Academic Edi o : Jack Ba kenbus
Recei ed: 30 Decembe 2024
Re ised: 27 Feb ua y 2025
Accep ed: 4 Ma ch 2025
Published: 7 Ma ch 2025
Ci a ion: Coelho, S.; Mon ei o, V.;
A onso, J.L. Topological Ad ances in
Isola ed DC–DC Con e e s: High-
E iciency Design o Renewable
Ene gy In eg a ion. Sus ainabili y 2025,
17, 2336. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/
su17062336
Copy igh : © 2025 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
This a icle is an open access a icle
dis ibu ed unde he e ms and
condi ions o he C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion (CC BY) license
(h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/
licenses/by/4.0/).
Re iew
Topological Ad ances in Isola ed DC–DC Con e e s:
High-E iciency Design o Renewable Ene gy In eg a ion
Se gio Coelho * , Vi o Mon ei o and Joao L. A onso
ALGORITMI Resea ch Cen e/LASI, Depa men o Indus ial Elec onics, Uni e si y o Minho,
4800-058 Guima aes, Po ugal; [email p o ec ed] (V.M.); [email p o ec ed] (J.L.A.)
*Co espondence: se [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac : The inc easing pene a ion o enewable ene gy sou ces (RESs) in o medium-
ol age (MV) and low- ol age (LV) powe sys ems p esen s signi ican challenges in ensu -
ing powe g id s abili y and ene gy sus ainabili y. Ad anced powe con e sion echnolo-
gies a e essen ial o mi iga e ol age and equency luc ua ions while mee ing s ingen
powe quali y s anda ds. RES-based gene a ion sys ems ypically employ mul is age powe
elec onics o achie e: (i) maximum powe poin acking; (ii) gal anic isola ion and ol age
ans o ma ion; (iii) high-quali y powe injec ion in o he powe g id. In his con ex , his
pape p o ides a comp ehensi e e iew o up- o-da e isola ed DC–DC con e e opolo-
gies ailo ed o he in eg a ion o RES. As a con ibu ion o suppo his opic, ecen
ad ancemen s in solid-s a e ans o me s (SSTs) a e explo ed, wi h pa icula emphasis on
he adop ion o wide bandgap (WBG) semiconduc o s echnologies, such as silicon ca bide
(SiC) and gallium ni ide (GaN). These de ices ha e e olu ionized mode n powe sys ems
by enabling ope a ion a a highe swi ching equency, enhanced e iciency, and inc eased
powe densi y. By consolida ing s a e-o - he-a ad ancemen s and iden i ying echnical
challenges, his e iew o e s insigh s in o he sui abili y o powe con e e opologies
in ligh o u u e ends, se ing as a aluable esou ce o op imizing g id-connec ed
RES-based sus ainable powe sys ems.
Keywo ds: enewable ene gy; isola ed DC–DC con e e ; solid-s a e ans o me ;
high- equency ans o me ; sus ainable de elopmen
1. In oduc ion
En i onmen al sus ainabili y is widely ecognized as a c i ical conce n ac oss di e se
echnological domains. Achie ing ca bon neu ali y demands inno a i e solu ions ha
e ec i ely educe g eenhouse gas emissions while simul aneously ca alyzing a pa adigm
shi wi hin he ene gy sec o , encompassing key a eas such as gene a ion, anspo a ion,
and indus ial p ocesses. As epo ed by he In e na ional Ene gy Agency, he ene gy sec o
is esponsible o a ound 85% o o al CO
2
emissions. In 2023, ene gy- ela ed ac i i ies
con ibu ed o a eco d high o 37.7 giga ons o CO
2
[
1
]. No ably, he p oduc ion o
elec ici y and hea is iden i ied as a majo con ibu o o he abo e-men ioned emissions [
2
].
O e he las decades, pa ly due o g owing en i onmen al awa eness, elec ici y
p oduc ion on he basis o enewable ene gy sou ces (RESs) has gained g ea e p epon-
de ance in he global ene gy mix. As epo ed in [
3
], he inc ease in powe gene a ion is
suppo ed by a su ge in wind and sola p oduc ion, helping o deca bonize he ene gy
sec o . Despi e he impossibili y o comple ely canceling he emissions o g eenhouse
gasses, an a i ma i e esponse o he inclusion o RES-based sys ems would signi ican ly
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 2336 h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/su17062336
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 2336 2 o 40
con ibu e o achie ing he objec i es p oposed in he Pa is Ag eemen , celeb a ed in 2015
and adop ed by 196 coun ies [4].
In addi ion o ansi ioning owa ds clean ene gy p oduc ion, i is equally impo an o
p io i ize he ad ancemen o elec ic mobili y [
5
,
6
], as well as ene gy s o age, e.g., ba e y
p oduc ion, cha ge, and ecycling [
7
]. Inc easing he ocus on such aspec s signi ican ly con-
ibu es o imp o ing en i onmen al quali y and se es as he ounda ion o an ine i able
and an icipa ed ene gy ansi ion.
The ield o powe elec onics plays an impo an and acili a ing ole in he in eg a-
ion o ene gy s o age sys ems ESSs, elec ic ehicles (EVs), and RES-based sys ems in o
he u ili y g id. The g owing p opaga ion o such eme ging echnologies, mos o hem
na i ely ope a ing in DC, ansla es, on he o he hand, in o a se ies o challenges o he
u ili y g id since, in he ac ual mold, i s in as uc u e and o ganiza ion do no mee he
expec ed p emises [
8
,
9
]. Fu u e sma g ids se le on he p inciple o powe bidi ec ionali y
be ween ene gy p oduce s and consume s, which does no occu nowadays. I is i al o
implemen and de elop mo e in elligen , eliable, and sus ainable powe g id a chi ec u es,
abandoning cen alized s uc u es and mig a ing o decen alized ideologies [10].
In iew o he inc easing sp ead o eme ging powe de ices, he di e en ypes o
powe quali y p oblems ha e also inc eased. In he case o s ong in eg a ion o RES-based
ene gy gene a ion sys ems, he main conce ns ela e o ha monic con en and ol age and
equency luc ua ions [
11
]. As expec ed, conside ing ha he ene gy p oduc ion p o ile
is dependen on wea he condi ions, he s onge he in eg a ion o RESs, he g ea e he
a iabili y. Mo eo e , such a scena io also p o okes epe cussions on he in e ace be ween
DC de ices and AC dis ibu ion lines since ol age ansien s may occu , he as majo i y
o which a e c i ical o he ope a ion o he sys em as a whole.
In line wi h hese challenges, coupled wi h he inc easing di icul y o con olling
ol age luc ua ions a he poin o common coupling (PCC), i is c ucial o adop new aul
supp ession mechanisms, s a egies aimed a enhancing powe quali y and, undamen ally,
sui able powe elec onics sys ems ailo ed o each scena io and RES [
12
]. While wind and
hyd opowe gene a ion ha e al eady eached an ad anced s age o echnological ma u i y,
sola pho o ol aic (PV) ene gy s ands ou as he mos p omising pa h o he de elopmen
o new powe elec onics de ices [
13
]. Howe e , hese challenges and co esponding
solu ions ex end o a ious RESs and should be conside ed o de eloping in e acing
sys ems wi h highe e iciency, lexibili y, and added unc ionali ies. Recen esea ch has
been conduc ed o add ess hese needs, ocusing on he explo a ion o new a chi ec u es,
pa adigms, powe con e e opologies, and modula ion echniques.
Besides he con en ional unc ionali ies o gal anic isola ion and maximum powe
poin acking (MPPT) con ol algo i hms, inno a i e RES in e acing sys ems mus also
e icien ly manage he ene gy needs o p oduce s and consume s. Among hese, in align-
men wi h he concep o he sma g id, he mi iga ion o powe quali y p oblems, aul
ole ance mechanisms, and he inclusion o ancilla y se ices, a special ea u e conce ning
he dissemina ion o mic og ids in decen alized a chi ec u es, a e highligh ed [14].
In line wi h he cu en ends, solid-s a e ans o me s (SSTs) s and ou o hei
e sa ili y and lexibili y, enabling a gal anically isola ed in e ace be ween wo o mo e
powe de ices h ough a high- equency ans o me (HFT) [
15
]. Howe e , he use o
medium- equency ans o me s (MFTs) is equally alid, especially in high-powe sce-
na ios. Connec ing RES-based gene a ion sys ems o he u ili y g id is solely one o he
se e al SST applica ions [
16
,
17
]. As wi h some exis ing mul is age sys ems, h ee powe
s ages a e conside ed, each o hem co espondingly gua an eeing (i) MPPT; (ii) gal anic
isola ion and ol age ise; and (iii) powe injec ion in o he u ili y g id. None heless, while
acknowledging he impo ance o each powe s age, he in e media e one, adi ionally
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 2336 3 o 40
associa ed wi h he isola ed DC–DC con e e , plays a signi ican ole in he sys em’s
ope abili y. Beyond he bene i s o inco po a ing a gal anically isola ed con e e , e.g., he
elimina ion ci cula ing cu en pa hs and imp o ed sa e y in high-powe scena ios, i is
pe inen o analyze hese ea u es wi h high- equency (HF) swi ching. This app oach
leads o a signi ican educ ion in he olume and weigh o powe con e e s and passi e
elemen s, i.e., ans o me s, induc o s, and capaci o s.
Gi en he g owing p oli e a ion o RES-based ene gy gene a ion sys ems, his e iew
pape p esen s an o e iew o he mos c i ical and up- o-da e opologies o unidi ec ional
isola ed DC–DC powe con e e s. In he li e a u e, some e iew pape s a e commonly
ound abou his subjec ; howe e , none a e as comp ehensi e as his one [
18
–
23
]. The main
and dis inguished con ibu ions o his pape include he ollowing: (i) a comp ehensi e
e iew o possible a chi ec u es and connec ion schemes o RES-based sys ems in e acing
wi h he u ili y g id; (ii) an ex ended analysis o he mos ele an and ecen opologies, o-
cusing on p ac ical implemen a ions a he han a b oad, heo e ical p esen a ion o designs
ha a e no longe sui able o mode n applica ions; (iii) an in-dep h s udy o phase-shi
modula ion echniques o bidi ec ional isola ed DC–DC powe con e e s, emphasizing
hei impac on e iciency and dynamic pe o mance; (i ) a compa a i e discussion o
DC–DC opologies, ou lining he key s eng hs o each opology while associa ing hei
classi ica ion (con en ional low-powe , b idge-based, and mul ile el con e e s) wi h hei
mos con en ional applica ion cases; ( ) an o e iew o wide-bandgap (WBG) semicon-
duc o s and hei ole in nex -gene a ion powe con e e s, highligh ing hei ad an ages
in e ms o swi ching speed, he mal pe o mance, and e iciency imp o emen s. Fu he -
mo e, he s udy explo es u u e di ec ions in he ield, ocusing on he con ol algo i hms,
modula ion echniques, and aul - ole an mechanisms ha enhance con e e s’ lexibili y
and esilience.
Thus, his e iew pape is o ganized as ollows: Sec ion 2depic s he main a chi ec u e
schemes o he in e acing sys em. Sec ion 3ex ensi ely analyzes and desc ibes isola ed
DC–DC opologies o in e ace wi h RES-based gene a ion sys ems, dis inguishing be ween
con en ional s uc u es, b idge-based con e e s, and mul ile el opologies. Sec ion 4
p o ides a compa a i e s udy be ween he p e iously analyzed DC–DC opologies, high-
ligh ing hei ele ance o he p oposed opic. A concise o e iew o WBG de ices is
conduc ed in Sec ion 5, while he main conclusions a e ou lined in Sec ion 6.
2. Powe Elec onics Sys ems o RES-Based Gene a ion Technologies
The in eg a ion o RES-based powe gene a ion uni s, which is conside ed ine i able
in u u e sma g ids, should be app oached wi h a ocus on a o able economic and social
p emises [
24
–
26
]. Simul aneously, om a echnical pe spec i e, i is essen ial o ensu e he
ene gy needs o consume s a all imes by implemen ing smoo hing mechanisms o add ess
he in e mi en gene a ion p o ile o RESs. While ESSs a e o en linked wi h enewables,
hei widesp ead adop ion is hinde ed by challenges such as cos s and echnological
ma u i y [
27
]. To achie e his objec i e, he powe con e e s ha in e ace he u ili y g id
and a speci ic RES will play a signi ican ole in ene gy managemen . Simila ly o SSTs,
hese powe con e e s will inco po a e added unc ionali ies. Hence, i is essen ial o
selec app op ia e powe elec onics solu ions, ensu ing ha he chosen de ices a e well
sui ed o he speci ic applica ion equi emen s.
The main RES-based ene gy gene a ion elemen s can be ca ego ized in o sola PV
and u bine gene a o echnologies, which encompass, e.g., hyd o, wind, and geo he mal
ene gy. In o a ional sys ems, he speed o he u bine’s cen al axis can be ei he ixed o
a iable. Figu e 1illus a es he ou con igu a ions commonly conside ed: (i) ixed speed;
(ii) pa ial a iable speed; (iii) a iable speed wi h a pa ial-scale equency con e e ; and
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 2336 4 o 40
(i ) a iable speed wi h a ull-scale powe con e e . In a iable-speed sys ems, he use
o ol age sou ce con e e s in a back- o-back a angemen enables he inco po a ion o
MPPT algo i hms, eac i e powe compensa ion, inc eased obus ness, and an enhanced
o a ion speed o he gene a o [28,29].
As p e iously s a ed, he use o bulky componen s and de ices, such as low- equency
ans o me s (LFTs), leads o educed e iciency a ings, lowe eliabili y, and highe cos s.
The e o e, he adop ion o con e e s wi h highe powe densi y, i.e., based on HFTs o
MFTs, is seen as he mos iable solu ion. This si ua ion is jus i ied in [
30
–
33
], whe e
a ious isola ed in e ace con igu a ions we e in oduced o a iable-speed wind u bines
and high- ol age di ec cu en (HVDC) sys ems in o sho e wind a ms. In addi ion, [
34
]
p oposed eplacing he common LFT wi h a SST s uc u e.
Sus ainabili y 2025, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 o 42
o ol age sou ce con e e s in a back- o-back a angemen enables he inco po a ion o
MPPT algo i hms, eac i e powe compensa ion, inc eased obus ness, and an enhanced
o a ion speed o he gene a o [28,29].
As p e iously s a ed, he use o bulky componen s and de ices, such as low- e-
quency ans o me s (LFTs), leads o educed efficiency a ings, lowe eliabili y, and
highe cos s. The e o e, he adop ion o con e e s wi h highe powe densi y, i.e., based
on HFTs o MFTs, is seen as he mos iable solu ion. This si ua ion is jus i ied in [30–33],
whe e a ious isola ed in e ace con igu a ions we e in oduced o a iable-speed wind
u bines and high- ol age di ec cu en (HVDC) sys ems in offsho e wind a ms. In ad-
di ion, [34] p oposed eplacing he common LFT wi h a SST s uc u e.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figu e 1. Possible a chi ec u es o in e acing u bine gene a o echnologies wi h he u ili y g id:
(a) ixed speed; (b) pa ial a iable speed; (c) a iable speed wi h pa ial-scale equency con e e ;
and (d) a iable speed wi h ull-scale powe con e e .
Upon analyzing he li e a u e and ecen ene gy da a, i becomes e iden ha bo h
uel cells and sola PV echnology offe he g ea es po en ial o inno a ion and e olu-
ion. Rega ding sola PV, such echnological ma u a ion may in ol e modi ica ions in he
cha ac e is ics o he modules, bu mo e no ably, i necessi a es imp o emen s in he in-
e ace sys em be ween his RES and he u ili y g id. As obse ed in Figu e 2, depending
on he a chi ec u e and connec ion be ween a ce ain numbe o modules, a diffe en num-
be o con e sion s ages mus also be picked [35].
Figu e 2. Possible a angemen s o g id-connec ed PV sys ems: module in e e , s ing in e e ,
mul is ing in e e , and cen alized in e e con igu a ions.
AC Bus
Powe
DC Bus
Module In e e
S ing In e e Mul i-s ing In e e Cen alized In e e
AC
DC
AC
DC
AC
DC
DC
DC
DC
DC
AC
DC
AC
DC
Figu e 1. Possible a chi ec u es o in e acing u bine gene a o echnologies wi h he u ili y g id:
(a) ixed speed; (b) pa ial a iable speed; (c) a iable speed wi h pa ial-scale equency con e e ;
and (d) a iable speed wi h ull-scale powe con e e .
Upon analyzing he li e a u e and ecen ene gy da a, i becomes e iden ha bo h
uel cells and sola PV echnology o e he g ea es po en ial o inno a ion and e olu ion.
Rega ding sola PV, such echnological ma u a ion may in ol e modi ica ions in he cha -
ac e is ics o he modules, bu mo e no ably, i necessi a es imp o emen s in he in e ace
sys em be ween his RES and he u ili y g id. As obse ed in Figu e 2, depending on he
a chi ec u e and connec ion be ween a ce ain numbe o modules, a di e en numbe o
con e sion s ages mus also be picked [35].
Fo low-powe applica ions, a single in e ing s age may be commonly applied,
whe eas o a mul is ing con igu a ion, mul is age a chi ec u es a e always equi ed [
36
].
This scena io is equally eplicable in mic oin e e con igu a ions, in which a dedica ed
powe con e e is associa ed wi h each sola PV module. On he o he hand, o medium-
and high-powe scena ios, cen alized and mul is ing con igu a ions a e no mally con-
side ed. Ne e heless, he emaining a chi ec u es, albei less commonly, may be equally
used, as p o en in [
37
], whe e a compa a i e s udy ega ding powe quali y, cos s, gene al
cha ac e is ics, and powe losses in la ge-scale sola PV powe plan s was ca ied ou . As
expec ed, in highe powe scena ios, o each he desi ed ol age and cu en alues, se e al
modules mus be in e connec ed. As wi h mic oin e e con igu a ions, each sola PV
a ay has a dedica ed DC–DC powe con e e , which consequen ly, may esul in di e en
a angemen s o he powe con e e s, i.e., cascade o in pa allel. In a single-s age scena io,
he con e e o each module o a ay is, necessa ily, an in e e , whils he combina ion o
opologies in a mul is age scena io, as seen in Figu e 3, p o ides g ea e con ollabili y and
lexibili y o he sola PV sys em. Fo hese cases, a DC–DC con e e is dedica ed o each
module (wi h MPPT unc ionali y), and one o mo e DC–AC con e e is used o in e he
powe gene a ed by all he a ays.
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 2336 5 o 40
Sus ainabili y 2025, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 o 42
o ol age sou ce con e e s in a back- o-back a angemen enables he inco po a ion o
MPPT algo i hms, eac i e powe compensa ion, inc eased obus ness, and an enhanced
o a ion speed o he gene a o [28,29].
As p e iously s a ed, he use o bulky componen s and de ices, such as low- e-
quency ans o me s (LFTs), leads o educed efficiency a ings, lowe eliabili y, and
highe cos s. The e o e, he adop ion o con e e s wi h highe powe densi y, i.e., based
on HFTs o MFTs, is seen as he mos iable solu ion. This si ua ion is jus i ied in [30–33],
whe e a ious isola ed in e ace con igu a ions we e in oduced o a iable-speed wind
u bines and high- ol age di ec cu en (HVDC) sys ems in offsho e wind a ms. In ad-
di ion, [34] p oposed eplacing he common LFT wi h a SST s uc u e.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figu e 1. Possible a chi ec u es o in e acing u bine gene a o echnologies wi h he u ili y g id:
(a) ixed speed; (b) pa ial a iable speed; (c) a iable speed wi h pa ial-scale equency con e e ;
and (d) a iable speed wi h ull-scale powe con e e .
Upon analyzing he li e a u e and ecen ene gy da a, i becomes e iden ha bo h
uel cells and sola PV echnology offe he g ea es po en ial o inno a ion and e olu-
ion. Rega ding sola PV, such echnological ma u a ion may in ol e modi ica ions in he
cha ac e is ics o he modules, bu mo e no ably, i necessi a es imp o emen s in he in-
e ace sys em be ween his RES and he u ili y g id. As obse ed in Figu e 2, depending
on he a chi ec u e and connec ion be ween a ce ain numbe o modules, a diffe en num-
be o con e sion s ages mus also be picked [35].
Figu e 2. Possible a angemen s o g id-connec ed PV sys ems: module in e e , s ing in e e ,
mul is ing in e e , and cen alized in e e con igu a ions.
AC Bus
Powe
DC Bus
Module In e e
S ing In e e Mul i-s ing In e e Cen alized In e e
AC
DC
AC
DC
AC
DC
DC
DC
DC
DC
AC
DC
AC
DC
Figu e 2. Possible a angemen s o g id-connec ed PV sys ems: module in e e , s ing in e e ,
mul is ing in e e , and cen alized in e e con igu a ions.
