e o
c ucial, i al in e es s. We can concei e his se o subjec s as a
hyb id s uc u e ha combines a olun a y ba gaining p ocess
wi h p o o-cons i u ional cons ains. T ea y nego ia ions among
s a es a e s ill ma ked by he asymme ies o powe , bu hey
inco po a e some deg ee o ecep i i y o he needs o de eloping
coun ies, ulne able popula ions o he en i onmen as
benchma ks (IMF), socio-en i onmen al sa egua ds (Wo ld
Bank), con en ions, exemp ions, e c. The deg ee o
in e dependence may jus i y a p e e en ial ea men o
de eloping coun ies bu i is no hick enough o jus i y i s
egula ion h ough a global democ a ic sys em.
Acco ding o Ch is iano hen, mo al cosmopoli anism would be
ealized h ough membe ship in a democ a ic s a e ha is a membe o a
FDA. I will a gue in he ollowing sec ions ha his a icula ion o
membe ships is deeply p oblema ic. In ac , he claim ha he FDA would
ep oduce some o he in insic obs acles o sup ana ional coo dina ion
ha cha ac e ize ou in e na ional o de o so e eign s a es can be
de ended. The no ma i e s uc u e o he FDA is based on olun a y s a e-
ag eemen s, bu he ep esen a i e ins i u ions o mode n democ acies
a e designed in ways ha a o domes ic in e es s o e o eign du ies.
The e o e, he e is an ins i u ional design p oblem ha p e en s he
ealiza ion o mo al cosmopoli anism h ough double membe ship.
2. PUBLIC EQUALITY AND MORAL COSMOPOLITANISM
Ch is iano’s concep ion o public equali y canno o e come he p oblem
o a icula ion be ween na ional ci izenship and cosmopoli an
esponsibili y. In o de o show his di icul y, I will compa e h ee
al e na i e unde s andings o he condi ion o public equali y as a
ealiza ion o mo al cosmopoli anism: a) as an exis en ial condi ion; b) as
a c i e ion o legi imacy; and c) as a p esc ip i e du y o jus ice. The
exis en ial eading s a es ha s akes-equali y is a (su icien ) condi ion o
he implemen a ion o public equali y. As a c i e ion o legi imacy, he
p inciple demands ha democ a ic membe ship be coex ensi e wi h he
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scope o s akes-equali y. Finally, he p esc ip i e in e p e a ion jus
a i ms a mo al du y o es ablish a maximally inclusi e ins i u ional o de
in which all indi iduals could see hei in e es s a ec ed and aken in o
accoun in an equal way. These al e na i e eadings imply concomi an
quali ica ions on he scope o public equali y.
As an exis en ial condi ion, i iden i ies he scope o he doc ine ollowing
he ac ual condi ions o he wo ld. The p e-exis ing ins i u ional scope
limi s he se o indi idual claims o equal poli ical in luence. The alidi y
o hese claims is in insic o a p ac ice ha egula es he sphe e o poli i-
cal membe ship, i is cons i u i e o i s ne wo k o in e ac ions, i is em-
bedded in i s ela ional s uc u e o in e dependence, and i is inco po a ed
in he expec a ion o i e a ed, ecip ocal coope a ion. This social wo ld
cons i u es he ype o ele an in e es s sha ed by all ele an ly a ec ed,
and hey di e in kind and in ensi y om hose o ou side s. Consequen ly,
he alidi y o hei claims o pa icipa ion in he decision making di e s
also in kind and in ensi y. E en i a ec ed, ou side s canno be equally a -
ec ed in he same way as cons i u i e membe s; he e o e, equali y
demands ha hei claims a e subjec o speci ic quali ica ions.
This in e p e a ion o he in insic alue o democ acy assumes he ex-
is ence o a common wo ld and de i es he legi imacy o he democ a ic
sys em om he “pooled igh s o all pe sons o ha e a say in he common
wo ld hey li e in” (Ch is iano 2010: 122). This is a cosmopoli an alue
inso a i es s on he mo al pe sonali y o all indi iduals ha a e “pooled”
oge he as demos. Howe e , he c i e ia o inclusion and exclusion a e no
cosmopoli an in he sense ha i canno be claimed ha hey a e inde-
penden om he social, cul u al, and na ional cha ac e is ics o indi idu-
als. I we conside ha i is he iden i ica ion o he p econdi ion o equal
s akes, which de e mines he scope o he demos, hen hese s uc u al and
ins i u ional ac o s ha e a de e mining ole in he con igu a ion o he
common wo ld. I he common wo ld e lec s hese pa icula i ies, and he
p ojec s and in e es s o he membe s a e in e wined wi h i s ep oduc-
ion, hen he cons i uency is shaped by he common wo ld, and he kind,
ype, and na u e o he in e es s a ec ed is dis inc i ely and idiosync a i-
cally de e mined by he in e nal condi ions o his communi y. E e y deeply
in e dependen poli ical sys em exp esses a common wo ld which should
be egula ed in a way ha e lec s public equali y. Bu he ep oduc ion o
his common wo ld becomes a cons i u i e ea u e o he concep ions o
he good o he ci izen y. This gene al in e es becomes he na ional in e -
es . Addi ionally, unde his eading, he ealiza ion o he alues o
eedom and equali y could be concei ed as he allegiance o he
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ins i u ions ha p oduce a pa icula i e e libe o. The e o e, he exis en-
ial condi ion o equali y o s akes may model he la en cosmopoli an
alue o democ acy in a epublican-communi a ian way. This means ha
he ac ual dependence on he exis ing s uc u es o in e dependence im-
p in s a domes ic and s a us quo bias in democ a ic delibe a ion.
The second in e p e a ion is ela ed o he ques ion o global plu alism.
I de ends he iew ha whe e e he equali y o s akes condi ion ob ains,
he only legi ima e o m o poli ical au ho i y is one ha exp esses public
equali y. The emphasis he e lies in he ange o accep able poli ical
egimes. Ch is iano a gues elsewhe e o a p o an o human igh o
democ a ic sel -de e mina ion, bu no o i s ex e nal and o ce ul
imposi ion h ough mili a y in e en ion (Ch is iano 2011). The
jus i ica ion o e ed o his ange o pe missible ole a ion is cong uen
wi h he concep ion o public equali y: occupied peoples ha e no esou ces
o check ha he “libe a ing” o ces ea hei in e es s equally in a public
and jus i iable way. Fo ha , in e en ionis o ces would need o be
subjec ed o a common sup ana ional au ho i y, which as discussed in he
essay commen ed on he e, would also lack he condi ions o di ec
democ a ic go e nance. This obse a ion, which aims o p o ec weake
pa ies om o eign domina ion, can be ex apola ed o o he dimensions
o necessa y coope a ion o achie e e ec i e sel -go e nmen . Depending
on he me cy o s ange s o ealize democ a ic sel -de e mina ion may
easily lead o being a he me cy o s ange s. The a gumen in a o o a
igh o sel -de e mina ion implici ly admi s ha wi hou explici
h esholds and impa ial supe ision, cosmopoli an du ies emain
unaccoun able. I he commi men wi h he p o ec ion and p omo ion o
sel -de e mina ion is eal, hen he sys em o coope a ion canno be
en i ely olun a y.
The hi d eading o he equal s akes condi ion is he mo e p oblema ic
one. In con as o he p e ious wo, i de ends a p esc ip i e cosmopoli an-
ism. This no ma i e claim demands an inclusi e ex ension o he basic
s uc u es o ela ional in e dependence o a global scale. Cosmopoli anism
hen becomes an impe a i e du y o jus ice. A s ong e sion o his p e-
sc ip i e in e p e a ion would hold ha ou deeply exclusiona y global
o de is he p oduc o a pe manen mino i y ha keeps a as majo i y o
he global popula ion in condi ions o seg ega ion. Global inequali y o
s akes jus acks he disp opo iona e es ed in e es s o hese p i ileged
popula ions in he dis ibu ion o goods and se ices. The e o e, he ins i-
u ional poli ical o de should o e condi ions o deepe global in eg a ion
and subs an i e epa a ions. The condi ions o sel -de e mina ion mus be
jus i ied agains his ideal backg ound o global equaliza ion o s akes.