Fo any scena io in ol ing sola PV modules, i.e., esiden ial, comme cial, po able,
and, mos impo an ly, la ge-scale powe plan s, he e is always a need o isola ion due
o sa e y issues. As al eady men ioned in he in oduc ion, he inclusion o a gal anically
isola ed ans o me , al hough no manda o y in ce ain cases, allows, in addi ion, he
p e en ion o equipmen damage o mal unc ioning due o elec ical aul s (e.g., sho
ci cui s). Likewise, he e iciency o sola PV sys ems becomes, consequen ly, highe , since
possible pa hs o leakage cu en s a e elimina ed.
Sus ainabili y 2025, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 o 42
Fo low-powe applica ions, a single in e ing s age may be commonly applied,
whe eas o a mul is ing con igu a ion, mul is age a chi ec u es a e always equi ed [36].
This scena io is equally eplicable in mic oin e e con igu a ions, in which a dedica ed
powe con e e is associa ed wi h each sola PV module. On he o he hand, o medium-
and high-powe scena ios, cen alized and mul is ing con igu a ions a e no mally con-
side ed. Ne e heless, he emaining a chi ec u es, albei less commonly, may be equally
used, as p o en in [37], whe e a compa a i e s udy ega ding powe quali y, cos s, gen-
e al cha ac e is ics, and powe losses in la ge-scale sola PV powe plan s was ca ied ou .
As expec ed, in highe powe scena ios, o each he desi ed ol age and cu en alues,
se e al modules mus be in e connec ed. As wi h mic oin e e con igu a ions, each sola
PV a ay has a dedica ed DC–DC powe con e e , which consequen ly, may esul in
diffe en a angemen s o he powe con e e s, i.e., cascade o in pa allel. In a sin-
gle-s age scena io, he con e e o each module o a ay is, necessa ily, an in e e , whils
he combina ion o opologies in a mul is age scena io, as seen in Figu e 3, p o ides
g ea e con ollabili y and lexibili y o he sola PV sys em. Fo hese cases, a DC–DC
con e e is dedica ed o each module (wi h MPPT unc ionali y), and one o mo e DC–
AC con e e is used o in e he powe gene a ed by all he a ays.
Fo any scena io in ol ing sola PV modules, i.e., esiden ial, comme cial, po able,
and, mos impo an ly, la ge-scale powe plan s, he e is always a need o isola ion due
o sa e y issues. As al eady men ioned in he in oduc ion, he inclusion o a gal anically
isola ed ans o me , al hough no manda o y in ce ain cases, allows, in addi ion, he
p e en ion o equipmen damage o mal unc ioning due o elec ical aul s (e.g., sho ci -
cui s). Likewise, he efficiency o sola PV sys ems becomes, consequen ly, highe , since
possible pa hs o leakage cu en s a e elimina ed.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figu e 3. Possible mul is age mul iple inpu con igu a ions o in e ace g id-connec ed PV sys ems:
(a) pa allel DC; (b) pa allel AC; (c) cascade DC; and (d) cascade AC.
As wi h sola PV sys ems, he use o uel cells also ga he s s ong consensus wi hin
he scien i ic communi y as a p ominen echnological end wi h subs an ial de elop-
men al po en ial. These de ices di ec ly con e chemical ene gy in o elec ical ene gy,
ypically elying on hyd ogen as he p ima y uel sou ce. This chemical eac ion enables
he gene a ion o elec ici y in a clean and efficien manne , al hough powe elec onics
con e e s a e equi ed o egula e he gene a ed alues om each indi idual cell.
Figu e 3. Possible mul is age mul iple inpu con igu a ions o in e ace g id-connec ed PV sys ems:
(a) pa allel DC; (b) pa allel AC; (c) cascade DC; and (d) cascade AC.
As wi h sola PV sys ems, he use o uel cells also ga he s s ong consensus wi hin he
scien i ic communi y as a p ominen echnological end wi h subs an ial de elopmen al
po en ial. These de ices di ec ly con e chemical ene gy in o elec ical ene gy, ypically
elying on hyd ogen as he p ima y uel sou ce. This chemical eac ion enables he gene a-
ion o elec ici y in a clean and e icien manne , al hough powe elec onics con e e s a e
equi ed o egula e he gene a ed alues om each indi idual cell.
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 2336 6 o 40
In line wi h any enewable echnology, based on he speci ic equi emen s o he
sys em, such con e e s mus be esponsible o ol age, cu en , and, in he case o AC
sys ems, equency adjus men s. Howe e , as expe ienced wi h sola PV modules, he
ou pu alues o a uel cell will be in luenced by empe a u e luc ua ions, load changes,
and a ia ions in he uel supply [
38
–
40
]. The e o e, powe con e e s also bea he
esponsibili y o p o iding s able and eliable ope a ion o he RES-based gene a ion sys em.
This necessi a es he implemen a ion o app op ia e modula ion and con ol algo i hms.
No ably, MPPT con ol algo i hms a e once again manda o y, wi h nume ous a ian s
commonly documen ed in he li e a u e, as depic ed in [41–44].
Fuel cells, in a simpli ied manne , can be desc ibed as a DC ene gy sou ce and, as
such, a e commonly associa ed wi h and in eg a ed in o mul iple inpu a chi ec u es, as
depic ed in Figu e 3. This app oach aims o enhance powe gene a ion, e iciency, and
lexibili y. Depending on he applica ion scena io, hese DC–DC powe con e e s can also
be isola ed o non-isola ed, as men ioned in [
45
]. In his compa a i e s udy, all possible
opologies o in e acing wi h uel cells we e enume a ed, as well as a de ailed sec ion
ega ding echnical challenges, powe quali y p oblems, and powe con ol issues.
Fo mul iple inpu sys ems, ca e ul a en ion mus be de o ed o ene gy managemen ,
pa icula ly in hyb id scena ios in ol ing di e en RESs. In e ace sys ems mus adjus
a ious ol age and cu en alues o e icien ly deli e ene gy o he u ili y g id, loads, o
ESSs. To his end, mechanisms o phase and equency synch oniza ion, managemen and
egula ion o imbalances and luc ua ions, as well as mi iga ion and smoo hing o ansien s
be ween di e en RESs, need o be ensu ed [
46
]. Among a ious examples, powe sha ing
echniques a e highligh ed, as indica ed in [47].
The need o isola ion is equally highligh ed in u bine gene a o echnologies. Bo h in
his case and in la ge-scale sola PV powe plan s, LFTs a e used nowadays o in e acing
wi h low- ol age eede s, which con e a s a ic and passi e beha io in he ace o possible
momen a y changes in ope a ing condi ions. In his ega d, o he abo e-men ioned
easons, mig a ing owa ds isola ed powe elec onics solu ions swi ching a medium- o
high- equencies, e.g., he SST (shown in i s adi ional s uc u e in Figu e 4), is seen as one
o he acili a ing ends o he con inuous dissemina ion o sma g ids and mic og ids.
Fu he mo e, o any o he cases illus a ed in Figu es 2–4, he h ee-phase con igu a ion
may also be conside ed.
Sus ainabili y 2025, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 o 42
In line wi h any enewable echnology, based on he speci ic equi emen s o he sys-
em, such con e e s mus be esponsible o ol age, cu en , and, in he case o AC sys-
ems, equency adjus men s. Howe e , as expe ienced wi h sola PV modules, he ou pu
alues o a uel cell will be in luenced by empe a u e luc ua ions, load changes, and a -
ia ions in he uel supply [38–40]. The e o e, powe con e e s also bea he esponsibili y
o p o iding s able and eliable ope a ion o he RES-based gene a ion sys em. This ne-
cessi a es he implemen a ion o app op ia e modula ion and con ol algo i hms. No ably,
MPPT con ol algo i hms a e once again manda o y, wi h nume ous a ian s commonly
documen ed in he li e a u e, as depic ed in [41–44].
Fuel cells, in a simpli ied manne , can be desc ibed as a DC ene gy sou ce and, as
such, a e commonly associa ed wi h and in eg a ed in o mul iple inpu a chi ec u es, as
depic ed in Figu e 3. This app oach aims o enhance powe gene a ion, efficiency, and
lexibili y. Depending on he applica ion scena io, hese DC–DC powe con e e s can
also be isola ed o non-isola ed, as men ioned in [45]. In his compa a i e s udy, all possi-
ble opologies o in e acing wi h uel cells we e enume a ed, as well as a de ailed sec ion
ega ding echnical challenges, powe quali y p oblems, and powe con ol issues.
Fo mul iple inpu sys ems, ca e ul a en ion mus be de o ed o ene gy manage-
men , pa icula ly in hyb id scena ios in ol ing diffe en RESs. In e ace sys ems mus
adjus a ious ol age and cu en alues o efficien ly deli e ene gy o he u ili y g id,
loads, o ESSs. To his end, mechanisms o phase and equency synch oniza ion, man-
agemen and egula ion o imbalances and luc ua ions, as well as mi iga ion and smoo h-
ing o ansien s be ween diffe en RESs, need o be ensu ed [46]. Among a ious exam-
ples, powe sha ing echniques a e highligh ed, as indica ed in [47].
The need o isola ion is equally highligh ed in u bine gene a o echnologies. Bo h
in his case and in la ge-scale sola PV powe plan s, LFTs a e used nowadays o in e -
acing wi h low- ol age eede s, which con e a s a ic and passi e beha io in he ace o
possible momen a y changes in ope a ing condi ions. In his ega d, o he abo e-men-
ioned easons, mig a ing owa ds isola ed powe elec onics solu ions swi ching a me-
dium- o high- equencies, e.g., he SST (shown in i s adi ional s uc u e in Figu e 4), is
seen as one o he acili a ing ends o he con inuous dissemina ion o sma g ids and
mic og ids. Fu he mo e, o any o he cases illus a ed in Figu es 2–4, he h ee-phase
con igu a ion may also be conside ed.
Figu e 4. T adi ional h ee-s age s uc u e o a solid-s a e ans o me (SST).
The isola ed DC–DC con e sion s age, depending on he objec i es, may be em-
ployed a diffe en poin s in he in e ace ci cui . Fo ins ance, in cases whe e each module
o a ay disposes o a dedica ed con e e , isola ion can be achie ed indi idually (using
mul iple con e e s) o globally, i.e., h ough a single isola ed powe con e e when in-
e acing wi h he u ili y g id. As expec ed, he g ea e he numbe o isola ed powe con-
e e s used, he g ea e he cos o he en i e ins alla ion, bu he g ea e he sa e y and
lexibili y. In o he wo ds, each a ay can be sized independen ly, a pa icula ly use ul
ea u e when sola PV modules a e subjec o diffe en adia ion le els o shading. On he
o he hand, a g ea e numbe o isola ed powe con e e s also leads o luc ua ing
Figu e 4. T adi ional h ee-s age s uc u e o a solid-s a e ans o me (SST).
The isola ed DC–DC con e sion s age, depending on he objec i es, may be employed
a di e en poin s in he in e ace ci cui . Fo ins ance, in cases whe e each module o a ay
disposes o a dedica ed con e e , isola ion can be achie ed indi idually (using mul iple
con e e s) o globally, i.e., h ough a single isola ed powe con e e when in e acing
wi h he u ili y g id. As expec ed, he g ea e he numbe o isola ed powe con e e s
used, he g ea e he cos o he en i e ins alla ion, bu he g ea e he sa e y and lexibili y.
In o he wo ds, each a ay can be sized independen ly, a pa icula ly use ul ea u e when
sola PV modules a e subjec o di e en adia ion le els o shading. On he o he hand,
a g ea e numbe o isola ed powe con e e s also leads o luc ua ing e iciency alues,
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 2336 7 o 40
since ans o me losses a e eplica ed in mul iple poin s. Wi h ega d o eliabili y, highe
alues a e achie ed i each a ay is isola ed om he o he s since possible localized aul s
will no ep esen a ep isal o he global sola PV sys em.
Due o he g owing adop ion o eme ging DC powe de ices, he es ablishmen
and u iliza ion o DC powe g ids ha e become mo e p e alen . As a key elemen , such
a chi ec u es po en ially allow o an e ec i e educ ion in he numbe o con e sion s ages,
which consequen ly ansla es in o enhanced pe o mance and educed losses. In DC
sys ems, issues ela ed o powe quali y a e also e ec i ely add essed, he eby acili a ing
he in eg a ion o RES-based sys ems. In he case o DC mic og ids, equency luc ua ions
a e also easily mi iga ed, which p esen s a signi ican ad an age du ing islanding mode.
On he o he hand, he mig a ions owa ds DC powe g ids s ill lack echnological
ma u i y and would equi e a signi ican o e haul o a subs an ial po ion o he exis ing
in as uc u e. Fu he mo e, he s anda ds and egula o y amewo ks o he implemen-
a ion o such DC s uc u es a e s ill in an uns able phase, p ecluding hei immedia e
adop ion. In addi ion, DC aul s a e ecognized as one o he majo limi a ions o he
ongoing p oli e a ion o DC powe g ids. In mos ins ances, powe con e e opologies
a e chosen based on hei capabili y and cha ac e is ics o e icien ly mi iga e such aul s.
Acco ding o [
48
], DC pole- o-pole aul s o igina e om ei he a sho -ci cui occu -
ence o insula ion b eakdown. Since he impedance o a DC line is much lowe when
compa ed o adi ional AC sys ems, his ype o aul will esul in an almos immedia e
capaci o discha ge. While less common, DC pole- o-pole aul s can cause se e e damage
o elec onic equipmen , he majo i y o which ha e limi ed capabili ies in e ms o o e -
cu en p o ec ion. The e o e, a as e esponse ime is equi ed o p o ec ion sys ems,
which is conside ed he p ima y d awback compa ed o AC ene gy ansmission and
dis ibu ion sys ems [49].
As po en ial p oblems caused by DC aul s can quickly escala e in o a cascade e ec , a -
ec ing se e al de ices, i is impe a i e o mode n powe sys ems o inco po a e ad anced
moni o ing and con ol echnologies. Addi ionally, obus ness and edundancy should also
be s eng hened o enhance he s abili y o ansmission and dis ibu ion sys ems, he eby
isola ing DC aul s.
To mi iga e hese issues, DC ci cui b eake s should be in eg a ed in o he DC sys em.
Al e na i ely, con e e opologies wi h enhanced DC-side aul handling capabili ies, such
as modula mul ile el con e e s (MMCs) [
50
], can also be employed. None heless, i is
always ad isable o use mul iple DC ci cui b eake s o p e en ex ensi e p opaga ion o
he aul . As a esul , o he segmen s o he DC line can con inue o ope a e edundan ly,
simila o cu en AC sys ems. In u n, when u ilizing powe con e e s as an ac i e
aul mi iga ion elemen , app op ia e con ol algo i hms should also be conside ed, as
demons a ed in [
51
]. In his a icle, aul beha io s in he modal-domain, ime-domain,
and equency-domain we e analyzed, highligh ing he need o implemen sys ems wi h a
high sampling equency. Addi ionally, ex ensi e s udies o di e en p o ec ion me hods in
HVDC ansmission sys ems we e conduc ed in [52,53].
To be e in eg a e eme ging echnologies, hyb id powe g ids ha e also been consid-
e ed a e sa ile and lexible solu ion. These a chi ec u es can ha ness he ad an ages o
bo h g id ypes, albei wi h mo e in ica e con ol s uc u es [54,55].
The need o isola ion and he ea u es o a de e mined RES in e acing sys em will ul-
ima ely depend on he speci ic needs o each p ojec . Acco ding o he p oposed objec i es,
di e en a chi ec u es and con igu a ions mus be chosen, as well as he opologies o
powe con e e s. Fo isola ed DC–DC opologies, he design and sizing a e o pa icula
impo ance since he e will be g ea e losses and elec omagne ic in e e ences will di ec ly
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 2336 8 o 40
in luence he ope a ion o all de ices. Thus, app op ia e modula ions and s a egies aimed
a inc easing eliabili y, lexibili y, and e iciency mus be de ined.
3. Isola ed DC–DC Con e e P ope ies, Topologies, and Modula ions
The selec ion o opologies o in e acing RES-based gene a ion echnologies is always
in consonance wi h he cha ac e is ics o he con e e i sel , namely, he powe and ol age
a ings, numbe o s ages, added unc ionali ies, and isola ion equi emen s. As discussed
in he p e ious sec ion, he use o isola ed opologies is e lec ed globally in a g ea e
numbe o ad an ages, bu o maximize e iciency, app op ia e modula ion echniques, as
well as MPPT and u ili y g id connec ion algo i hms, should also be chosen.
In medium- and high- ol age applica ions, enewable ene gy in e ace sys ems p e-
dominan ly adop a h ee-phase con igu a ion, making he choice o opologies o each
con e e o u mos impo ance, wi h a pa icula emphasis on isola ed DC–DC opologies.
Ne e heless, conside ing he a o emen ioned ad an ages, isola ion also plays a p epon-
de an ole in low-powe single-phase sys ems. Gi en he high echnological ma u i y
o LFTs, hey a e widely used in nume ous cases; howe e , in line wi h he echnological
assump ions o u u e sma g ids, his con e sion s age will necessa ily ha e o p esen
new and inno a i e unc ionali ies.
These inno a i e ea u es can only be achie ed h ough he implemen a ion o ap-
p op ia e modula ions and a chi ec u es in each powe elec onics sys em. In he case o
isola ed opologies, speci ically DC–DC con e e s, he u iliza ion o HFTs (o MFTs), sup-
po ed by WBG semiconduc o s, is indispensable. By conside ing he ans o me u n a io
(N
=N
1
/N
2
), a b oade ange o ol age con e sions is a ainable, which endows hese
con e e s wi h inc eased lexibili y, eliabili y, and compa ibili y wi h a ious de ices.
Addi ionally, hese isola ed s ages o e ad anced aul ole ance capabili ies, e ec i e
mi iga ion o g ound po en ial di e ences (e.g., g ound loops), and enhanced immuni y o
noise and elec omagne ic in e e ence (EMI) [
56
]. Such a ibu es a e pa icula ly c i ical
in ci cui s used o da a ansmission o analog signal applica ions.
Among he DC–DC isola ed opologies, he dual ac i e b idge (DAB) con e e holds
a p ominen posi ion and is widely u ilized ac oss a wide ange o scena ios [
57
–
59
].
Howe e , i is also impo an o no e ha a ious o he opologies ha e been ex ensi ely
s udied in he li e a u e. The selec ion o a pa icula opology depends on se e al ac o s,
including he speci ic applica ion scena io, con ol and implemen a ion simplici y, powe
ange con e sion equi emen s, and he desi ed numbe o ou pu s.
3.1. Con en ional Isola ed Topologies
In he in e ace wi h RES-based gene a ion echnologies, among con en ional iso-
la ed DC–DC con e e s, he lyback, o wa d, and push–pull opologies a e commonly
men ioned and u ilized. These opologies a e depic ed in Figu es 5–7, showcasing bo h
hei classic a chi ec u e and occasional a ia ions. Despi e ha ing dis inc cha ac e is ics,
especially in e ms o ope a ing powe , hey a e widely employed due o hei simplici y,
ease o con ol, and ela i ely high e iciency ac oss a wide ange o ol age le els. Con-
sequen ly, he abo emen ioned isola ed DC–DC opologies p o ide inc eased lexibili y,
a e conside ed excellen cos -e ec i e powe elec onics solu ions, and gi en hei echno-
logical ma u i y, a e equen ly ound in a b oad ange o scena ios. None heless, besides
di e ences in ope a ing powe , hese opologies also a y in ans o me ype, numbe o
possible ol age ou pu s, and immuni y o in e e ence caused by semiconduc o swi ching.
Once again, bo h componen selec ion and con e e design play c ucial oles in achie ing
he desi ed pe o mance and e iciency.
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 2336 9 o 40
3.1.1. Flyback
O de ing lyback, o wa d, and push–pull con e e s based on desi ed ou pu powe ,
he lyback con e e p esen s he lowes nominal alue. Howe e , by inc easing he
ol age le els suppo ed by WBG semiconduc o s and he powe densi y o con e e s, and
by including high- ol age ga e d i e s in con ol ci cui s, opologies ha we e p e iously
limi ed o low-powe applica ions a e now being employed in a wide ange o powe
solu ions. Ne e heless, he selec ion o a speci ic opology also conside s o he signi ican
ac o s, including associa ed cos s, olume and weigh , elec ical s ess, ou pu noise, and
inpu ol age ange, among o he s.
Since he lyback con e e gene a es a non-in e ing ou pu , i s applica ion in se e al
de ices is acili a ed, elimina ing he need o addi ional complemen a y ci cui s. Thus, his
isola ed DC–DC opology is egula ly employed in low-powe scena ios, such as powe
supplies and mic oin e e con igu a ions o sola PV sys ems [
60
]. As shown in Figu e 5a,
i inco po a es a single ac i e swi ch (S
1
), esul ing in educed cos s, as well as swi ching
losses. A coupled-induc o ans o me is added o s o e ene gy du ing he on- ime o S
1
and ans e i o he seconda y side du ing he o - ime [
61
]. I is impo an o no e ha
cu en ec i ica ion is solely pe o med by he diode D
1
, leading o an inc eased ipple in
he ou pu ol age wa e o m (V
ou
) and, consequen ly, lowe e iciency. Mo eo e , he use
o HFTs o MFTs may also be conside ed, hus p o iding no only gal anic isola ion bu
also inc easing he s ep-up a io. The e o e, based on N
and he du y cycle (D) applied o
S1,Vou is de e mined as ollows [23]:
Vou =N2D
N1(1−D)Vdc (1)
Wi h he use o a lyback con e e , i is also easible o ob ain mul iple DC ou pu s
by adding ex a windings o he HFT and employing sui able ci cui s and modula ion
echniques o egula e each indi idual ou pu [
62
]. Depending on N
and he implemen ed
con ol ci cui , hese DC ou pu s can ope a e independen ly, which means he possibili y
o ob aining dis inc ol age le els and connec ing de ices wi h di e en ly a ed powe .
Howe e , as he numbe o DC ou pu s inc eases, he con ol complexi y also escala es.
Rega ding opology classi ica ion, he lyback con e e is ca ego ized as a single-
ended con igu a ion. In o he wo ds, only he p ima y winding o he ans o me is
connec ed o he powe swi ches, whe eas in double-ended opologies, he powe swi ches
a e connec ed o bo h sides o he ans o me . As a esul , single-ended opologies do
no suppo bidi ec ional powe low. In a lyback con e e , he ac i e semiconduc o
S
1
is connec ed o he p ima y winding, while he ec i ying elemen , D
1
, is linked o he
seconda y. Analyzing he ans o me ’s B–H cu e, he lux only exis s in one quad an ,
speci ically om ze o o posi i e alues, wi hou e e sing di ec ion. This leads o enhanced
powe handling capabili ies and e icien con e sion since he absence o bidi ec ional
powe low educes losses associa ed wi h e e se cu en and ol age s ess.
Howe e , when he lyback con e e ope a es in discon inuous conduc ion mode
(DCM), he p ima y side cu en s ess o he HFT inc eases, leading o highe conduc ion
losses and ele a ed peak cu en s. Addi ionally, he ope a ion in DCM con ibu es o
g ea e THD due o ab up swi ching ansi ions and inc eased cu en ipple. This e ec
is agg a a ed as ol age ipple on he DC bus augmen s, which nega i ely impac s he
con e e ’s pe o mance by inc easing swi ching losses and educing o e all e iciency [
63
].
In DCM ope a ion, swi ching and conduc ion losses end o dec ease a lowe powe
le els gi en he educed du y cycle and sho e conduc ion in e als. Howe e , as he
powe inc eases, he cu en s ess on he swi ching de ices g ows, leading o he need o
he mal dissipa ion equi emen s. Addi ionally, co e losses in he HFT emain signi ican
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 2336 16 o 40
Sus ainabili y 2025, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 o 42
Figu e 13. Unidi ec ional in e lea ed ull–hal -b idge isola ed DC–DC con e e .
3.2.3. Single Ac i e B idge and Dual Ac i e B idge
The single ac i e b idge (SAB) and DAB con e e s u ilize ull-b idge s uc u es in
bo h he in e ing and ec i ying s ages, as depic ed in Figu e 14. An ac i e ull-b idge
con e e is connec ed o he p ima y side o he HFT. Howe e , he main diffe ence lies
in he opology and beha io o he ec i ying s age. In he SAB con e e , a ull-b idge
diode-based AC–DC con e e is connec ed o he seconda y winding o he HFT, which
con e s a passi e beha io [87]. Subsequen ly, as is common p ac ice in all DC–DC con-
e e s, a DC bus is included o smoo h and s abilize a speci ic V
ou
. As a esul , he powe
low in his con e e is unidi ec ional, equi ing modula ion on he DC-AC con e e
connec ed o he p ima y side o he HFT, while he seconda y emains passi e.
(a) (b)
Figu e 14. Full-b idge isola ed DC–DC con e e s: (a) single ac i e b idge and (b) dual ac i e b idge.
The in e ace wi h powe gene a ion uni s in ol es he use o unidi ec ional s uc-
u es. Howe e , he e a e nume ous ad an ages i he ec i ying s age also ope a es ac-
i ely and dynamically. The e o e, a DAB con e e can be desc ibed as a symme ical
isola ed DC–DC s uc u e in which wo ull-b idge opologies, composed o ac i e semi-
conduc o s de ices, a e connec ed o each winding o an HFT [88–91]. When in e acing
wi h RES-based sys ems, bidi ec ional powe low is no he p ima y ac o d i ing he
adop ion o a DAB con e e . Ins ead, he ocus is on he bene i s o lexibili y, scalabili y,
and efficiency. In gene al, he independen con ol o each b idge aids in s abilizing he
ol age on he p ima y o seconda y side o he DAB con e e , i.e., V
dc1
and V
dc2
, espec-
i ely. This ea u e plays a c i ical ole in he ope a ion o mode n elec onic solu ions.
Addi ionally, i is possible o achie e so -swi ching h oughou he en i e powe
ange, which is no easible, e.g., in hal -b idge isola ed opologies. Wi h effec i e con ol-
labili y o e powe low, DAB con e e s exhibi na u ally highe powe densi y. This
cha ac e is ic is ex emely impo an in powe elec onics sys ems o in e acing wi h
RESs, as i is desi able o implemen compac and ligh weigh echnologies [92].
Simila ly o all b idge-based s uc u es, DAB con e e s offe supe io modula i y,
scalabili y, lexibili y, and edundancy. To enable he in e ace wi h high-powe sys ems,
D
3
C
4
D
4
C
5
L
2
V
p i2
V
sec2
V
ou
S
5
S
7
S
6
S
8
D
1
C
2
D
2
C
3
L
1
V
p i1
V
sec1
S
1
S
3
S
2
S
4
C
1
V
dc
C
7
C
6
S
1
S
3
S
2
S
4
C
1
D
1
D
3
D
2
D
4
V
ou
C
2
L
s
V
dc
V
p i
V
sec
S
1
S
3
S
2
S
4
C
1
S
5
S
7
S
6
S
8
V
dc2
C
2
L
s
V
dc1
V
p i
V
sec
Figu e 13. Unidi ec ional in e lea ed ull–hal -b idge isola ed DC–DC con e e .
3.2.3. Single Ac i e B idge and Dual Ac i e B idge
The single ac i e b idge (SAB) and DAB con e e s u ilize ull-b idge s uc u es in
bo h he in e ing and ec i ying s ages, as depic ed in Figu e 14. An ac i e ull-b idge
con e e is connec ed o he p ima y side o he HFT. Howe e , he main di e ence lies in
he opology and beha io o he ec i ying s age. In he SAB con e e , a ull-b idge diode-
based AC–DC con e e is connec ed o he seconda y winding o he HFT, which con e s
a passi e beha io [
87
]. Subsequen ly, as is common p ac ice in all DC–DC con e e s, a
DC bus is included o smoo h and s abilize a speci ic V
ou
. As a esul , he powe low in
his con e e is unidi ec ional, equi ing modula ion on he DC-AC con e e connec ed
o he p ima y side o he HFT, while he seconda y emains passi e.
Sus ainabili y 2025, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 o 42
Figu e 13. Unidi ec ional in e lea ed ull–hal -b idge isola ed DC–DC con e e .
3.2.3. Single Ac i e B idge and Dual Ac i e B idge
The single ac i e b idge (SAB) and DAB con e e s u ilize ull-b idge s uc u es in
bo h he in e ing and ec i ying s ages, as depic ed in Figu e 14. An ac i e ull-b idge
con e e is connec ed o he p ima y side o he HFT. Howe e , he main diffe ence lies
in he opology and beha io o he ec i ying s age. In he SAB con e e , a ull-b idge
diode-based AC–DC con e e is connec ed o he seconda y winding o he HFT, which
con e s a passi e beha io [87]. Subsequen ly, as is common p ac ice in all DC–DC con-
e e s, a DC bus is included o smoo h and s abilize a speci ic V
ou
. As a esul , he powe
low in his con e e is unidi ec ional, equi ing modula ion on he DC-AC con e e
connec ed o he p ima y side o he HFT, while he seconda y emains passi e.
(a) (b)
Figu e 14. Full-b idge isola ed DC–DC con e e s: (a) single ac i e b idge and (b) dual ac i e b idge.
The in e ace wi h powe gene a ion uni s in ol es he use o unidi ec ional s uc-
u es. Howe e , he e a e nume ous ad an ages i he ec i ying s age also ope a es ac-
i ely and dynamically. The e o e, a DAB con e e can be desc ibed as a symme ical
isola ed DC–DC s uc u e in which wo ull-b idge opologies, composed o ac i e semi-
conduc o s de ices, a e connec ed o each winding o an HFT [88–91]. When in e acing
wi h RES-based sys ems, bidi ec ional powe low is no he p ima y ac o d i ing he
adop ion o a DAB con e e . Ins ead, he ocus is on he bene i s o lexibili y, scalabili y,
and efficiency. In gene al, he independen con ol o each b idge aids in s abilizing he
ol age on he p ima y o seconda y side o he DAB con e e , i.e., V
dc1
and V
dc2
, espec-
i ely. This ea u e plays a c i ical ole in he ope a ion o mode n elec onic solu ions.
Addi ionally, i is possible o achie e so -swi ching h oughou he en i e powe
ange, which is no easible, e.g., in hal -b idge isola ed opologies. Wi h effec i e con ol-
labili y o e powe low, DAB con e e s exhibi na u ally highe powe densi y. This
cha ac e is ic is ex emely impo an in powe elec onics sys ems o in e acing wi h
RESs, as i is desi able o implemen compac and ligh weigh echnologies [92].
Simila ly o all b idge-based s uc u es, DAB con e e s offe supe io modula i y,
scalabili y, lexibili y, and edundancy. To enable he in e ace wi h high-powe sys ems,
D
3
C
4
D
4
C
5
L
2
V
p i2
V
sec2
V
ou
S
5
S
7
S
6
S
8
D
1
C
2
D
2
C
3
L
1
V
p i1
V
sec1
S
1
S
3
S
2
S
4
C
1
V
dc
C
7
C
6
S
1
S
3
S
2
S
4
C
1
D
1
D
3
D
2
D
4
V
ou
C
2
L
s
V
dc
V
p i
V
sec
S
1
S
3
S
2
S
4
C
1
S
5
S
7
S
6
S
8
V
dc2
C
2
L
s
V
dc1
V
p i
V
sec
Figu e 14. Full-b idge isola ed DC–DC con e e s: (a) single ac i e b idge and (b) dual ac i e b idge.
The in e ace wi h powe gene a ion uni s in ol es he use o unidi ec ional s uc u es.
Howe e , he e a e nume ous ad an ages i he ec i ying s age also ope a es ac i ely
and dynamically. The e o e, a DAB con e e can be desc ibed as a symme ical isola ed
DC–DC s uc u e in which wo ull-b idge opologies, composed o ac i e semiconduc o s
de ices, a e connec ed o each winding o an HFT [
88
–
91
]. When in e acing wi h RES-
based sys ems, bidi ec ional powe low is no he p ima y ac o d i ing he adop ion o a
DAB con e e . Ins ead, he ocus is on he bene i s o lexibili y, scalabili y, and e iciency.
In gene al, he independen con ol o each b idge aids in s abilizing he ol age on he
p ima y o seconda y side o he DAB con e e , i.e., V
dc1
and V
dc2
, espec i ely. This
ea u e plays a c i ical ole in he ope a ion o mode n elec onic solu ions.
Addi ionally, i is possible o achie e so -swi ching h oughou he en i e powe ange,
which is no easible, e.g., in hal -b idge isola ed opologies. Wi h e ec i e con ollabili y
o e powe low, DAB con e e s exhibi na u ally highe powe densi y. This cha ac e is ic
is ex emely impo an in powe elec onics sys ems o in e acing wi h RESs, as i is
desi able o implemen compac and ligh weigh echnologies [92].
Simila ly o all b idge-based s uc u es, DAB con e e s o e supe io modula i y,
scalabili y, lexibili y, and edundancy. To enable he in e ace wi h high-powe sys ems, i
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 2336 17 o 40
is pa icula ly impo an o in e connec di e en b idge con e e s in cascade o pa allel
con igu a ions, which o m he common s uc u es: (i) inpu -pa allel/ou pu -pa allel
(IPOP); (ii) inpu -se ies/ou pu -se ies (ISOS); (iii) inpu -se ies/ou pu -pa allel (ISOP); and
(i ) inpu -pa allel/ou pu -se ies (IPOS) [
93
,
94
]. By dis ibu ing he cu en and/o ol age
h ough a la ge numbe o ac i e semiconduc o s, he s ess on each de ice is signi ican ly
educed, leading o imp o ed o e all pe o mance and eliabili y.
In his espec , Figu e 15 depic s he espec i e block diag ams ha ep esen he
abo emen ioned a angemen s. Howe e , he speci ic opology o each block should
be selec ed based on he equi emen s o he powe elec onics solu ion [
95
]. I a ull-
b idge opology is chosen, hese diag ams would indica e he connec ion o mul iple DAB
con e e s wi h di e en a angemen s. No wi hs anding, hal -b idge-based opologies
could also be chosen o his pu pose. As depic ed in ed in his igu e, he complexi y
o con ol and modula ion inc eases as he numbe o in e connec ed isola ed DC–DC
con e e s ises. Howe e , as men ioned abo e, his esul s in lowe semiconduc o s ess.
Howe e , as a dis inguishing ea u e, DAB also allows o he mi iga ion o ha monic
con en in V
ou
. By acili a ing he implemen a ion o loss-minimiza ion echniques, such
as ZVS, and app op ia e modula ion echniques, including phase-shi a ia ions, EMI is
signi ican ly educed. Mo eo e , he adop ion o a DAB con e e ensu es, inclusi ely,
compliance wi h g id in e connec ion s anda ds, making hem highly adequa e o a
b oade ange o ope a ing scena ios. These key ac o s con ibu e o he widesp ead
adop ion o DAB con e e s in he mos di e se powe elec onics sys ems.
Sus ainabili y 2025, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 o 42
i is pa icula ly impo an o in e connec diffe en b idge con e e s in cascade o pa al-
lel con igu a ions, which o m he common s uc u es: (i) inpu -pa allel/ou pu -pa allel
(IPOP); (ii) inpu -se ies/ou pu -se ies (ISOS); (iii) inpu -se ies/ou pu -pa allel (ISOP); and
(i ) inpu -pa allel/ou pu -se ies (IPOS) [93,94]. By dis ibu ing he cu en and/o ol age
h ough a la ge numbe o ac i e semiconduc o s, he s ess on each de ice is signi i-
can ly educed, leading o imp o ed o e all pe o mance and eliabili y.
In his espec , Figu e 15 depic s he espec i e block diag ams ha ep esen he
abo emen ioned a angemen s. Howe e , he speci ic opology o each block should be
selec ed based on he equi emen s o he powe elec onics solu ion [95]. I a ull-b idge
opology is chosen, hese diag ams would indica e he connec ion o mul iple DAB con-
e e s wi h diffe en a angemen s. No wi hs anding, hal -b idge-based opologies
could also be chosen o his pu pose. As depic ed in ed in his igu e, he complexi y o
con ol and modula ion inc eases as he numbe o in e connec ed isola ed DC–DC con-
e e s ises. Howe e , as men ioned abo e, his esul s in lowe semiconduc o s ess.
Howe e , as a dis inguishing ea u e, DAB also allows o he mi iga ion o ha monic
con en in V
ou
. By acili a ing he implemen a ion o loss-minimiza ion echniques, such
as ZVS, and app op ia e modula ion echniques, including phase-shi a ia ions, EMI is
signi ican ly educed. Mo eo e , he adop ion o a DAB con e e ensu es, inclusi ely,
compliance wi h g id in e connec ion s anda ds, making hem highly adequa e o a
b oade ange o ope a ing scena ios. These key ac o s con ibu e o he widesp ead
adop ion o DAB con e e s in he mos di e se powe elec onics sys ems.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figu e 15. A angemen s o modula con e e s: (a) IPOP; (b) IPOS; (c) ISOP; and (d) ISOS.
The diffe en a angemen s depic ed in Figu e 15 a e a consequence o he high mod-
ula i y and scalabili y o b idge-based opologies, including DAB con e e s. Howe e ,
mul ipo con igu a ions can also be easily achie ed by modi ying he s uc u e o he
MFT [96]. As shown in Figu e 16, he numbe o windings in he MFT co esponds o he
numbe o independen inpu /ou pu e minals [97]. Depending on he opology o each
b idge and he powe de ice connec ed o each e minal, he powe low can be ei he
unidi ec ional o bidi ec ional. Each inpu /ou pu e minal is gal anically isola ed om
Figu e 15. A angemen s o modula con e e s: (a) IPOP; (b) IPOS; (c) ISOP; and (d) ISOS.
The di e en a angemen s depic ed in Figu e 15 a e a consequence o he high
modula i y and scalabili y o b idge-based opologies, including DAB con e e s. Howe e ,
mul ipo con igu a ions can also be easily achie ed by modi ying he s uc u e o he
MFT [
96
]. As shown in Figu e 16, he numbe o windings in he MFT co esponds o he
numbe o independen inpu /ou pu e minals [
97
]. Depending on he opology o each
b idge and he powe de ice connec ed o each e minal, he powe low can be ei he
unidi ec ional o bidi ec ional. Each inpu /ou pu e minal is gal anically isola ed om
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 2336 18 o 40
he o he s, while e icien and lexible ene gy exchange is enabled be ween hem. Since he
powe elec onics sys em is o ally in eg a ed, highe powe densi y is ob ained, simpli ying
he implemen a ion o con ol algo i hms and modula ion echniques. Thus, Figu e 16a
p esen s he block diag am o an isola ed bidi ec ional mul ipo DC–DC con e e wi h
ou inpu /ou pu e minals, while Figu e 16b illus a es he same con e e based on a
quad ac i e b idge (QAB) con igu a ion [98–100].
Sus ainabili y 2025, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 o 42
he o he s, while efficien and lexible ene gy exchange is enabled be ween hem. Since
he powe elec onics sys em is o ally in eg a ed, highe powe densi y is ob ained, sim-
pli ying he implemen a ion o con ol algo i hms and modula ion echniques. Thus, Fig-
u e 16a p esen s he block diag am o an isola ed bidi ec ional mul ipo DC–DC con-
e e wi h ou inpu /ou pu e minals, while Figu e 16b illus a es he same con e e
based on a quad ac i e b idge (QAB) con igu a ion [98–100].
(a) (b)
Figu e 16. Bidi ec ional isola ed mul ipo DC–DC con e e wi h ou inpu /ou pu e minals, ep-
esen ed by a (a) block diag am and (b) quad ac i e b idge (QAB) opology.
Gi en ha DAB con e e s a e used o enable dynamic beha io in powe in e ace
sys ems du ing ansien s a es, he ole o modula ion and con ol algo i hms becomes
c ucial in op imizing he unc ionali ies p o ided by he opology i sel . Among o he as-
pec s, one o he key objec i es is o mi iga e cu en offse s by a enua ing he effec s o
he magne izing cu en o he HFT and he cu en ha lows h ough L
k
(i
Lk
). In gene al,
o imp o e ol age con e sion and minimize losses, i is essen ial o inco po a e he la es
WBG de ices, implemen echniques aimed a imp o ing powe quali y, and elimina e
ci cula ing cu en s. Addi ionally, i is equally impo an o add ess issues ela ed o sem-
iconduc o s ess, ans o me sa u a ion, and cu en spikes, which equi e a as dy-
namic esponse om he powe sys em.
In addi ion o adop ing a ious s a egies aimed a mi iga ing he a o emen ioned
issues, he implemen a ion o phase-shi modula ion is widely accep ed as a common
p ac ice. The consensus su ounding he adop ion o phase-shi modula ion is mainly
due o i s ela i e simplici y and abili y o achie e high con e sion efficiency. Howe e ,
i is wo h no ing ha , depending on he speci ic applica ion and he chosen phase-shi
a ia ion, conside able le els o eac i e powe and ci cula ing cu en s may be gene -
a ed. The e o e, i becomes c i ical o ex end he ZVS ange, especially in si ua ions whe e
he p ima y side ol age, V
dc1
, de ia es om he alue imposed by N
, i.e., N
V
dc2
, whe e
V
dc2
ep esen s he seconda y side ol age o he DAB con e e [101].