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These h ee c i ical ende ings o Ch is iano’s condi ion o public
equali y show some o he di icul ies in he a icula ion o an in insic
concep ion o democ a ic legi imacy wi h cosmopoli an commi men s.
The exis en ial p emise p oduces a domes ic bias; he legi imacy condi ion
ends o ole a e scena ios o unde - ealiza ion; and he p esc ip i e
in e p e a ion demands a s ong jus i ica ion o any pe missible depa u e
om an ideal s anda d o global democ acy.
Al hough i is easy o sha e Ch is iano’s easonable conce ns ega ding
global democ acy, i is also easy o unde es ima e he ex e nal limi a ions
o s a e consen o he ealiza ion o cosmopoli an goals. Ou s a us quo
bias con ibu es o he na u aliza ion o he global cos o p ac ical
unaccoun abili y and unde - ul illmen o ex e nal du ies. Legi ima ion
h ough explici s a e consen con ibu es o he aci legi ima ion o he
consequences o i s in insic limi a ions.
Ch is iano is awa e o he weak spo s o an in insic concep ion o
democ a ic au ho i y and is open o he implemen a ion o co ec i e
mechanisms i hey ha e su icien ins umen al jus i ica ion. These
in e nal limi s can be compensa ed wi h ou come s anda ds (minimum
p e e ence sa is ac ion), a bill o igh s, and judicial e iew (Ch is iano
2008: 260-300). The case o he ex e nal limi s howe e , p esen s speci ic
challenges o he concep ion o legi ima e au ho i y in so e eign
democ acies. The aci legi ima ion o he unde - ul illmen o he du ies
o non-ci izens canno be coun e ed h ough he usual co ec i e ac o s
like poli ical compe i ion, elec o al sanc ions, public exposu e, o
epu a ional challenge (Ch is iano 2012b). Unlike domes ic limi s whe e
hose a ec ed ha e a say, in he case o o eign esponsibili ies, neglec is
o e looked o aci ly ewa ded. Add essing he challenge o he ex e nal
limi s o democ a ic au ho i y implies ha Ch is iano’s ema kable
concep ion would need o ake a subs an i e ins umen al u n and subjec
domes ic delibe a ion o de-cen e ing mechanisms.
This pape de ends ha ex e nal limi s o democ a ic au ho i y (du ies
o non-ci izens) also jus i y co ec i e ins i u ional e o ms. In pa icula ,
i de ends ha he ex e nal s anda ds embedded in he FDA should be
inco po a ed o he ins umen al assessmen and cosmopoli an
legi ima ion o domes ic democ acies. S a e consen as a c i e ion o
in e na ional legi ima ion mus be quali ied no only ega ding he in e nal
ep esen a i eness o he s a es, bu also acco ding o hei cosmopoli an
pe o mance. The case o clima e change will help us explo e he
cosmopoli an de ici s in democ a ic delibe a ion and s a e consen .
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3. INTERNATIONAL COMPLIANCE AND INSTRUMENTAL
AGENCY
We all ha e impo an s akes in he s abiliza ion o clima e, hough some
coun ies may beha e i esponsibly ega ding hei le el o emissions.
Ch is iano (2015) acknowledges ha he model o uni e sal s a e consen
may p oduce ine icien esul s when i has o accommoda e hese non-
coope a i e s a es. In his case, Ch is iano admi s ha i may be legi ima e
o sac i ice he equi emen o uni e sal s a e adhesion in a o o a
coali ion o he willing wi h he capaci y o coe ce he i esponsible s a es
in o compliance. Howe e , his al e na i e club model would be
legi ima ized by he mo al alue o he goal i sel , no by hei limi ed club
consen . This would be a case o ins umen al legi imacy applied o
in e na ional o ganiza ions. This case o legi ima e in e e ence also
shows ha he s a es a ec ed by he sanc ions sys em ha e hei
in e na ional legi imacy unde mined due o hei inobse ance o some
global goals ha we en’ ac ually alida ed and speci ied h ough binding
ea ises ( he uni e sal me hod). The e o e, he objec i i y o his goal
de i es om a hypo he ical econs uc ion o a coun e ac ual Fai
Democ a ic Ag eemen among easonable s a es. Thei legi imacy is
ela ed o he implemen a ion o a hypo he ical ag eemen ha no pa y
could easonably ejec . He e he club would ac as a legi ima e s a e
agency o cou , us ed wi h ins umen al au ho i y o impose du ies on
less easonable pa ies.
Pa o he no ma i e appeal in clima e change nego ia ions consis s in
ha na ional emission igh s a e calcula ed acco ding o he popula ion
on a pe capi a basis. The e o e, he e is a cosmopoli an dimension implici
in s a e consen . On he o he hand, s a e consen is an unsa is ac o y
design o he in oduc ion o conside a ions o his o ical compensa ions
and epa a ions. S a es ep esen s na ional in e es s h ough hei
execu i e b anches in in e na ional o a, bu hese ag eemen s usually
need domes ic a i ica ion. This p ocess o accoun abili y is designed o
p e en ha a p esiden could a o o eign o e na ional in e es . This isk
is kep in check by pa liamen a y ep esen a i es ha also ha e an in insic
in e es in maximizing he in e es s o hei local cons i uencies.
Consequen ly, he e is an ins i u ional limi o wha e en he mos
enligh ened democ a ic leade can concede. The e ms o ea y-making,
be hey uni e sal o club-based, a e cons ained by he epis emic and
delibe a i e condi ions o domes ic cons i uencies.
E en sel -de e mining democ acies may all sho o ecognizing hese
global du ies due o he ep esen a i e and cogni i e limi a ions o he
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na ional public sphe e. These limi a ions a e pa icula ly salien in he
case o clima e change, whe e he e ec s occu on long e m scales and
whe e indi idual con ibu ions a e embedded in habi ual li e-s yles o he
domes ic common wo ld. Na ional ep esen a i e sys ems a e hijacked by
an elec o al sho - e mism and biased agains o eigne s and u u e
gene a ions. The p oblem o clima e change nego ia ions is a good case o
de end he in oduc ion o a le el o pa liamen a ian ep esen a ion in
in e na ional ins i u ions beyond he na ional iden i ica ion o he
ci izen y. This addi ional chambe o cosmopoli an delibe a ion may
complemen s a e nego ia ions and help e ame he e ms o consen .
Al hough democ a ic go e nance in in e na ional ins i u ions may be an
ideal goal, he e is oom o mixed egimes ha may ein o ce he
cosmopoli an legi imacy o s a e consen , like popula ion weigh s,
consul a i e chambe s, and u he pa liamen a iza ion.
The o ce ul imposi ion o an emissions- educ ion egime h ough he
club model implies ha , i ep esen a i e s a es ha e hei so e eign
legi imacy unde mined o ailing o ealize global goals, he coun e pa
is also ue, i.e. ha ep esen a i e s a es become mo e legi ima e acco ding
o hei ins umen al con ibu ion o global goals. The e o e, democ a ic
sys ems should inco po a e ins umen al cons ain s in hei in insic
legi imacy. This means ha he legi imacy o i s consen depends on a
public delibe a i e sys em ha inco po a es de-biasing mechanisms ha
ake in o accoun global du ies.
4. GLOBAL LEGITIMACY AND COSMOPOLITAN
DISAGGREGATION
Clima e change p esen s a ha d case due o he di icul y o es ablishing a
ai dis ibu ion o bu dens. Despi e he unce ain y su ounding clima e
change, mos o i s unwelcome consequences a e wo sened by he exis ing
a es o global po e y and human ulne abili y. These global disas e s a e
he ecu en subjec o o icial decla a ions, speci ic agendas, and global
p og ams. Le ’s ake o example he case o an es ablished no ma i e
consensus, like he in e na ional ag eemen o con ibu e 0.7% o GNI o
de elopmen aid. Le ’s suppose ha his global goal is a ixed e e ence
poin legi imized h ough s a e consen . This ag eemen is in es ed wi h
he in insic legi imacy o he consen ing pa ies, bu once es ablished, i
also becomes an objec i e s anda d o he e alua ion o he pa ies’
pe o mance. Yea a e yea , e e y s a e delibe a es abou i s budge
alloca ions and he weigh gi en o he ul illmen o i s global du ies. Wi h
some excep ions, he end is consis en ly disappoin ing. Democ a ic
1 Al a ez.indd 195 21/4/17 13:29