Among he possible a ia ions in phase-shi modula ion, single phase-shi (SPS),
dual phase-shi (DPS), ex ended phase-shi (EPS), and iple phase-shi (TPS) a e high-
ligh ed, as compa ed in [102,103]. The key dis inc ion lies in he numbe o deg ees o
eedom, i.e., he alue assigned o each phase-lag angle, bo h be ween he wo ull-b idge
con e e s ha compose he DAB (ou e phase angle, D
0
), and wi hin each b idge a m
(inne phase angles, D
1
and D
2
). The selec ion o a speci ic modula ion echnique depends
on he applica ion scena io, bu gene ally, mo e in ica e echniques offe a g ea e ange
o ad an ages in e ms o efficiency [104]. In essence, D
0
egula es he di ec ion and mag-
ni ude o powe ans e wi hin he DAB con e e , while D
1
and D
2
angles con ibu e o
enhanced pe o mance and imp o ed powe quali y.
L
s1
V
w1
V
w2
L
s2
V
w3
V
w4
V
w4
V
w2
V
w1
V
w3
DC
AC
AC
DC
AC
DC
DC
AC
S
1
S
3
S
2
S
4
C
1
S
5
S
7
S
6
S
8
V
dc2
C
2
L
s1
V
dc1
V
w1
V
w2
S
9
S
11
S
10
S
12
C
3
S
13
S
15
S
14
S
16
V
dc4
C
4
L
s2
V
dc3
V
w3
V
w4
Figu e 16. Bidi ec ional isola ed mul ipo DC–DC con e e wi h ou inpu /ou pu e minals,
ep esen ed by a (a) block diag am and (b) quad ac i e b idge (QAB) opology.
Gi en ha DAB con e e s a e used o enable dynamic beha io in powe in e ace
sys ems du ing ansien s a es, he ole o modula ion and con ol algo i hms becomes
c ucial in op imizing he unc ionali ies p o ided by he opology i sel . Among o he
aspec s, one o he key objec i es is o mi iga e cu en o se s by a enua ing he e ec s
o he magne izing cu en o he HFT and he cu en ha lows h ough L
k
(i
Lk
). In
gene al, o imp o e ol age con e sion and minimize losses, i is essen ial o inco po a e
he la es WBG de ices, implemen echniques aimed a imp o ing powe quali y, and
elimina e ci cula ing cu en s. Addi ionally, i is equally impo an o add ess issues ela ed
o semiconduc o s ess, ans o me sa u a ion, and cu en spikes, which equi e a as
dynamic esponse om he powe sys em.
In addi ion o adop ing a ious s a egies aimed a mi iga ing he a o emen ioned
issues, he implemen a ion o phase-shi modula ion is widely accep ed as a common
p ac ice. The consensus su ounding he adop ion o phase-shi modula ion is mainly
due o i s ela i e simplici y and abili y o achie e high con e sion e iciency. Howe e ,
i is wo h no ing ha , depending on he speci ic applica ion and he chosen phase-shi
a ia ion, conside able le els o eac i e powe and ci cula ing cu en s may be gene a ed.
The e o e, i becomes c i ical o ex end he ZVS ange, especially in si ua ions whe e he
p ima y side ol age, V
dc1
, de ia es om he alue imposed by N
, i.e., N
V
dc2
, whe e V
dc2
ep esen s he seconda y side ol age o he DAB con e e [101].
Among he possible a ia ions in phase-shi modula ion, single phase-shi (SPS), dual
phase-shi (DPS), ex ended phase-shi (EPS), and iple phase-shi (TPS) a e highligh ed,
as compa ed in [
102
,
103
]. The key dis inc ion lies in he numbe o deg ees o eedom, i.e.,
he alue assigned o each phase-lag angle, bo h be ween he wo ull-b idge con e e s ha
compose he DAB (ou e phase angle, D
0
), and wi hin each b idge a m (inne phase angles,
D
1
and D
2
). The selec ion o a speci ic modula ion echnique depends on he applica ion
scena io, bu gene ally, mo e in ica e echniques o e a g ea e ange o ad an ages
in e ms o e iciency [
104
]. In essence, D
0
egula es he di ec ion and magni ude o
powe ans e wi hin he DAB con e e , while D1and D2angles con ibu e o enhanced
pe o mance and imp o ed powe quali y.
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 2336 19 o 40
Ne e heless, o any a ian , all eigh -semiconduc o de ices a e cons an ly swi ching
wi h a ixed Do 50%. In his ega d, he phenomenon ha enables powe ans e in his
isola ed DC–DC con e e is he phase di e ence be ween he squa ed ol age wa e o ms
ac oss each winding o he HFT, i.e., V
p i
and V
sec
. When hese wa e o ms a e phase-
shi ed, a ol age is induced ac oss L
k
and, consequen ly, a cu en will low h ough i (i
Lk
).
Depending on whe he he phase di e ence is posi i e o nega i e, he di ec ion o i
Lk
will
a y acco dingly, as well as he powe low di ec ion in he DAB con e e . In o he wo ds,
i V
p i
leads V
sec
, powe will low om he p ima y o he seconda y side. Con e sely, i
V
p i
lags behind V
sec
, he opposi e will occu . The e o e, adjus ing his phase di e ence
egula es powe ans e , bo h in e ms o di ec ion and magni ude.
In powe sys ems whe e V
dc1
closely app oxima es V
dc2
, SPS modula ion is commonly
u ilized. Among he ou a o emen ioned a ia ions, i is he leas complex, despi e p o-
iding sa is ac o y p ac ical esul s. Howe e , a single deg ee o eedom is conside ed,
D
0
, which may esul in inc eased eac i e powe gene a ion [
105
]. The signals applied o
semiconduc o s S
1
and S
3
a e 180 deg ees ou o phase, as well as S
5
and S
7
. The alue o
D0is applied o S5, which indica es he phase di e ence be ween S1and S5.
In u n, o DPS modula ion, an ex a deg ee o eedom, D
1
, is in oduced along wi h
D
0
.D
1
is applied o S
3
, conside ably imp o ing DAB’s e iciency, pa icula ly in expanding
he ZVS ange. Mo eo e , his modi ica ion allows o he gene a ion o a h ee-le el
wa e o m ac oss V
p i
and V
sec
, which e ec i ely con ibu es o educing eac i e powe
and o al ha monic dis o ion (THD) p oduced by he con e e [106].
In u n, EPS and TPS modula ions a e used in speci ic cases. Rega ding he igge ing
ga e signals applied o each swi ching de ice, he di e ence lies in he alue applied o
S
7
. TPS modula ion in oduces an addi ional deg ee o eedom, D
2
, which o als h ee
phase-lag angles wi h espec o S
1
. The con ol complexi y subs an ially inc eases, bu
so does he con e sion e iciency, as indica ed in [
107
–
109
]. Howe e , i should be no ed
ha he numbe o applica ions ha equi e he use o such modula ion is mo e limi ed,
whe eas he use o he EPS echnique is di ec ed owa ds powe solu ions ha equi e he
ans e o highe powe magni udes wi hin a sho e ime pe iod. Bo h echniques enhance
he con e e ’s lexibili y, leading o g ea e p ecision and educed losses [110,111].
The e o e, he summa y o ga e signal alues applied o each swi ching de ice is
p esen ed in Table 1. Since all ga e signals a e phase-shi ed om he alue assigned o S
1
,
his signal is ega ded as he e e ence (Re .) o which he phase angles (deg ees o eedom)
will be added. None heless, as expec ed, he signals applied o he bo om semiconduc o s
o each a m a e complemen a y o he ones depic ed in he same able.
Table 1. Ga e signals applied o he op a m semiconduc o s o SPS, DPS, EPS, and TPS modula ion.
S1S3S5S7
SPS Re . Re . + 180◦Re . + D0S5+ 180◦
DPS Re . Re . + D1Re . + D0S5+D1
EPS Re . Re . + D1Re . + D0S5+ 180◦
TPS Re . Re . + D1Re . + D0S5+D2
3.2.4. Se ies Resonan Full-B idge-Based Topologies
Achie ing ZVS ac oss a wide ange o ou pu ol age and powe is a majo challenge
in DAB con e e s. To o e come his issue, phase-shi modula ion echniques wi h mul-
iple deg ees o eedom ha e p o en o be an excellen solu ion. Howe e , al e na i e
app oaches in ol ing ci cui y modi ica ions can also be e ec i e.
Among hese changes, he inclusion o a se ies esonan ank in o he con en ional
DAB opology (FB-LC-DAB) has shown p omising esul s, as exempli ied in Figu e 17a,
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 2336 20 o 40
in which an LC esonan ank is connec ed o he windings o a single phase [
112
] and
h ee-phase [
113
] HFTs. Addi ionally, he inclusion o an LC se ies esonan ank in a
mixed ull–hal -b idge con e e opology is s udied in [
85
]. On he o he hand, LLC
esonan con e e s ha e demons a ed high e iciency in ol age con e sion, p o iding
inc eased powe densi y, as shown in Figu e 17b, whe e a diode b idge is in eg a ed on
he seconda y side o he HFT o ec i ica ion [
114
]. None heless, hese LLC esonan
anks may e en be included in mul ile el opologies, as indica ed in [
115
], o in hyb id
con igu a ions [
116
]. Fu he mo e, Figu e 17c p esen s a bidi ec ional e sion, eplacing
he diode b idge wi h a ull-b idge con e e equipped wi h ac i e swi ches and adding
a esonan capaci o on he seconda y side. This modi ied con e e is e e ed o as a
esonan CLLC con e e [
117
,
118
]. Mo eo e , as men ioned in [
119
] and depic ed in
Figu e 17d, he inco po a ion o a CLC esonan ank is conside ed. Figu e 17e in oduces a
complemen a y app oach by p oposing an LCL a ian [120,121].
In summa y, isola ed esonan DC–DC con e e s o e a b oade ange o ad an ages
in e ms o powe densi y and ease o ol age con e sion. Thei ope a ion unde ZVS
condi ions minimizes swi ching losses, leading o imp o ed he mal pe o mance and
inc eased eliabili y [
122
]. Addi ionally, as he name sugges s, hese con e e s ope a e
a esonan equencies, e ec i ely a enua ing HF noise. Thus, he need o addi ional
il e ing componen s is elimina ed, signi ican ly educing EMI [123].
Acco ding o he a o emen ioned ad an ages, he u iliza ion o esonan con e e s is
pa icula ly well sui ed o high-powe applica ions [
124
]. A key ea u e o hese opologies
is hei abili y o enhance load egula ion, as he con ol o e he ou pu ol age is mo e
p ecise, s able, and adjus able in esponse o load changes. Fu he mo e, he a enua ion o
HF componen s educes he ol age wa e o ms’ THD, he eby imp o ing he powe quali y.
Howe e , achie ing op imal pe o mance equi es he adop ion o sui able modula ion
echniques, componen s, and con ol algo i hms, as well as ca e ul design conside a ions
o he esonan ank and o he c ucial componen s.
Sus ainabili y 2025, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 o 42
h ee-phase [113] HFTs. Addi ionally, he inclusion o an LC se ies esonan ank in a
mixed ull–hal -b idge con e e opology is s udied in [85]. On he o he hand, LLC es-
onan con e e s ha e demons a ed high efficiency in ol age con e sion, p o iding in-
c eased powe densi y, as shown in Figu e 17b, whe e a diode b idge is in eg a ed on he
seconda y side o he HFT o ec i ica ion [114]. None heless, hese LLC esonan anks
may e en be included in mul ile el opologies, as indica ed in [115], o in hyb id con ig-
u a ions [116]. Fu he mo e, Figu e 17c p esen s a bidi ec ional e sion, eplacing he di-
ode b idge wi h a ull-b idge con e e equipped wi h ac i e swi ches and adding a eso-
nan capaci o on he seconda y side. This modi ied con e e is e e ed o as a esonan
CLLC con e e [117,118]. Mo eo e , as men ioned in [119] and depic ed in Figu e 17d,
he inco po a ion o a CLC esonan ank is conside ed. Figu e 17e in oduces a comple-
men a y app oach by p oposing an LCL a ian [120,121].
In summa y, isola ed esonan DC–DC con e e s offe a b oade ange o ad-
an ages in e ms o powe densi y and ease o ol age con e sion. Thei ope a ion unde
ZVS condi ions minimizes swi ching losses, leading o imp o ed he mal pe o mance
and inc eased eliabili y [122]. Addi ionally, as he name sugges s, hese con e e s ope -
a e a esonan equencies, effec i ely a enua ing HF noise. Thus, he need o addi ional
il e ing componen s is elimina ed, signi ican ly educing EMI [123].
Acco ding o he a o emen ioned ad an ages, he u iliza ion o esonan con e e s
is pa icula ly well sui ed o high-powe applica ions [124]. A key ea u e o hese opol-
ogies is hei abili y o enhance load egula ion, as he con ol o e he ou pu ol age is
mo e p ecise, s able, and adjus able in esponse o load changes. Fu he mo e, he a en-
ua ion o HF componen s educes he ol age wa e o ms’ THD, he eby imp o ing he
powe quali y. Howe e , achie ing op imal pe o mance equi es he adop ion o sui able
modula ion echniques, componen s, and con ol algo i hms, as well as ca e ul design
conside a ions o he esonan ank and o he c ucial componen s.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e)
Figu e 17. Se ies esonan isola ed DC–DC con e e s: (a) bidi ec ional LC DAB; (b) unidi ec ional
LLC; (c) bidi ec ional CLLC; (d) bidi ec ional CLC; and (e) bidi ec ional LCL.
S
1
S
3
S
2
S
4
C
1
S
5
S
7
S
6
S
8
V
dc2
C
2
L
1
V
dc1
V
p i
V
sec
C
3
S
1
S
3
S
2
S
4
C
1
V
dc2
C
2
L
1
V
dc1
V
p i
V
sec
C
3
L
m
D
1
D
3
D
2
D
4
S
1
S
3
S
2
S
4
C
1
S
5
S
7
S
6
S
8
V
dc2
C
2
L
1
V
dc1
C
3
L
2
C
4
V
p i
V
sec
S
1
S
3
S
2
S
4
C
1
S
5
S
7
S
6
S
8
V
dc2
C
2
L
1
V
dc1
V
p i
V
sec
C
3
C
4
S
1
S
3
S
2
S
4
C
1
S
5
S
7
S
6
S
8
V
dc2
C
2
L
2
V
dc1
V
p i
V
sec
C
3
L
1
Figu e 17. Se ies esonan isola ed DC–DC con e e s: (a) bidi ec ional LC DAB; (b) unidi ec ional
LLC; (c) bidi ec ional CLLC; (d) bidi ec ional CLC; and (e) bidi ec ional LCL.
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 2336 21 o 40
As shown in Figu e 18a and men ioned in [
125
,
126
], a cen e - apped LC se ies eso-
nan DAB (CT-LC-DAB) con e e is p oposed o elimina e back low powe by blocking
e e se cu en . Mo eo e , in he same a icle, a compa a i e analysis is conduc ed wi h
FB-LC-DAB and cen e - apped L se ies esonan DAB (CT-L-DAB) con e e s, as illus a ed
in Figu e 18b and men ioned in [
127
]. On one hand, he CT-L-DAB is unable o p e en
back low powe , leading o highe conduc ion losses. On he o he hand, he con en ional
FB-LC-DAB opology incu s signi ican swi ching losses due o ha d swi ching. The e o e,
he CT-LC-DAB opology eme ges as a solu ion ha add esses he limi a ions o he com-
pa ed opologies in his a icle. As added unc ionali y, i also enables ope a ion in bo h
DCM and BCM by implemen ing sui able modula ion echniques.
Sus ainabili y 2025, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 o 42
As shown in Figu e 18a and men ioned in [125,126], a cen e - apped LC se ies eso-
nan DAB (CT-LC-DAB) con e e is p oposed o elimina e back low powe by blocking
e e se cu en . Mo eo e , in he same a icle, a compa a i e analysis is conduc ed wi h
FB-LC-DAB and cen e - apped L se ies esonan DAB (CT-L-DAB) con e e s, as illus-
a ed in Figu e 18b and men ioned in [127]. On one hand, he CT-L-DAB is unable o
p e en back low powe , leading o highe conduc ion losses. On he o he hand, he con-
en ional FB-LC-DAB opology incu s signi ican swi ching losses due o ha d swi ching.
The e o e, he CT-LC-DAB opology eme ges as a solu ion ha add esses he limi a ions
o he compa ed opologies in his a icle. As added unc ionali y, i also enables ope a ion
in bo h DCM and BCM by implemen ing sui able modula ion echniques.
(a)
(b)
Figu e 18. Se ies esonan isola ed DC–DC con e e s: (a) CT-LC-DAB and (b) CT-L-DAB.
3.2.5. O he Full-B idge-Based Topologies
In he li e a u e, con en ional isola ed DC–DC opologies a e spo adically combined
wi h b idge-based s uc u es o ob ain enhanced lexibili y and efficiency. The e o e, in
[128], he u iliza ion o an in eg a ed ull-b idge o wa d con e e o ba e y cha ging
and discha ging is p oposed. Unlike DAB and con en ional o wa d con e e s, he p o-
posed con igu a ion inco po a es an HFT wi h h ee windings, one o which has a cen e -
apped s uc u e, as shown in Figu e 19a. As men ioned in his pape and ein o ced in
[128], his bidi ec ional opology exhibi s low-inpu and -ou pu cu en ipple and high
ol age a io. Ano he example in he li e a u e is he u iliza ion o a ull-b idge/push–
pull con e e , as shown in Figu e 19b [129,130].
(a) (b)
Figu e 19. Hyb id opologies combining ull-b idge s uc u es wi h (a) o wa d and (b) push–pull
opologies.
S
1
S
3
S
2
S
4
C
1
S
5
S
7
S
6
S
8
V
dc2
C
3
L
1
V
dc1
V
p i_1
V
sec
C
4
C
2
L
2
C
5
V
p i_2
S
1
S
3
S
2
S
4
C
1
S
5
S
7
S
6
S
8
V
dc2
C
3
L
1
V
dc1
V
p i_1
V
sec
C
2
L
2
V
p i_2
S
1
S
2
C
1
V
dc1
S
3
S
4
V
ou
C
2
L
1
D
1
D
3
L
2
D
2
S
5
V
ou
C
2
L
1
D
1
D
2
L
2
S
1
S
2
C
1
V
dc1
S
3
S
4
S
5
S
6
Figu e 18. Se ies esonan isola ed DC–DC con e e s: (a) CT-LC-DAB and (b) CT-L-DAB.
3.2.5. O he Full-B idge-Based Topologies
In he li e a u e, con en ional isola ed DC–DC opologies a e spo adically combined
wi h b idge-based s uc u es o ob ain enhanced lexibili y and e iciency. The e o e,
in [
128
], he u iliza ion o an in eg a ed ull-b idge o wa d con e e o ba e y cha g-
ing and discha ging is p oposed. Unlike DAB and con en ional o wa d con e e s, he
p oposed con igu a ion inco po a es an HFT wi h h ee windings, one o which has a
cen e - apped s uc u e, as shown in Figu e 19a. As men ioned in his pape and ein o ced
in [
128
], his bidi ec ional opology exhibi s low-inpu and -ou pu cu en ipple and high
ol age a io. Ano he example in he li e a u e is he u iliza ion o a ull-b idge/push–pull
con e e , as shown in Figu e 19b [129,130].
Sus ainabili y 2025, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 o 42
As shown in Figu e 18a and men ioned in [125,126], a cen e - apped LC se ies eso-
nan DAB (CT-LC-DAB) con e e is p oposed o elimina e back low powe by blocking
e e se cu en . Mo eo e , in he same a icle, a compa a i e analysis is conduc ed wi h
FB-LC-DAB and cen e - apped L se ies esonan DAB (CT-L-DAB) con e e s, as illus-
a ed in Figu e 18b and men ioned in [127]. On one hand, he CT-L-DAB is unable o
p e en back low powe , leading o highe conduc ion losses. On he o he hand, he con-
en ional FB-LC-DAB opology incu s signi ican swi ching losses due o ha d swi ching.
The e o e, he CT-LC-DAB opology eme ges as a solu ion ha add esses he limi a ions
o he compa ed opologies in his a icle. As added unc ionali y, i also enables ope a ion
in bo h DCM and BCM by implemen ing sui able modula ion echniques.
(a)
(b)
Figu e 18. Se ies esonan isola ed DC–DC con e e s: (a) CT-LC-DAB and (b) CT-L-DAB.
3.2.5. O he Full-B idge-Based Topologies
In he li e a u e, con en ional isola ed DC–DC opologies a e spo adically combined
wi h b idge-based s uc u es o ob ain enhanced lexibili y and efficiency. The e o e, in
[128], he u iliza ion o an in eg a ed ull-b idge o wa d con e e o ba e y cha ging
and discha ging is p oposed. Unlike DAB and con en ional o wa d con e e s, he p o-
posed con igu a ion inco po a es an HFT wi h h ee windings, one o which has a cen e -
apped s uc u e, as shown in Figu e 19a. As men ioned in his pape and ein o ced in
[128], his bidi ec ional opology exhibi s low-inpu and -ou pu cu en ipple and high
ol age a io. Ano he example in he li e a u e is he u iliza ion o a ull-b idge/push–
pull con e e , as shown in Figu e 19b [129,130].
(a) (b)
Figu e 19. Hyb id opologies combining ull-b idge s uc u es wi h (a) o wa d and (b) push–pull
opologies.
S
1
S
3
S
2
S
4
C
1
S
5
S
7
S
6
S
8
V
dc2
C
3
L
1
V
dc1
V
p i_1
V
sec
C
4
C
2
L
2
C
5
V
p i_2
S
1
S
3
S
2
S
4
C
1
S
5
S
7
S
6
S
8
V
dc2
C
3
L
1
V
dc1
V
p i_1
V
sec
C
2
L
2
V
p i_2
S
1
S
2
C
1
V
dc1
S
3
S
4
V
ou
C
2
L
1
D
1
D
3
L
2
D
2
S
5
V
ou
C
2
L
1
D
1
D
2
L
2
S
1
S
2
C
1
V
dc1
S
3
S
4
S
5
S
6
Figu e 19. Hyb id opologies combining ull-b idge s uc u es wi h (a) o wa d and (b) push–
pull opologies.
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 2336 22 o 40
As shown in Figu e 20, isola ed cu en - ed opologies a e also usually documen ed.
Facing ol age- ed opologies, hey exhibi shoo - h ough immuni y and low-cu en s ess,
making hem pa icula ly sui able o low- ol age, high-cu en applica ions. In [
131
],
he use o L- ype ull-b idge, ull-b idge push–pull, and L- ype hal -b idge con e e s is
men ioned. In hese opologies, compa ed o ol age- ed con e e s, he inpu cu en
ipple is educed, as well as N
. This cha ac e is ic is u he enhanced in he con e e s
depic ed in Figu e 20a,b as hey employ in e lea ed a ian s.
Sus ainabili y 2025, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 22 o 42
As shown in Figu e 20, isola ed cu en - ed opologies a e also usually documen ed.
Facing ol age- ed opologies, hey exhibi shoo - h ough immuni y and low-cu en
s ess, making hem pa icula ly sui able o low- ol age, high-cu en applica ions. In
[131], he use o L- ype ull-b idge, ull-b idge push–pull, and L- ype hal -b idge con e -
e s is men ioned. In hese opologies, compa ed o ol age- ed con e e s, he inpu cu -
en ipple is educed, as well as N
. This cha ac e is ic is u he enhanced in he con e -
e s depic ed in Figu e 20a,b as hey employ in e lea ed a ian s.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figu e 20. Cu en - ed isola ed DC–DC con e e s: (a) L- ype ull-b idge; (b) ull-b idge push–pull;
and (c) L- ype hal -b idge.
3.3. Mul ile el Topologies
The use o mul ile el opologies, as ex ensi ely s udied and widely adop ed, is
s ongly ecommendable in high-powe scena ios. As he name sugges s, in hese ypes
o con e e s, he ol age and/o cu en a e dis ibu ed among mul iple ac i e semicon-
duc o s, which helps o minimize s ess on each indi idual de ice. Consequen ly, he e-
liabili y o such powe solu ions is enhanced, while achie ing imp o ed con e sion effi-
ciency. The e o e, he applica ion o mul ile el opologies is highly ecommended, no
only in medium and high-powe scena ios, bu also in sys ems ha p io i ize powe qual-
i y, such as g id- ied in e e s, EV cha ge s, and RES in e acing sys ems.
In addi ion, mul ile el con e e s a e well sui ed o powe elec onics solu ions de-
manding inc eased powe densi y. The gene a ion o mul iple ol age le els assis s in
lowe ing s ess on each ac i e semiconduc o and minimizes EMI [132]. This ea u e is
pa icula ly bene icial in EV cha ge s, as efficien ol age con e sion is c i ical o ba e y
cha ging and discha ging ope a ions. I is in ended o ex end he ba e y’s li ecycle by
a oiding po en ial o e cha ging and deep discha ges and ensu ing p ecise ol age
S
1
S
3
S
2
S
4
S
5
S
7
S
6
S
8
V
dc2
C
2
L
1
V
p i
V
sec
V
dc1
C
1
L
2
S
1
S
3
S
2
S
4
S
5
S
7
S
6
S
8
V
dc2
C
2
V
dc1
V
p i_1
V
sec
C
1
V
p i_2
L
1
S1
S2
S3
S4
Vdc2
C3
L1Vp i Vsec
Vdc1
C1
C2C4
Figu e 20. Cu en - ed isola ed DC–DC con e e s: (a) L- ype ull-b idge; (b) ull-b idge push–pull;
and (c) L- ype hal -b idge.
3.3. Mul ile el Topologies
The use o mul ile el opologies, as ex ensi ely s udied and widely adop ed, is s ongly
ecommendable in high-powe scena ios. As he name sugges s, in hese ypes o con e e s,
he ol age and/o cu en a e dis ibu ed among mul iple ac i e semiconduc o s, which
helps o minimize s ess on each indi idual de ice. Consequen ly, he eliabili y o such
powe solu ions is enhanced, while achie ing imp o ed con e sion e iciency. The e o e,
he applica ion o mul ile el opologies is highly ecommended, no only in medium and
high-powe scena ios, bu also in sys ems ha p io i ize powe quali y, such as g id- ied
in e e s, EV cha ge s, and RES in e acing sys ems.
In addi ion, mul ile el con e e s a e well sui ed o powe elec onics solu ions de-
manding inc eased powe densi y. The gene a ion o mul iple ol age le els assis s in
lowe ing s ess on each ac i e semiconduc o and minimizes EMI [
132
]. This ea u e is
pa icula ly bene icial in EV cha ge s, as e icien ol age con e sion is c i ical o ba -
e y cha ging and discha ging ope a ions. I is in ended o ex end he ba e y’s li ecycle
by a oiding po en ial o e cha ging and deep discha ges and ensu ing p ecise ol age
egula ion. As an addi ional ea u e, mul ile el opologies a e also well sui ed o he
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 2336 23 o 40
implemen a ion o EV as -cha ging s a ions, which is becoming inc easingly impo an
and con enien o use s due o he g owing conce n o e ange anxie y.
In summa y, depending on he sys em equi emen s, mul ile el opologies o e
signi ican ad an ages o e adi ional opologies, including imp o ed e iciency, powe
quali y, eliabili y, and pe o mance.
3.3.1. Mul ile el DAB-Based NPC Con e e
One o he mos commonly used mul ile el con igu a ions is based on he inco po a-
ion o neu al poin clamped (NPC) opologies. As indica ed in [
133
], hey a e conside ed
a a ian o he DAB, commonly e e ed o as mul ile el DAB (ML-DAB) con e e s. As
illus a ed in Figu e 21, a leas one o he ull-b idge s ages ha compose he adi ional
DAB con e e is eplaced by an NPC con e e , which gene ally allows o highe e i-
ciency and he capabili y o ope a e highe powe le els [
134
]. Fo all he documen ed
cases, phase-shi modula ion echniques a e equally implemen ed; howe e , he majo
di e ence lies in he numbe o ol age le els ha can be ob ained in Vp i and Vsec.
Sus ainabili y 2025, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 23 o 42
egula ion. As an addi ional ea u e, mul ile el opologies a e also well sui ed o he im-
plemen a ion o EV as -cha ging s a ions, which is becoming inc easingly impo an and
con enien o use s due o he g owing conce n o e ange anxie y.
In summa y, depending on he sys em equi emen s, mul ile el opologies offe sig-
ni ican ad an ages o e adi ional opologies, including imp o ed efficiency, powe
quali y, eliabili y, and pe o mance.
3.3.1. Mul ile el DAB-Based NPC Con e e
One o he mos commonly used mul ile el con igu a ions is based on he inco po-
a ion o neu al poin clamped (NPC) opologies. As indica ed in [133], hey a e consid-
e ed a a ian o he DAB, commonly e e ed o as mul ile el DAB (ML-DAB) con e e s.
As illus a ed in Figu e 21, a leas one o he ull-b idge s ages ha compose he adi-
ional DAB con e e is eplaced by an NPC con e e , which gene ally allows o highe
efficiency and he capabili y o ope a e highe powe le els [134]. Fo all he documen ed
cases, phase-shi modula ion echniques a e equally implemen ed; howe e , he majo
diffe ence lies in he numbe o ol age le els ha can be ob ained in V
p i
and V
sec
.
(a)
(b)
Figu e 21. ML-DAB based on ull-b idge and NPC con e e s wi h con igu a ion: (a) boos and (b)
buck.
The e o e, Figu e 21a illus a es he ope a ion o he ML-DAB con e e based on a
boos con igu a ion, whe e he NPC opology is connec ed o he seconda y side o he
MFT. Wi h his a angemen , V
p i
commonly achie es wo ol age le els, while V
sec
can
a ain i e le els [135]. Con e sely, in a buck con igu a ion, he opposi e occu s, wi h i e
ol age le els ob ained in V
p i
as he NPC opology is connec ed o he p ima y windings
[136]. As shown in Figu e 21b, by u ilizing a ull-b idge con e e , wo ol age le els a e
once again ob ained, his ime ega ding V
sec
. Howe e , depending on he adop ed mod-
ula ion and opology, i is also possible o ob ain h ee ol age le els in he windings o
he MFT.
Fu he mo e, as s udied in [137,138], an NPC con e e can po en ially be connec ed
on bo h sides o he MFT. As should be expec ed, he deg ees o eedom inc ease, which
educes he simplici y o he modula ion echnique. Con e sely, i enhances lexibili y and
u he imp o es pe o mance. In addi ion, ac i e swi ches a e no subjec o high- ol age
S
1
S
3
S
2
S
4
C
1
L
1
V
dc1
V
p i
S
9
S
10
S
11
S
12
D
4
D
3
C
2
C
3
V
dc2
/2
V
dc2
/2
S
5
S
6
S
7
S
8
D
2
D
1
V
sec
S
1
S
2
S
3
S
4
D
2
D
1
C
1
C
2
V
dc1
/2
V
dc1
/2
S
5
S
6
S
7
S
8
D
4
D
3
L
1
V
p i
V
sec
S
1
S
3
S
2
S
4
C
3
V
dc2
Figu e 21. ML-DAB based on ull-b idge and NPC con e e s wi h con igu a ion: (a) boos and
(b) buck.
The e o e, Figu e 21a illus a es he ope a ion o he ML-DAB con e e based on a
boos con igu a ion, whe e he NPC opology is connec ed o he seconda y side o he MFT.
Wi h his a angemen , V
p i
commonly achie es wo ol age le els, while V
sec
can a ain
i e le els [
135
]. Con e sely, in a buck con igu a ion, he opposi e occu s, wi h i e ol age
le els ob ained in V
p i
as he NPC opology is connec ed o he p ima y windings [
136
]. As
shown in Figu e 21b, by u ilizing a ull-b idge con e e , wo ol age le els a e once again
ob ained, his ime ega ding V
sec
. Howe e , depending on he adop ed modula ion and
opology, i is also possible o ob ain h ee ol age le els in he windings o he MFT.
Fu he mo e, as s udied in [
137
,
138
], an NPC con e e can po en ially be connec ed
on bo h sides o he MFT. As should be expec ed, he deg ees o eedom inc ease, which
educes he simplici y o he modula ion echnique. Con e sely, i enhances lexibili y and
u he imp o es pe o mance. In addi ion, ac i e swi ches a e no subjec o high- ol age
s ess since hey do no need o wi hs and he o al DC bus ol age. As a esul , cos s a e
educed, and he swi ching and conduc ion losses a e minimized.
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 2336 24 o 40
Ne e heless, he numbe o ol age le els may a y depending on he speci ic NPC
opology. As sugges ed in [
139
], he ideal scena io is o ob ain mul iple ol age le els in
V
dc1
and V
dc2
; howe e , his would signi ican ly inc ease he numbe o deg ees o eedom.
Ob aining op imal alues o each phase-lag angle and ensu ing ol age balancing ac oss
he DC bus capaci o s pose signi ican challenges. As a esul , implemen ing a ML-DAB
con e e wi h mul iple deg ees o eedom is imp ac ical, despi e he signi ican ene gy
e iciency bene i s i would o e . To ob ain h ee (o mo e) ol age le els, NPC con e e s
based on hal - and ull-b idge s uc u es a e conside ed, as depic ed in Figu e 22.
Sus ainabili y 2025, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 24 o 42
s ess since hey do no need o wi hs and he o al DC bus ol age. As a esul , cos s a e
educed, and he swi ching and conduc ion losses a e minimized.
Ne e heless, he numbe o ol age le els may a y depending on he speci ic NPC
opology. As sugges ed in [139], he ideal scena io is o ob ain mul iple ol age le els in
V
dc1
and V
dc2
; howe e , his would signi ican ly inc ease he numbe o deg ees o eedom.
Ob aining op imal alues o each phase-lag angle and ensu ing ol age balancing ac oss
he DC bus capaci o s pose signi ican challenges. As a esul , implemen ing a ML-DAB
con e e wi h mul iple deg ees o eedom is imp ac ical, despi e he signi ican ene gy
efficiency bene i s i would offe . To ob ain h ee (o mo e) ol age le els, NPC con e e s
based on hal - and ull-b idge s uc u es a e conside ed, as depic ed in Figu e 22.
(a) (b)
(c)
(d)
Figu e 22. Th ee-le el DAB based on NPC con e e s: (a) hal -b idge DNPC-DAB; (b) hal -b idge
ANPC-DAB; (c) ull-b idge DNPC-DAB; and (d) ull-b idge ANPC-DAB.
No wi hs anding, he selec ion o each opology depends on he speci ic equi e-
men s o he powe elec onics sys em, leading o a ying pe o mance le els. Among he
ML-DAB con e e s based on NPC con e e s, he diode NPC (DNPC-DAB) and ac i e
NPC (ANPC-DAB) opologies a e highligh ed. These opologies can be implemen ed in
bo h hal -b idge and ull-b idge con igu a ions, and, once again, he complexi y o he
modula ion will a y acco dingly [140,141].
The main ea u es o DNPC-DAB and ANPC-DAB con igu a ions we e compa ed in
[142], highligh ing he g ea e sui abili y o ANPC-DAB opologies o achie ing ZVS and
so -swi ching. As men ioned, hey p o ided eliable ol age clamping o all swi ches bu
also edundan ze o swi ching s a es. I was also indica ed ha adop ing ANPC-DAB in-
s ead o DNPC-DAB esul s in be e loss dis ibu ion and balanced powe de ices.
L
1
V
p i
C
3
C
4
V
dc2
/2
V
dc2
/2
S
5
S
6
S
7
S
8
D
4
D
3
V
sec
C
1
C
2
V
dc1
/2
V
dc1
/2
S
1
S
2
S
3
S
4
D
2
D
1
L
1
V
p i
C
3
C
4
V
dc2
/2
V
dc2
/2
S
5
S
6
S
7
S
8
S
12
S
11
V
sec
C
1
C
2
V
dc1
/2
V
dc1
/2
S
1
S
2
S
3
S
4
S
10
S
9
L
1
V
p i
S
13
S
14
S
15
S
16
D
8
D
7
C
3
C
4
V
dc2
/2
V
dc2
/2
S
9
S
10
S
11
S
12
D
6
D
5
V
sec
S
1
S
2
S
3
S
4
D
2
D
1
C
1
C
2
V
dc1
/2
V
dc1
/2
S
5
S
6
S
7
S
8
D
4
D
3
L
1
V
p i
S
13
S
14
S
15
S
16
S
24
S
23
C
3
C
4
V
dc2
/2
V
dc2
/2
S
9
S
10
S
11
S
12
S
22
S
21
V
sec
S
1
S
2
S
3
S
4
S
18
S
17
C
1
C
2
V
dc1
/2
V
dc1
/2
S
5
S
6
S
7
S
8
S
20
S
19
Figu e 22. Th ee-le el DAB based on NPC con e e s: (a) hal -b idge DNPC-DAB; (b) hal -b idge
ANPC-DAB; (c) ull-b idge DNPC-DAB; and (d) ull-b idge ANPC-DAB.
No wi hs anding, he selec ion o each opology depends on he speci ic equi emen s
o he powe elec onics sys em, leading o a ying pe o mance le els. Among he ML-
DAB con e e s based on NPC con e e s, he diode NPC (DNPC-DAB) and ac i e NPC
(ANPC-DAB) opologies a e highligh ed. These opologies can be implemen ed in bo h hal -
b idge and ull-b idge con igu a ions, and, once again, he complexi y o he modula ion
will a y acco dingly [140,141].
The main ea u es o DNPC-DAB and ANPC-DAB con igu a ions we e compa ed
in [
142
], highligh ing he g ea e sui abili y o ANPC-DAB opologies o achie ing ZVS
and so -swi ching. As men ioned, hey p o ided eliable ol age clamping o all swi ches
bu also edundan ze o swi ching s a es. I was also indica ed ha adop ing ANPC-DAB
ins ead o DNPC-DAB esul s in be e loss dis ibu ion and balanced powe de ices.
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 2336 25 o 40
3.3.2. Modula Mul ile el Con e e (MMC)
Simila ly o mul ile el opologies, MMCs a e speci ically designed o high- and e y-
high-powe solu ions [
143
]. This con igu a ion is conside ed a dis inc ype o mul ile el
con e e , whe e mul iple submodules a e cascaded o di ide a high alue o V
dc
. Al hough
MMC opologies a e commonly used in h ee-phase sys ems, Figu e 23, o he sake
o simplici y, depic s simpli ied single-phase a chi ec u es, bo h in hal -b idge and ull-
b idge con igu a ions [
144
]. Howe e , wha se s apa each MMC con igu a ion is he
chosen opology o he submodules [
145
]. Conside ing he a o emen ioned poin s, MMCs
a e ecognized as a highly complex con igu a ion ha , con e sely, p o ides subs an ial
lexibili y, modula i y, and scalabili y. As a esul , hey allow o mul iple a angemen s
among submodules and e en ac oss mul iple MMCs, o e ing nume ous possibili ies
ega dless o he powe solu ion. Thei scalabili y allows e o less adap a ion o di e en
ol age and powe le els by simply adding o emo ing speci ic submodules.
Sus ainabili y 2025, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 25 o 42
3.3.2. Modula Mul ile el Con e e (MMC)
Simila ly o mul ile el opologies, MMCs a e speci ically designed o high- and
e y-high-powe solu ions [143]. This con igu a ion is conside ed a dis inc ype o mul-
ile el con e e , whe e mul iple submodules a e cascaded o di ide a high alue o V
dc
.
Al hough MMC opologies a e commonly used in h ee-phase sys ems, Figu e 23, o he
sake o simplici y, depic s simpli ied single-phase a chi ec u es, bo h in hal -b idge and
ull-b idge con igu a ions [144]. Howe e , wha se s apa each MMC con igu a ion is he
chosen opology o he submodules [145]. Conside ing he a o emen ioned poin s,
MMCs a e ecognized as a highly complex con igu a ion ha , con e sely, p o ides sub-
s an ial lexibili y, modula i y, and scalabili y. As a esul , hey allow o mul iple a ange-
men s among submodules and e en ac oss mul iple MMCs, offe ing nume ous possibili-
ies ega dless o he powe solu ion. Thei scalabili y allows effo less adap a ion o di -
e en ol age and powe le els by simply adding o emo ing speci ic submodules.
(a) (b)
Figu e 23. Con en ional s uc u e o a MMC con e e , conside ing: (a) hal -b idge con igu a ion
and (b) ull-b idge con igu a ion.
Acco ding o hese cha ac e is ics, MMCs a e equen ly employed in powe elec-
onics solu ions o ene gy ansmission and dis ibu ion, pa icula ly in HVDC ans-
mission, lexible AC ansmission sys ems (FACTSs) [146], and la ge-scale g id-connec ed
enewable ene gy sys ems. Accoun ing o hese applica ion scena ios, MMC s uc u es
a e highly sui able o high- ol age and high-powe solu ions due o hei enhanced e-
con igu abili y, edundancy, and aul ole ance. Fu he mo e, hey play a c ucial ole in
achie ing efficien ol age con e sion and mi iga ing powe quali y issues, including
THD [147]. Howe e , issues ela ed o EMI a e also conside ed [148].
The numbe o ol age le els p oduced and applied o he windings o he MFT is
de e mined by he modula ion echnique and he chosen numbe o submodules. How-
e e , he main challenge encoun e ed in MMCs lies in egula ing he ol age ac oss he
DC bus o each submodule. Thus, ex ensi e esea ch has been conduc ed o explo e di -
e en echniques o effec i ely s abilizing he submodule ol age, as documen ed in
[149–153]. By p ecisely con olling his ol age alue, he MMC achie es he desi ed ou -
pu wi h inc eased pe o mance.
To ensu e sys em balance, each submodule is ypically cons uc ed wi h equal opol-
ogies. As common p ac ice, depending on he powe solu ion, hese submodule opolo-
gies can a y om hal -b idge s uc u es o ull-b idge-based opologies o e en isola ed
s ages like he DAB con e e , as shown in Figu e 24 [154–156]. As ano he example, each
submodule can also be based on mul iple s ages wi h independen ou pu s, allowing o
he dis ibu ion o diffe en eede s. Despi e ope a ing as an isola ed DC–DC s uc u e,
MMCs can also be in e connec ed wi h h ee-phase AC powe dis ibu ion and ansmis-
sion sys ems, ul illing he ole o ol age ec i ica ion.
V
dc2
C
3
C
2
C
1
SM [n+3]
SM [n+4]
V
dc1
/2
V
dc1
/2
L
1
V
p i
V
sec
SM [n+5]
SM [n+1]
SM [n+2]
SM [n]
AC
DC
V
dc2
C
1
SM [n+9]
SM [n+9]
V
dc1
L
1
V
p i
V
sec
SM [n+1 0]
SM [n+7]
SM [n+8]
SM [n+6]
SM [n+3]
SM [n+4]
SM [n+5]
SM [n+1]
SM [n+2]
SM [n]
AC
DC
Figu e 23. Con en ional s uc u e o a MMC con e e , conside ing: (a) hal -b idge con igu a ion
and (b) ull-b idge con igu a ion.
Acco ding o hese cha ac e is ics, MMCs a e equen ly employed in powe elec on-
ics solu ions o ene gy ansmission and dis ibu ion, pa icula ly in HVDC ansmission,
lexible AC ansmission sys ems (FACTSs) [
146
], and la ge-scale g id-connec ed enewable
ene gy sys ems. Accoun ing o hese applica ion scena ios, MMC s uc u es a e highly
sui able o high- ol age and high-powe solu ions due o hei enhanced econ igu abili y,
edundancy, and aul ole ance. Fu he mo e, hey play a c ucial ole in achie ing e icien
ol age con e sion and mi iga ing powe quali y issues, including THD [
147
]. Howe e ,
issues ela ed o EMI a e also conside ed [148].
The numbe o ol age le els p oduced and applied o he windings o he MFT is
de e mined by he modula ion echnique and he chosen numbe o submodules. Howe e ,
he main challenge encoun e ed in MMCs lies in egula ing he ol age ac oss he DC
bus o each submodule. Thus, ex ensi e esea ch has been conduc ed o explo e di e en
echniques o e ec i ely s abilizing he submodule ol age, as documen ed in [
149
–
153
].
By p ecisely con olling his ol age alue, he MMC achie es he desi ed ou pu wi h
inc eased pe o mance.
To ensu e sys em balance, each submodule is ypically cons uc ed wi h equal opolo-
gies. As common p ac ice, depending on he powe solu ion, hese submodule opologies
can a y om hal -b idge s uc u es o ull-b idge-based opologies o e en isola ed s ages
like he DAB con e e , as shown in Figu e 24 [
154
–
156
]. As ano he example, each sub-
module can also be based on mul iple s ages wi h independen ou pu s, allowing o he
dis ibu ion o di e en eede s. Despi e ope a ing as an isola ed DC–DC s uc u e, MMCs
can also be in e connec ed wi h h ee-phase AC powe dis ibu ion and ansmission
sys ems, ul illing he ole o ol age ec i ica ion.
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 2336 32 o 40
Al hough he selec ion o ac i e semiconduc o s is a c i ical s ep in con e e design,
he con e e ’s opology is a guably he cha ac e is ic o u mos impo ance. Isola ed
DC–DC con e e s can be ca ego ized no only based on hei powe handling capabili y
bu also conside ing hei scalabili y, lexibili y, modula i y, e iciency, cos , and eliabili y.
In addi ion, hey enhance immuni y o noise and in e e ence, aul ole ance, and mos
impo an ly, ease o ol age con e sion.
As expec ed, mul ile el opologies o e enhanced con e sion e iciency compa ed o
con en ional ones. Howe e , bo h hal -b idge and ull-b idge con igu a ions also exhibi
highly sa is ac o y e iciency indica o s, which jus i ies hei equen use in a b oade
scena io. In addi ion, hese opologies p o ide conside able echnological ma u i y, hus
acili a ing he implemen a ion o sui able and inno a i e modula ion echniques. Ne e -
heless, in high- and e y-high-powe solu ions, mul ile el con e e s, pa icula ly modula
mul ile el con e e s (MMCs), a e he p e e ed op ion due o hei capabili y o dis ibu e
a ce ain ol age and/o cu en ac oss a la ge numbe o ac i e semiconduc o s. This
scena io is equally obse ed when mul iple con e e s a e in e connec ed in pa allel o
cascade con igu a ions, highligh ing he signi icance o modula i y and scalabili y.
The e o e, he selec ion o each opology will p ima ily depend on he equi emen s
o he powe elec onics solu ion and he speci ic applica ion. When i comes o in e -
acing wi h RES-based gene a ion sys ems, all he con e e opologies discussed in his
e iew pape a e conside ed app op ia e. Howe e , ce ain opologies may be consid-
e ed mo e sui able o speci ic gene a ion echnologies o di e en powe le els, anging
om mic oin e e s o la ge-scale powe plan s. Among all he isola ed DC–DC con e -
e s, b idge-based opologies a e widely conside ed as he mos consensual due o hei
lexibili y and echnological ma u i y. Fu he mo e, when in e connec ed o o m a dual
ac i e b idge (DAB) con e e , he ad an ages a e u he accen ua ed, enabling enhanced
scalabili y and modula i y based on he powe a ing o he applica ion.
Au ho Con ibu ions: Concep ualiza ion, S.C., V.M. and J.L.A.; me hodology, S.C.; alida ion, S.C.
and V.M.; in es iga ion, S.C. and V.M.; w i ing—o iginal d a p epa a ion, S.C.; w i ing— e iew
and edi ing, S.C., V.M. and J.L.A.; supe ision, V.M. and J.L.A.; unding acquisi ion, V.M. and J.L.A.
All au ho s ha e ead and ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding: This pape was suppo ed by he Alliance o he Ene gy T ansi ion (56) co- inanced by he
Reco e y and Resilience Plan (PRR) h ough he Eu opean Union. This wo k has been suppo ed by
FCT – Fundação pa a a Ciência e Tecnologia wi hin he R&D Uni P ojec o ALGORITMI Cen e.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen : No applicable.
Acknowledgmen s: Se gio Coelho is suppo ed by he doc o al schola ship 2021.08965.BD, g an ed
by FCT—Fundação pa a a Ciência e Tecnologia.
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic s o in e es .
Re e ences
1.
IEA. Wo ld Ene gy Ou look 2024; IEA: Pa is, F ance, 2024. A ailable online: h ps://www.iea.o g/ epo s/wo ld-ene gy-ou look-
2024 (accessed on 23 Feb ua y 2025).
2.
Ri chie, H.; Rosado, P.; Rose , M. CO
2
and G eenhouse Gas Emissions. Ou Wo ld in Da a. Decembe 2023. A ailable online:
h ps://ou wo ldinda a.o g/co2-and-g eenhouse-gas-emissions (accessed on 5 Augus 2024).
3.
BP. bp Ene gy Ou look: 2024 Edi ion. July 2024. A ailable online: h ps://www.bp.com/en/global/co po a e/ene gy-
economics/ene gy-ou look.h ml (accessed on 23 Feb ua y 2025).
4.
D öge, S.; Wissenscha , S. The Pa is Ag eemen 2015: Tu ning Poin o he In e na ional Clima e Regime; S i ung Wissenscha und
Poli ik (SWP): Be lin, Ge many, 2016.
5.
Sanguesa, J.A.; To es-Sanz, V.; Ga ido, P.; Ma inez, F.J.; Ma quez-Ba ja, J.M. A Re iew on Elec ic Vehicles: Technologies and
Challenges. Sma Ci ies 2021,4, 372–404. [C ossRe ]
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 2336 33 o 40
6.
Pasha, J.; Li, B.; Elmi, Z.; Fa hollahi-Fa d, A.M.; Lau, Y.; Roshani, A.; Kawasaki, T.; Dulebene s, M.A. Elec ic ehicle scheduling:
S a e o he a , c i ical challenges, and u u e esea ch oppo uni ies. J. Ind. In . In eg . 2024,38, 100561. [C ossRe ]
7.
Jiang, F.; Yuan, X.; Hu, L.; Xie, G.; Zhang, Z.; Li, X.; Hu, J.; Wang, C.; Wang, H. A comp ehensi e e iew o ene gy s o age
echnology de elopmen and applica ion o pu e elec ic ehicles. J. Ene gy S o age 2024,86, 111159. [C ossRe ]
8.
Ou ahou, M.; Ay i , W.; El Hassouni, B.; Haddi, A. Re iew on Sma G id Con ol and Reliabili y in P esence o Renewable
Ene gies: Challenges and P ospec s. Ma h. Compu . Simul. 2020,167, 19–31. [C ossRe ]
9.
Al-She wi, A.Q.; Hannan, M.A.; Je n, K.P.; Mansu , M.; Mahlia, T.M.I. G id-Connec ed Renewable Ene gy Sou ces: Re iew o he
Recen In eg a ion Requi emen s and Con ol Me hods. J. Clean. P od. 2020,253, 119831. [C ossRe ]
10.
Khalid, M. Sma g ids and enewable ene gy sys ems: Pe spec i es and g id in eg a ion challenges. Ene gy S a egy Re . 2024,
51, 101299. [C ossRe ]
11.
Alaj ash, B.H.; Salem, M.; Swadi, M.; Senjyu, T.; Kama ol, M.; Mo ahhi , S. A comp ehensi e e iew o FACTS de ices in mode n
powe sys ems: Add essing powe quali y, op imal placemen , and s abili y wi h enewable ene gy pene a ion. Ene gy Rep. 2024,
11, 5350–5371. [C ossRe ]
12.
Quizhpe, K.; A é alo, P.; Ochoa-Co ea, D.; Villa-Á ila, E. Op imizing Mic og id Planning o Renewable In eg a ion in Powe
Sys ems: A Comp ehensi e Re iew. Elec onics 2024,13, 3620. [C ossRe ]
13.
Malinowski, M.; Leon, J.I.; Abu-Rub, H. Sola Pho o ol aic and The mal Ene gy Sys ems: Cu en Technology and Fu u e T ends.
P oc. IEEE 2017,105, 2132–2146. [C ossRe ]
14.
Zia, M.F.; Elbouchikhi, E.; Benbouzid, M. Mic og ids Ene gy Managemen Sys ems: A C i ical Re iew on Me hods, Solu ions,
and P ospec s. Appl. Ene gy 2018,222, 1033–1055. [C ossRe ]
15.
Wei, T.; Ce one, A.; Dujic, D. Ac i e Powe Decoupling o Single-Phase Inpu –Se ies–Ou pu –Pa allel Solid-S a e T ans o me s.
IEEE T ans. Powe Elec on. 2024,39, 5636–5648. [C ossRe ]
16.
Shi, H.; Wen, H.; Hu, Y.; Yang, Y.; Wang, Y. E iciency Op imiza ion o DC Solid-S a e T ans o me o Pho o ol aic Powe Sys ems.
IEEE T ans. Ind. Elec on. 2020,67, 3583–3595. [C ossRe ]
17.
Hashemzadeh, S.M.; Al-Hi mi, M.A.; Islam, S.; Iqbal, A.; Aghaei, H.; Hosseini, S.H.; Babaei, E. A high ol age gain solid-s a e
ans o me o in eg a ion o enewable ene gy and AC sou ces. Sci. Rep. 2024,14, 25471. [C ossRe ] [PubMed]
18.
Ragha end a, K.V.G.; Zeb, K.; Mu husamy, A.; K ishna, T.N.V.; Kuma , S.V.S.V.P.; Kim, D.-H.; Kim, M.-S.; Cho, H.-G.; Kim, H.-J. A
Comp ehensi e Re iew o DC–DC Con e e Topologies and Modula ion S a egies wi h Recen Ad ances in Sola Pho o ol aic
Sys ems. Elec onics 2019,9, 31. [C ossRe ]
19.
Blaabje g, F.; Ma, K.; Yang, Y. Powe Elec onics o Renewable Ene gy Sys ems—S a us and T ends. In P oceedings o he CIPS
2014; 8 h In e na ional Con e ence on In eg a ed Powe Elec onics Sys ems, Nu embe g, Ge many, 25–27 Feb ua y 2014; pp.
1–11. A ailable online: h ps://ieeexplo e.ieee.o g/documen /6776841/?a numbe =6776841 (accessed on 5 Augus 2024).
20.
Kabalcı, E. Re iew on No el Single-Phase G id-Connec ed Sola In e e s: Ci cui s and Con ol Me hods. Sol. Ene gy 2020,198,
247–274. [C ossRe ]
21.
Vakacha la, V.R.; Gnana, K.; Xuewei, P.; Na asimaha aju, B.L.; Bhukya, M.; Bane jee, A.; Sha ma, R.; Ra ho e, A.K. S a e-o - he-a
powe elec onics sys ems o sola - o-g id in eg a ion. Sol. Ene gy 2020,210, 128–148. [C ossRe ]
22.
Bell, B.; Ha i, A. Topology Key o Powe Densi y in Isola ed DC-DC Con e e s. A ailable online: h ps://www.elec onicdesign.
com/ echnologies/powe /powe -supply/dc-dc-con e e s/a icle/21192993/ opology-key- o-powe -densi y-in-isola ed-dc-
dc-con e e s (accessed on 5 Augus 2024).
23.
Su ikno, T.; Samosi , A.S.; Ap ilian o, R.A.; Pu nama, H.S.; A sadiando, W.; Padmanaban, S. Ad anced DC–DC Con e e
Topologies o Sola Ene gy Ha es ing Applica ions: A Re iew. Clean Ene gy 2023,7, 555–570. [C ossRe ]
24.
Bhuiyan, M.A.; Zhang, Q.; Kha e, V.; Mikhaylo , A.; Pin e , G.; Huang, X. Renewable Ene gy Consump ion and Economic G ow h
Nexus—A Sys ema ic Li e a u e Re iew. F on . En i on. Sci. 2022,10, 878394. [C ossRe ]
25.
N anos, S.; Sko doulis, M.; Ky iakopoulos, G.; A aba zis, G.; Chalikias, M.; Gala sidas, S.; Ba zios, A.; Ka sa ou, A. Renewable
Ene gy and Economic G ow h: E idence om Eu opean Coun ies. Sus ainabili y 2018,10, 2626. [C ossRe ]
26.
Filimono a, I.V.; Nemo , V.Y.; Koma o a, A.V.; Mishenin, M.V.; Kozhe in, V.D. Rela ionship o enewable ene gy consump ion o
economic, en i onmen al and ins i u ional ac o s in Eu ope. Ene gy Rep. 2021,7, 358–365. [C ossRe ]
27.
Elal y, D.A.; Gouda, E.; Ko b, M.F.; Bu eš, V.; Sedhom, B.E. Comp ehensi e e iew o ene gy s o age sys ems echnologies,
objec i es, challenges, and u u e ends. Ene gy S a egy Re . 2024,54, 101482. [C ossRe ]
28.
Zhang, Z.; Li, Z.; Kazmie kowski, M.P.; Rod iguez, J.; Kennel, R. Robus P edic i e Con ol o Th ee-Le el NPC Back- o-Back
Powe Con e e PMSG Wind Tu bine Sys ems wi h Re ised P edic ions. IEEE T ans. Powe Elec on. 2018,33, 9588–9598.
[C ossRe ]
29.
Yesudhas, A.A.; Lee, S.R.; Jeong, J.H.; Joo, Y.H. Pe o mance enhancemen using e minal syne ge ic app oach-based back- o-back
con e e cu en con ol o g id connec ed PMVG wind ene gy con e sion sys em unde di e se ope a ing condi ions. Compu .
Elec . Eng. 2025,122, 109993. [C ossRe ]
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 2336 34 o 40
30.
Guan, M. A Se ies-Connec ed O sho e Wind Fa m Based on Modula Dual-Ac i e-B idge (DAB) Isola ed DC–DC Con e e .
IEEE T ans. Ene gy Con e s. 2019,34, 1422–1431. [C ossRe ]
31.
Almeida, A.O.; Lopes, I.F.; Almeida, P.M.; Tomim, M.A.; Passos Filho, J.A.; Ba bosa, P.G. Se ies-DC connec ion o O sho e wind
gene a ing uni s—Modeling, con ol and gal anic isola ion. Elec . Powe Sys . Res. 2021,195, 107149. [C ossRe ]
32.
Liu, H.; Dahidah, M.S.A.; Yu, J.; Naayagi, R.T.; A ms ong, M. Design and Con ol o Unidi ec ional DC–DC Modula Mul ile el
Con e e o O sho e DC Collec ion Poin : Theo e ical Analysis and Expe imen al Valida ion. IEEE T ans. Powe Elec on. 2019,
34, 5191–5208. [C ossRe ]
33.
Pa el, H.; Bhawal, S.; Ha ik ishnan, P.; Ha ua, K.; Bha acha ya, S. Th ee S age Powe Elec onic T ans o me Based MVAC
Collec ion Sys em and I s Con ol Sys em Design o O sho e Wind Powe Gene a ion Mills. IEEE T ans. Ene gy Con e s. 2024,
39, 2216–2229. [C ossRe ]
34.
Syed, I.; Khadkika , V. Replacing he G id In e ace T ans o me in Wind Ene gy Con e sion Sys em wi h Solid-S a e T ans o me .
IEEE T ans. Powe Sys . 2017,32, 2152–2160. [C ossRe ]
35.
A agon-A iles, S.; T i edi, A.; Williamson, S.S. Sma Powe Elec onics–Based Solu ions o In e ace Sola -Pho o ol aics (PV),
Sma G id, and Elec i ied T anspo a ion: S a e-o - he-A and Fu u e P ospec s. Appl. Sci. 2020,10, 4988. [C ossRe ]
36.
Ca asco, J.M.; F anquelo, L.G.; Bialasiewicz, J.T.; Gal an, E.; Po illoGuisado, R.C.; P a s, M.A.M.; Leon, J.I.; Mo eno-Al onso, N.
Powe -Elec onic Sys ems o he G id In eg a ion o Renewable Ene gy Sou ces: A Su ey. IEEE T ans. Ind. Elec on. 2006,53,
1002–1016. [C ossRe ]
37.
Cab e a-Toba , A.; Bullich-Massagué, E.; A agüés-Peñalba, M.; Gomis-Bellmun , O. Topologies o la ge scale pho o ol aic powe
plan s. Renew. Sus ain. Ene gy Re . 2016,59, 309–319. [C ossRe ]
38. Lucia, U. O e iew on uel cells. Renew. Sus ain. Ene gy Re . 2014,30, 164–169. [C ossRe ]
39.
Abdelka eem, M.A.; Elsaid, K.; Wilbe o ce, T.; Kamil, M.; Sayed, E.T.; Olabi, A. En i onmen al aspec s o uel cells: A e iew. Sci.
To al En i on. 2021,752, 141803. [C ossRe ]
40.
Sha a , O.Z.; O han, M.F. An O e iew o Fuel Cell Technology: Fundamen als and Applica ions. Renew. Sus ain. Ene gy Re .
2014,32, 810–853. [C ossRe ]
41.
Mousa, H.H.H.; Yousse , A.-R.; Mohamed, E.E.M. S a e o he a pe u b and obse e MPPT algo i hms based wind ene gy
con e sion sys ems: A echnology e iew. In . J. Elec . Powe Ene gy Sys . 2021,126, 106598. [C ossRe ]
42.
Büyük, M.; ˙
Inci, M. Imp o ed d i - ee P&O MPPT me hod o enhance ene gy ha es ing capabili y o dynamic ope a ing
condi ions o uel cells. Ene gy 2023,267, 126543. [C ossRe ]
43.
Mo ahhi , S.; El Hammoumi, A.; El Ghzizal, A. The mos used MPPT algo i hms: Re iew and he sui able low-cos embedded
boa d o each algo i hm. J. Clean. P od. 2020,246, 118983. [C ossRe ]
44.
Sa i, M.; Azadian, A. A Comp ehensi e Re iew and Classi ied Compa ison o MPPT Algo i hms in PV Sys ems. Ene gy Sys .
2022,13, 281–320. [C ossRe ]
45.
˙
Inci, M.; Tü ksoy, Ö. Re iew o uel cells o g id in e ace: Con igu a ions, echnical challenges and ends. J. Clean. P od. 2019,
213, 1353–1370. [C ossRe ]
46.
Zhang, Z.; Pi ini, R.; Ande sen, M.A.E.; Thomsena, O.C. A Re iew and Design o Powe Elec onics Con e e s o Fuel Cell
Hyb id Sys em Applica ions. Ene gy P ocedia 2012,20, 301–310. [C ossRe ]
47.
Wang, B.; Xian, L.; Kanama lapudi, V.R.K.; Tseng, K.J.; Ukil, A.; Gooi, H.B. A Digi al Me hod o Powe -Sha ing and C oss-
Regula ion Supp ession o Single-Induc o Mul iple-Inpu Mul iple-Ou pu DC–DC Con e e . IEEE T ans. Ind. Elec on. 2017,
64, 2836–2847. [C ossRe ]
48.
La o e, A.; Soei o, T.B.; Fan, X.; Gee sma, R.; Popo , M.; Polinde , H. Pole- o-Pole Sho -Ci cui Ca ego iza ion o P o ec ion
S a egies in P ima y Shipboa d DC Sys ems. IEEE Open J. Ind. Elec on. Soc. 2024,5, 596–615. [C ossRe ]
49.
Li, C.; Gole, A.M.; Zhao, C. A Fas DC Faul De ec ion Me hod Using DC Reac o Vol ages in HVdc G ids. IEEE T ans. Powe
Deli e y 2018,33, 2254–2264. [C ossRe ]
50.
Nguyen, T.H.; Hosani, K.A.; Mou si, M.S.E.; Blaabje g, F. An O e iew o Modula Mul ile el Con e e s in HVDC T ansmission
Sys ems wi h STATCOM Ope a ion Du ing Pole- o-Pole DC Sho Ci cui s. IEEE T ans. Powe Elec on. 2019,34, 4137–4160.
[C ossRe ]
51.
Xiang, W.; Yang, S.; Adam, G.P.; Zhang, H.; Zuo, W.; Wen, J. DC Faul P o ec ion Algo i hms o MMC-HVDC G ids: Faul
Analysis, Me hodologies, Expe imen al Valida ions, and Fu u e T ends. IEEE T ans. Powe Elec on. 2021,36, 11245–11264.
[C ossRe ]
52. Li, R.; Xu, L. Re iew o DC aul p o ec ion o HVDC g ids. WIREs Ene gy En i on. 2018,7, e278. [C ossRe ]
53.
Muniappan, M. A Comp ehensi e Re iew o DC Faul P o ec ion Me hods in HVDC T ansmission Sys ems. P o . Con ol Mod.
Powe Sys . 2021,6, 1. [C ossRe ]
54.
Mon ei o, V.; Ped osa, D.; Coelho, S.; Sousa, T.; Machado, L.; A onso, J.L. A No el Mul ile el Solid-S a e T ans o me o Hyb id
Powe G ids. In P oceedings o he 2021 In e na ional Con e ence on Sma Ene gy Sys ems and Technologies (SEST), Vaasa,
Finland, 6–8 Sep embe 2021; pp. 1–6.
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 2336 35 o 40
55.
Gulza , M.M.; Iqbal, M.; Shahzad, S.; Muqee , H.A.; Shahzad, M.; Hussain, M.M. Load F equency Con ol (LFC) S a egies in
Renewable Ene gy-Based Hyb id Powe Sys ems: A Re iew. Ene gies 2022,15, 3488. [C ossRe ]
56.
Go ji, S.A.; Sahebi, H.G.; Ek esabi, M.; Rad, A.B. Topologies and Con ol Schemes o Bidi ec ional DC–DC Powe Con e e s: An
O e iew. IEEE Access 2019,7, 117997–118019. [C ossRe ]
57.
Lu, Z.; Xu, G.; Su, M.; Liao, Y.; Liu, Y.; Sun, Y. S abili y Analysis and Design o Common Phase Shi Con ol o Inpu -Se ies
Ou pu -Pa allel Dual Ac i e B idge wi h Conside a ion o Dead-Time E ec . IEEE J. Eme g. Sel. Topics Powe Elec on. 2022,10,
7721–7732. [C ossRe ]
58.
Chen, T.; Yu, R.; Huang, A.Q. A Bidi ec ional Isola ed Dual-Phase-Shi Va iable-F equency Se ies Resonan Dual-Ac i e-B idge
GaN AC–DC Con e e . IEEE T ans. Ind. Elec on. 2023,70, 3315–3325. [C ossRe ]
59.
K isme , F.; Kola , J.W. Accu a e Powe Loss Model De i a ion o a High-Cu en Dual Ac i e B idge Con e e o an Au omo i e
Applica ion. IEEE T ans. Ind. Elec on. 2010,57, 881–891. [C ossRe ]
60.
Rezaei, M.A.; Lee, K.-J.; Huang, A.Q. A High-E iciency Flyback Mic o-in e e Wi h a New Adap i e Snubbe o Pho o ol aic
Applica ions. IEEE T ans. Powe Elec on. 2016,31, 318–327. [C ossRe ]
61.
Falcona , N.; Bey agh, D.S.; Pahle ani, M. An Adap i e Senso less Con ol Technique o a Flyback-Type Sola Tile Mic oin e e .
IEEE T ans. Powe Elec on. 2020,35, 13554–13562. [C ossRe ]
62.
Padhee, P.K.; Sekha , P.C. Isola ed Mul i-Ou pu Powe Supply Based on Flyback Con e e . In P oceedings o he 2023
In e na ional Con e ence on Powe Elec onics and Ene gy (ICPEE), Bhubaneswa , India, 3–5 Janua y 2023; pp. 1–6.
63.
Zengin, S.; De eci, F.; Boz epe, M. Decoupling Capaci o Selec ion in DCM Flyback PV Mic oin e e s Conside ing Ha monic
Dis o ion. IEEE T ans. Powe Elec on. 2013,28, 816–825. [C ossRe ]
64.
Zhang, Z.; He, X.-F.; Liu, Y.-F. An Op imal Con ol Me hod o Pho o ol aic G id-Tied-In e lea ed Flyback Mic oin e e s o
Achie e High E iciency in Wide Load Range. IEEE T ans. Powe Elec on. 2013,28, 5074–5087. [C ossRe ]
65.
Chen, Z.; Shen, L.; Wu, Y. An Imp o ed In e lea ed Flyback Con e e wi h Reduced Vol age S ess and Cu en Au o-sha ing. J.
Elec . Eng. Technol. 2024,19, 2251–2263. [C ossRe ]
66.
Sukesh, N.; Pahle aninezhad, M.; Jain, P.K. Analysis and Implemen a ion o a Single-S age Flyback PV Mic oin e e wi h So
Swi ching. IEEE T ans. Ind. Elec on. 2014,61, 1819–1833. [C ossRe ]
67.
Lodh, T.; P agallapa i, N.; Aga wal, V. No el Con ol Scheme o an In e lea ed Flyback Con e e Based Sola PV Mic oin e e
o Achie e High E iciency. IEEE T ans. Ind. Appl. 2018,54, 3473–3482. [C ossRe ]
68.
Ab amo i z, A.; Cheng, T.; Smedley, K. Analysis and Design o Fo wa d Con e e wi h Ene gy Regene a i e Snubbe . IEEE
T ans. Powe Elec on. 2010,25, 667–676. [C ossRe ]
69.
Oluwasogo, E.S.; Kon a h, J.P. An accu a e small-signal model o a low-side ac i e clamp o wa d con e e and s abili y
assessmen in ha d- and so -swi ching ope a ions. IET Powe Elec on. 2024,17, 2956–2970. [C ossRe ]
70.
De A agao Filho, W.C.P.; Ba bi, I. A compa ison be ween wo cu en - ed push-pull DC-DC con e e s-analysis, design and
expe imen a ion. In P oceedings o he P oceedings o In elec’96—In e na ional Telecommunica ions Ene gy Con e ence, Bos on,
MA, USA, 6–10 Oc obe 1996; pp. 313–320.
71.
Díaz, M.; Muñoz, J.; Ri e a, M.; Roh en, J. A Comp ehensi e Con ol S a egy o a Push–Pull Mic oin e e Connec ed o he
G id. Ene gies 2023,16, 3196. [C ossRe ]
72.
Bal, S.; Ra ho e, A.; S ini asan, D. Na u ally Clamped Snubbe less So -Swi ching Bidi ec ional Cu en -Fed Th ee-Phase
Push-Pull DC/DC Con e e o DC Mic o-G id Applica ion. IEEE T ans. Ind. Appl. 2015,52, 1577–1587. [C ossRe ]
73.
Munoz, J.; Diaz, M.; Ri e a, M.; Dekka, A. Push-Pull Mic oin e e based on a Sub-modula S uc u e. In P oceedings o he 2022
In e na ional Symposium on Powe Elec onics, Elec ical D i es, Au oma ion and Mo ion (SPEEDAM), So en o, I aly, 22–24
June 2022; pp. 883–888.
74.
Liu, K.-H.; Lee, F.C. Ze o-Vol age Swi ching Technique in DC/DC Con e e s. In P oceedings o he 1986 17 h Annual IEEE
Powe Elec onics Specialis s Con e ence, Vancou e , BC, Canada, 23–27 June 1986; pp. 58–70.
75.
Li án, S.P.; Du án, E.; Semião, J.; Díaz-Ma ín, C. Mul iple-Ou pu DC–DC Con e e s: Applica ions and Solu ions. Elec onics
2022,11, 1258. [C ossRe ]
76.
Wu, H.; Xu, P.; Hu, H.; Zhou, Z.; Xing, Y. Mul ipo Con e e s Based on In eg a ion o Full-B idge and Bidi ec ional DC–DC
Topologies o Renewable Gene a ion Sys ems. IEEE T ans. Ind. Elec on. 2014,61, 856–869. [C ossRe ]
77.
Bo ion, A.J.B.; Ba bi, I. Inpu -Se ies and Ou pu -Se ies Connec ed Modula Ou pu Capaci o Full-B idge PWM DC–DC
Con e e . IEEE T ans. Ind. Elec on. 2015,62, 6213–6221. [C ossRe ]
78.
Shu, L.; Chen, W.; Li, R.; Zhang, K.; Deng, F.; Yuan, Y.; Wang, T. A Th ee-Phase T iple-Vol age Dual-Ac i e-B idge Con e e
o Medium Vol age DC T ans o me o Reduce he Numbe o Submodules. IEEE T ans. Powe Elec on. 2020,35, 11574–11588.
[C ossRe ]
79.
Majmuno ic, B.; Mukhe jee, S.; Ma in, T.; Mallik, R.; Du a, S.; Seo, G.-S.; Johnson, B.; Maksimo ic, D. 1 kV, 10-kW SiC-Based
Quad uple Ac i e B idge DCX S age in a DC o Th ee-Phase AC Module o Medium-Vol age G id In eg a ion. IEEE T ans. Powe
Elec on. 2022,37, 14631–14646. [C ossRe ]
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 2336 36 o 40
80.
A ias, M.; Lama , D.G.; Line a, F.F.; Balocco, D.; Diallo, A.A.; Sebas ián, J. Design o a So -Swi ching Asymme ical Hal -B idge
Con e e as Second S age o an LED D i e o S ee Ligh ing Applica ion. IEEE T ans. Powe Elec on. 2012,27, 1608–1621.
[C ossRe ]
81.
Tuan, C.A.; Takeshi a, T. Analysis and Ou pu Powe Con ol o Unidi ec ional Seconda y-Resonan Single-Ac i e-Hal -B idge
DC-DC Con e e . Ene gies 2021,14, 7432. [C ossRe ]
82.
Vasiladio is, M.; Ru e , A. A Modula Mul ipo Powe Elec onic T ans o me wi h In eg a ed Spli Ba e y Ene gy S o age o
Ve sa ile Ul a as EV Cha ging S a ions. IEEE T ans. Ind. Elec on. 2015,62, 3213–3222. [C ossRe ]
83.
Schulz, M.; Di ze, S. Analysis and Expe imen al Ve i ica ion o an Isola ed Hal -B idge Bidi ec ional DC
−
DC Con e e . IEEE
T ans. Powe Elec on. 2022,37, 5089–5106. [C ossRe ]
84.
Gouda zi aemeh, S.; Pahle ani, M. A Bidi ec ional DC–DC Con e e wi h Di ec Powe T ans e . IEEE Open J. Powe Elec on.
2024,5, 232–249. [C ossRe ]
85.
Wang, R.; Li, Y.; Sun, C.; Hu, S.; Li, X.; Chen, W.; L , G. Analysis and Ve i ica ion o a Hal -Dual B idge Resonan Con e e wi h
Vol age Ma ch Modula ion. Elec onics 2022,11, 2675. [C ossRe ]
86.
Hyun, S.-W.; Lee, H.-J.; Shin, S.-C.; Lee, T.-K.; Won, C.-Y. New Powe Condi ioning Sys em combined in e lea ed ull-b idge
con e e wi h hal -b idge in e e . In P oceedings o he 2013 IEEE In e na ional Symposium on Indus ial Elec onics, Taipei,
Taiwan, 28–31 May 2013; pp. 1–6.
87.
Sang, Y.; Junyen -Fe e, A.; G een, T.C. Ope a ional P inciples o Th ee-Phase Single Ac i e B idge DC/DC Con e e s Unde
Du y Cycle Con ol. IEEE T ans. Powe Elec on. 2020,35, 8737–8750. [C ossRe ]
88.
Khe aluwala, M.N.; Gascoigne, R.W.; Di an, D.M.; Baumann, E.D. Pe o mance cha ac e iza ion o a high-powe dual ac i e
b idge DC- o-DC con e e . IEEE T ans. Ind. Appl. 1992,28, 1294–1301. [C ossRe ]
89.
Zhao, B.; Song, Q.; Liu, W.; Sun, Y. O e iew o Dual-Ac i e-B idge Isola ed Bidi ec ional DC–DC Con e e o High-F equency-
Link Powe -Con e sion Sys em. IEEE T ans. Powe Elec on. 2014,29, 4091–4106. [C ossRe ]
90.
Sengup a, A.; Pe ei a, T.; Lise e, M. Design Op imiza ion o Dual Ac i e B idge Con e e o Supe capaci o Applica ion. IEEE
T ans. Powe Elec on. 2024,39, 11544–11557. [C ossRe ]
91.
Xie, H.; Chen, X.; Ouyang, H.; Zhang, T.; Xie, R.; Zhang, Y. An E icien Dual-Ac i e-B idge Con e e o Wide Vol age Range by
Swi ching Ope a ing Modes wi h Di e en T ans o me Equi alen Tu ns Ra ios. IEEE T ans. Powe Elec on. 2024,39, 9705–9716.
[C ossRe ]
92.
Deep i, T.; Deepa, K.; Alexande S onie , A.; Pe e , G.; Anoop, A.; Shahila, D.F.D.; Ganji, V.; Jha, A. Analysis o Leakage Induc ance
E ec and Loss Calcula ion o DAB Using Single-Phase Shi Modula ion Scheme. IET Ci cui s De ices Sys . 2025,2025, 3536991.
[C ossRe ]
93.
ElMenshawy, M.; Massoud, A. Medium-Vol age DC-DC Con e e Topologies o Elec ic Bus Fas Cha ging S a ions: S a e-o -
he-A Re iew. Ene gies 2022,15, 5487. [C ossRe ]
94.
Rong, X.; Shek, J.K.H.; Macphe son, D.E. The s udy o di e en unidi ec ional inpu pa allel ou pu se ies connec ed DC-DC
con e e s o wind a m based mul i-connec ed DC sys em. In . T ans. Elec . Ene gy Sys . 2021,31, e12855. [C ossRe ]
95.
ElMenshawy, M.; Massoud, A. Modula Isola ed DC-DC Con e e s o Ul a-Fas EV Cha ge s: A Gene alized Modeling and
Con ol App oach. Ene gies 2020,13, 2540. [C ossRe ]
96.
Zhang, N.; Su an o, D.; Mu aqi, K.M. A Re iew o Topologies o Th ee-Po DC–DC Con e e s o he In eg a ion o Renewable
Ene gy and Ene gy S o age Sys em. Renew. Sus ain. Ene gy Re . 2016,56, 388–401. [C ossRe ]
97.
Madhana, R.; Mani, G. Powe enhancemen me hods o enewable ene gy esou ces using mul ipo DC-DC con e e : A
echnical e iew. Sus ain. Compu . In o m. Sys . 2022,35, 100689. [C ossRe ]
98.
Naseem, N.; Cha, H. Quad-Ac i e-B idge Con e e wi h Cu en Balancing Coupled Induc o o SST Applica ion. IEEE T ans.
Powe Elec on. 2021,36, 12528–12539. [C ossRe ]
99.
Gong, S.; Li, X.; Han, J.; Sun, Y.; Xu, G.; Jiang, Y.; Huang, S. Sliding Mode Con ol-Based Decoupling Scheme o Quad-Ac i e
B idge DC–DC Con e e . IEEE J. Eme g. Sel. Topics Powe Elec on. 2022,10, 1153–1164. [C ossRe ]
100.
Falcones, S.; Ayyana , R.; Mao, X. A DC–DC Mul ipo -Con e e -Based Solid-S a e T ans o me In eg a ing Dis ibu ed Gene a-
ion and S o age. IEEE T ans. Powe Elec on. 2013,28, 2192–2203. [C ossRe ]
101.
Taylo , A.; Liu, G.; Bai, H.; B own, A.; Johnson, P.M.; McAmmond, M. Mul iple-Phase-Shi Con ol o a Dual Ac i e B idge o
Secu e Ze o-Vol age Swi ching and Enhance Ligh -Load Pe o mance. IEEE T ans. Powe Elec on. 2018,33, 4584–4588. [C ossRe ]
102.
Kayaalp, I.; Demi delen, T.; Ko oglu, T.; Cuma, M.U.; Bayindi , K.C.; Tumay, M. Compa ison o Di e en Phase-Shi Con ol
Me hods a Isola ed Bidi ec ional DC-DC Con e e . In . J. Appl. Ma h. Elec on. Compu . 2016,4, 68. [C ossRe ]
103.
Coelho, S.; Sousa, T.J.C.; Mon ei o, V.; Machado, L.; A onso, J.L.; Cou o, C. Compa a i e Analysis and Valida ion o Di e en
Modula ion S a egies o an Isola ed DC-DC Dual Ac i e B idge Con e e . In Sus ainable Ene gy o Sma Ci ies; A onso, J.L.,
Mon ei o, V., Pin o, J.G., Eds.; Sp inge In e na ional Publishing: Cham, Swi ze land, 2021; pp. 30–49.
104.
Bu, Q.; Wen, H.; Shi, H.; Zhu, Y. A Compa a i e Re iew o High-F equency T ansien DC Bias Cu en Mi iga ion S a egies in
Dual-Ac i e-B idge DC–DC Con e e s Unde Phase-Shi Modula ions. IEEE T ans. Ind. Appl. 2022,58, 2166–2182. [C ossRe ]
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 2336 37 o 40
105.
Bai, H.; Nie, Z.; Mi, C.C. Expe imen al Compa ison o T adi ional Phase-Shi , Dual-Phase-Shi , and Model-Based Con ol o
Isola ed Bidi ec ional DC–DC Con e e s. IEEE T ans. Powe Elec on. 2010,25, 1444–1449. [C ossRe ]
106.
Shao, S.; Jiang, M.; Ye, W.; Li, Y.; Zhang, J.; Sheng, K. Op imal Phase-Shi Con ol o Minimize Reac i e Powe o a Dual Ac i e
B idge DC–DC Con e e . IEEE T ans. Powe Elec on. 2019,34, 10193–10205. [C ossRe ]
107.
Akba , S.M.; Hasan, A.; Wa son, A.J.; Wheele , P. Model P edic i e Con ol wi h T iple Phase Shi Modula ion o a Dual Ac i e
B idge DC-DC Con e e . IEEE Access 2021,9, 98603–98614. [C ossRe ]
108.
Lin, F.; Zhang, X.; Li, X.; Sun, C.; Cai, W.; Zhang, Z. Au oma ic T iple Phase-Shi Modula ion o DAB Con e e wi h Minimized
Powe Loss. IEEE T ans. Ind. Appl. 2022,58, 3840–3851. [C ossRe ]
109.
Gu, Q.; Yuan, L.; Nie, J.; Sun, J.; Zhao, Z. Cu en S ess Minimiza ion o Dual-Ac i e-B idge DC–DC Con e e Wi hin he Whole
Ope a ing Range. IEEE J. Eme g. Sel. Top. Powe Elec on. 2019,7, 129–142. [C ossRe ]
110.
Kaiwa , V.K.; Jama ia, A.; Chak aba i, A.; Das, B.; Kasa i, P.R.; Laska , N. Modeling o Dual Ac i e B idge wi h Ex ended Phase
Shi and Dual Phase Shi Modula ion Technique using Reduced O de Model Me hod. In P oceedings o he 2023 Second
In e na ional Con e ence on Elec onics and Renewable Sys ems (ICEARS), Tu ico in, India, 2–4 Ma ch 2023; pp. 13–20.
111.
Shi, H.; Wen, H.; Chen, J.; Hu, Y.; Jiang, L.; Chen, G.; Ma, J. Minimum-Back low-Powe Scheme o DAB-Based Solid-S a e
T ans o me wi h Ex ended-Phase-Shi Con ol. IEEE T ans. Ind. Appl. 2018,54, 3483–3496. [C ossRe ]
112.
Mo sali, P.; Dey, S.; Mallik, A.; Ak u k, A. Swi ching Modula ion Op imiza ion o E iciency Maximiza ion in a Single-S age
Se ies Resonan DAB-Based DC–AC Con e e . IEEE J. Eme g. Sel. Top. Powe Elec on. 2023,11, 5454–5469. [C ossRe ]
113.
Liu, F.; Chen, Y.; Chen, X. Comp ehensi e Analysis o Th ee-Phase Th ee-Le el LC-Type Resonan DC/DC Con e e wi h
Va iable F equency Con ol—Se ies Resonan Con e e . IEEE T ans. Powe Elec on. 2017,32, 5122–5131. [C ossRe ]
114.
Rocha, J.; Saghi , A.; Coelho, S.; Rego, G.; A onso, J.L.; Mon ei o, V. Design and Implemen a ion o a DC–DC Resonan LLC
Con e e o Elec ic Vehicle Fas Cha ge s. Ene gies 2025,18, 1099. [C ossRe ]
115.
Haga, H.; Ku okawa, F. Modula ion Me hod o a Full-B idge Th ee-Le el LLC Resonan Con e e o Ba e y Cha ge o
Elec ical Vehicles. IEEE T ans. Powe Elec on. 2017,32, 2498–2507. [C ossRe ]
116.
Liu, C.; Liu, H.; Cai, G.; Cui, S.; Liu, H.; Yao, H. No el Hyb id LLC Resonan and DAB Linea DC–DC Con e e : A e age Model
and Expe imen al Ve i ica ion. IEEE T ans. Ind. Elec on. 2017,64, 6970–6978. [C ossRe ]
117.
Pan, Y.; Yang, Y.; He, J.; Sangwongwanich, A.; Zhang, C.; Liu, Y.; Blaabje g, F. A Dual-Loop Con ol o Ensu e Fas and S able
Faul -Tole an Ope a ion o Se ies Resonan DAB Con e e s. IEEE T ans. Powe Elec on. 2020,35, 10994–11012. [C ossRe ]
118.
Li, B.; Lee, F.C.; Li, Q.; Liu, Z. Bi-di ec ional on-boa d cha ge a chi ec u e and con ol o achie ing ul a-high e iciency wi h
wide ba e y ol age ange. In P oceedings o he 2017 IEEE Applied Powe Elec onics Con e ence and Exposi ion (APEC),
Tampa, FL, USA, 26–30 Ma ch 2017; pp. 3688–3694.
119.
James, L.D.; Teixei a, C.A.; Wilkinson, R.H.; McG a h, B.P.; Holmes, D.G.; Riedel, J. Adap i e Modula ion o Resonan DAB
Con e e s o Wide Range ZVS Ope a ion wi h Minimum Reac i e Ci cula ing Powe . IEEE T ans. Ind. Appl. 2022,58, 7396–7407.
[C ossRe ]
120.
Twiname, R.P.; Th imawi hana, D.J.; Madawala, U.K.; Baguley, C.A. A New Resonan Bidi ec ional DC–DC Con e e Topology.
IEEE T ans. Powe Elec on. 2014,29, 4733–4740. [C ossRe ]
121.
Guo, Z.; Zhan, W.; Chen, Z. Single-S age Isola ed AC–DC Con e e Based on LCL Resonan DAB Con e e s wi h Single-Loop
Con ol. IEEE T ans. Powe Elec on. 2024,39, 9305–9317. [C ossRe ]
122.
Ryu, M.-H.; Kim, H.-S.; Baek, J.-W.; Kim, H.-G.; Jung, J.-H. E ec i e Tes Bed o 380-V DC Dis ibu ion Sys em Using Isola ed
Powe Con e e s. IEEE T ans. Ind. Elec on. 2015,62, 4525–4536. [C ossRe ]
123.
Sa aya ullah, M.; El ais, M.T.; Ghosh, S.; Rezaii, R.; Ba a seh, I. A Comp ehensi e Re iew o Powe Con e e Topologies and
Con ol Me hods o Elec ic Vehicle Fas Cha ging Applica ions. IEEE Access 2022,10, 40753–40793. [C ossRe ]
124.
Song, W.; Zhong, M.; Luo, S.; Yang, S. Model P edic i e Powe Con ol o Bidi ec ional Se ies-Resonan Isola ed DC–DC
Con e e s wi h Fas Dynamic Response in Locomo i e T ac ion Sys em. IEEE T ans. T ansp. Elec i ic. 2020,6, 1326–1337.
[C ossRe ]
125.
Chen, G.; Xu, N.; Yuan, L.; Humayun, M.; Khan, M.M. A DC-DC Cen e -Tapped Resonan Dual-Ac i e B idge wi h Two
Modula ion Techniques. Elec onics 2020,9, 1699. [C ossRe ]
126.
Wu, J.; Li, Y.; Sun, X.; Liu, F. A New Dual-B idge Se ies Resonan DC–DC Con e e wi h Dual Tank. IEEE T ans. Powe Elec on.
2018,33, 3884–3897. [C ossRe ]
127.
Sun, X.; Shen, Y.; Li, W.; Wang, B.; Wang, L.; Li, X. Cen e - apped ans o me based bidi ec ional dc-dc con e e wi h wide inpu
ol age ange. In P oceedings o he 2015 IEEE Ene gy Con e sion Cong ess and Exposi ion (ECCE), Mon eal, QC, Canada,
20–24 Sep embe 2015; pp. 5910–5917.
128.
Roggia, L.; Cos a, P.F.S. Compa a i e Analysis Be ween In eg a ed Full-B idge-Fo wa d and Dual Ac i e B idge DC–DC
Con e e s. Elec on. Le . 2018,54, 231–233. [C ossRe ]
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 2336 38 o 40
129.
Zien a ski, J.R.R.; Ma ins, M.L.D.S.; Pinhei o, J.R.; Hey, H.L. Se ies-Connec ed Pa ial-Powe Con e e s Applied o PV Sys ems:
A Design App oach Based on S ep-Up/Down Vol age Regula ion Range. IEEE T ans. Powe Elec on. 2018,33, 7622–7633.
[C ossRe ]
130.
Köse, H.; Aydemi , M.T. Design and implemen a ion o a 22 kW ull-b idge push–pull se ies pa ial powe con e e o s a iona y
ba e y ene gy s o age sys em wi h ba e y cha ge . Meas. Con ol 2020,53, 1454–1464. [C ossRe ]
131.
Chen, J.; Nguyen, M.-K.; Yao, Z.; Wang, C.; Gao, L.; Hu, G. DC-DC Con e e s o T anspo a ion Elec i ica ion: Topologies,
Con ol, and Fu u e Challenges. IEEE Elec i ic. Mag. 2021,9, 10–22. [C ossRe ]
132.
Jou, H.-L.; Wu, K.-D.; Wu, J.-C.; Lin, Y.-Z.; Su, L.-W. Asymme ic isola ed unidi ec ional mul i-le el DC-DC powe con e e . Eng.
Sci. Technol. In . J. 2019,22, 894–898. [C ossRe ]
133.
Moonem, M.; Pechacek, C.; He nandez, R.; K ishnaswami, H. Analysis o a Mul ile el Dual Ac i e B idge (ML-DAB) DC-DC
Con e e Using Symme ic Modula ion. Elec onics 2015,4, 239–260. [C ossRe ]
134.
Xuan, Y.; Yang, X.; Chen, W.; Liu, T.; Hao, X. A No el NPC Dual-Ac i e-B idge Con e e wi h Blocking Capaci o o Ene gy
S o age Sys em. IEEE T ans. Powe Elec on. 2019,34, 10635–10649. [C ossRe ]
135.
Song, C.; Sangwongwanich, A.; Yang, Y.; Blaabje g, F. Op imal Con ol o Mul ile el DAB Con e e s o So -Swi ching and
Minimum Cu en S ess. IEEE T ans. Powe Elec on. 2024,39, 5707–5720. [C ossRe ]
136.
Wu, J.; Liu, D.; Wang, Y.; Pe ei a, T.; Lise e, M.; Chen, Z. Hyb id-B idge-Based Dual-Ac i e-B idge Con e e wi h an Asymme ic
Ac i e-Neu al-Poin -Clamped Th ee-Le el B idge. IEEE T ans. Ci cui s Sys . I Regul. Pap. 2024,71, 4873–4886. [C ossRe ]
137.
Feng, Z.; Wen, H.; Bu, Q.; Zhu, Y.; Han, X.; Zhou, J.; Lim, E.G.; Liu, W.; Hu, Y. Loss Balance and T ansien DC-Bias Supp ession
S a egies in Th ee-Le el DAB Con e e s Modula ed wi h Fi e DoFs. IEEE T ans. Powe Elec on. 2023,38, 8150–8164. [C ossRe ]
138.
Cao, H.; Lin, N.; Da ish, P.; Yang, Y.; Wang, Z.; Zhao, Y. Enhanced T iple Phase Shi Modula ion S a egy o ANPC-DAB
Con e e o Ex end So Swi ching Range. In P oceedings o he 2024 IEEE Applied Powe Elec onics Con e ence and Exposi ion
(APEC), Long Beach, CA, USA, 25–29 Feb ua y 2024; pp. 445–452.
139.
Deng, Z.; Wang, G.; Wang, K.; Hao, Y. Analysis and Con ol o N-le el Neu al-poin Clamped Dual Ac i e B idge DC-DC
Con e e wi h Capaci o Vol age Balance. In P oceedings o he 2018 In e na ional Con e ence on Powe Sys em Technology
(POWERCON), Guangzhou, China, 6–8 No embe 2018; pp. 2407–2413.
140.
Liu, W.; Jin, H.; Yao, W.; Lu, Z. An In e lea ed PWM Me hod wi h Be e Vol age-Balancing Abili y o Hal -B idge Th ee-Le el
DC/DC Con e e . IEEE T ans. Powe Elec on. 2018,33, 4594–4598. [C ossRe ]
141.
Tian, J.; Zhuo, C.; Wang, F.; Deng, H. An RMS Cu en Minimiza ion Me hod o Th ee-Le el ANPC-DAB-Based Dis ibu ed
Ene gy S o age Sys em wi h Full Ope a ion ZVS. IEEE J. Eme g. Sel. Top. Powe Elec on. 2024,12, 2388–2405. [C ossRe ]
142.
Guan, Q.-X.; Zhang, Y.; Zhao, H.-B.; Kang, Y. Op imized Swi ching S a egy o ANPC–DAB Con e e Th ough Mul iple Ze o
S a es. IEEE T ans. Powe Elec on. 2022,37, 2885–2898. [C ossRe ]
143.
Zhao, B.; Song, Q.; Li, J.; Xu, X.; Liu, W. Compa a i e Analysis o Mul ile el-High-F equency-Link and Mul ile el-DC-Link
DC–DC T ans o me s Based on MMC and Dual-Ac i e B idge o MVDC Applica ion. IEEE T ans. Powe Elec on. 2018,33,
2035–2049. [C ossRe ]
144.
Sun, C.; Zhang, J.; Shi, G.; Cai, X. In e -a m phase-shi modula ion scheme o isola ed modula mul ile el DC-DC con e e . In
P oceedings o he 2016 IEEE 8 h In e na ional Powe Elec onics and Mo ion Con ol Con e ence (IPEMC-ECCE Asia), He ei,
China, 22–26 May 2016; pp. 53–58.
145.
Yada , A.; Singh, S.N.; Das, S.P. Modula mul i-le el con e e opologies: P esen s a us and key challenges. In P oceedings o
he 2017 4 h IEEE U a P adesh Sec ion In e na ional Con e ence on Elec ical, Compu e and Elec onics (UPCON), Ma hu a,
India, 26–28 Oc obe 2017; pp. 280–288.
146.
So oodeh, P.; Mille , R.D. A Single-Phase 5-Le el In e e wi h FACTS Capabili y using Modula Mul i-Le el Con e e (MMC)
Topology. In P oceedings o he 2013 In e na ional Elec ic Machines & D i es Con e ence, Chicago, IL, USA, 12–15 May 2013; pp.
1229–1234.
147.
Zhang, L.; Zhao, Z.; Qin, J. E iciency Op imiza ion Design o DC-DC Solid S a e T ans o me based on Modula Mul ile el
Con e e s. In P oceedings o he 2017 IEEE Ene gy Con e sion Cong ess and Exposi ion (ECCE), Cincinna i, OH, USA, 1–5
Oc obe 2017; pp. 3508–3513.
148.
Wang, Z.; Li, H.; Chu, Z.; Zhang, C.; Yang, Z.; Shao, T.; Hu, Y. A Re iew o EMI Resea ch in Modula Mul ile el Con e e o
HVDC Applica ions. IEEE T ans. Powe Elec on. 2022,37, 14482–14498. [C ossRe ]
149.
Song, S.; Liu, J.; Chen, X. An MMC DC-Link Vol age Con ol Me hod Wi hou Ac ual Vol age Measu emen . IEEE J. Eme g. Sel.
Top. Powe Elec on. 2022,10, 5698–5708. [C ossRe ]
150.
Song, S.; Liu, J. In e p e ing he Indi idual Capaci o Vol age Regula ion Con ol o PSC-PWM MMC ia Consensus Theo y. IEEE
Access 2019,7, 66807–66820. [C ossRe ]
151.
Ta akoli, S.D.; Sanchez-Sanchez, E.; P ie o-A aujo, E.; Gomis-Bellmun , O. DC Vol age D oop Con ol Design o MMC-Based
Mul i e minal HVDC G ids. IEEE T ans. Powe Deli . 2020,35, 2414–2424. [C ossRe ]
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 2336 39 o 40
152.
Ma, Z.; Gao, F.; Zhang, C.; Li, W.; Niu, D. Va iable DC-Link Vol age Regula ion o Single-Phase MMC Ba e y Ene gy-S o age
Sys em o Reducing Addi ional Cha ge Th oughpu . IEEE T ans. Powe Elec on. 2021,36, 14267–14281. [C ossRe ]
153.
Lu, Z.; Lin, L.; Wang, X.; Xu, C. LLC-MMC Resonan DC-DC Con e e : Modula ion Me hod and Capaci o Vol age Balance
Con ol S a egy. In P oceedings o he 2020 IEEE Applied Powe Elec onics Con e ence and Exposi ion (APEC), New O leans,
LA, USA, 15–19 Ma ch 2020; pp. 2056–2061.
154.
Sun, P.; Tian, Y.; Pou, J.; Kons an inou, G. Beyond he MMC: Ex ended Modula Mul ile el Con e e Topologies and Applica ions.
IEEE Open J. Powe Elec on. 2022,3, 317–333. [C ossRe ]
155.
Ansa i, J.A.; Liu, C.; Khan, S.A. MMC Based MTDC G ids: A De ailed Re iew on Issues and Challenges o Ope a ion, Con ol
and P o ec ion Schemes. IEEE Access 2020,8, 168154–168165. [C ossRe ]
156. Jia, G.; Shi, B.; Li, M.; Chen, M.; Niu, F.; Tang, Y. Ac i e Powe Decoupling o Full-B idge Submodules o a Modula Mul ile el
Con e e . IEEE T ans. Powe Elec on. 2024,39, 9752–9764. [C ossRe ]
157.
P ajapa i, P.; Balamu ugan, S. Le e aging GaN o DC-DC Powe Modules o E icien EVs: A Re iew. IEEE Access 2023,11,
95874–95888. [C ossRe ]
158.
Nouke cha, F.; Lelis, A.; G een, R.; Cui, Y.; Da mody, C.; Goldsman, N. De ailed S udy o B eakdown Vol age and C i ical
Field in Wide Bandgap Semiconduc o s. In P oceedings o he 2019 IEEE 7 h Wo kshop on Wide Bandgap Powe De ices and
Applica ions (WiPDA), Raleigh, NC, USA, 29–31 Oc obe 2019; pp. 200–207.
159.
Jones, E.A.; Wang, F.F.; Cos ine , D. Re iew o Comme cial GaN Powe De ices and GaN-Based Con e e Design Challenges.
IEEE J. Eme g. Sel. Topics Powe Elec on. 2016,4, 707–719. [C ossRe ]
160.
Slobodyan, O.; Flicke , J.; Dicke son, J.; Shoemake , J.; Binde , A.; Smi h, T.; Goodnick, S.; Kapla , R.; Hollis, M. Analysis o he
dependence o c i ical elec ic ield on semiconduc o bandgap. J. Ma e . Res. 2022,37, 849–865. [C ossRe ]
161.
Lophi is, N.; A ani opoulos, A.; Pe kins, S.; An oniou, M. TCAD De ice Modelling and Simula ion o Wide Bandgap Powe
Semiconduc o s. In Dis up i e Wide Bandgap Semiconduc o s, Rela ed Technologies, and Thei Applica ions; Sha ma, Y.K., Ed.; InTech:
London, UK, 2018; ISBN 978-1-78923-668-2.
162. Baliga, B.J. Gallium ni ide de ices o powe elec onic applica ions. Semicond. Sci. Technol. 2013,28, 074011. [C ossRe ]
163.
Jakka, V.N.; Na h, H.; Acha ya, S.; Kada elugu, A.; Madhusoodhanan, S.; T ipa hi, A.; Pa el, D.; Mainali, K.; Bha acha ya, S.
Implemen a ion o Flexible La ge Powe T ans o me s Using Modula Solid S a e T ans o me Topologies Enabled by SiC De ices.
In P oceedings o he 2019 IEEE Ene gy Con e sion Cong ess and Exposi ion (ECCE), Bal imo e, MD, USA, 29 Sep embe –3
Oc obe 2019; pp. 4619–4626.
164.
Wang, F.; Ji, S. Bene i s o high- ol age SiC-based powe elec onics in medium- ol age powe -dis ibu ion g ids. Chin. J. Elec .
Eng. 2021,7, 1–26. [C ossRe ]
165.
Iannaccone, G.; Sb ana, C.; Mo elli, I.; S angio, S. Powe Elec onics Based on Wide-Bandgap Semiconduc o s: Oppo uni ies
and Challenges. IEEE Access 2021,9, 139446–139456. [C ossRe ]
166.
Rod iguez, J.A.; Tsoi, T.; G a es, D.; Bayne, S.B. E alua ion o GaN HEMTs in H3TRB Reliabili y Tes ing. Elec onics 2022,11, 1532.
[C ossRe ]
167.
Zhong, K.; Sun, J.; Wang, Y.; Lyu, G.; Feng, S.; Chen, T.; Chen, K.J. A alanche Capabili y o 650-V No mally-o GaN/SiC Cascode
Powe De ice. In P oceedings o he 2021 33 d In e na ional Symposium on Powe Semiconduc o De ices and ICs (ISPSD),
Nagoya, Japan, 30 May–3 June 2021; pp. 223–226.
168.
Ahmed, M.; Kucukgok, B.; Yanguas-Gil, A.; H yn, J.; Wende , S.A. Neu on adia ion ha dness es ing o 650V/7.5 A GaN powe
HEMT. Radia . Phys. Chem. 2020,166, 108456. [C ossRe ]
169.
Ngom, C.; Pouge , V.; Ze a ka, M.; Cocce i, F.; Touboul, A.; Ma ma , M.; C epel, O.; Jona has, S.; Bascoul, G. Backside Lase
Tes ing o Single-E en E ec s in GaN-on-Si Powe HEMTs. IEEE T ans. Nucl. Sci. 2021,68, 1642–1650. [C ossRe ]
170.
Hedaya i, M.H.; Dymond, H.C.P.; Goswami, R.; S a k, B.H. In es iga ing GaN powe de ice double-pulse es ing e icacy in
he ace o VTH-shi , dynamic Rdson, and empe a u e a ia ions. In P oceedings o he 2021 IEEE Applied Powe Elec onics
Con e ence and Exposi ion (APEC), Phoenix, AZ, USA, 14–17 June 2021; pp. 2291–2298.
171.
Van Do, T.; T o ao, J.P.F.; Li, K.; Boulon, L. Wide-Bandgap Powe Semiconduc o s o Elec ic Vehicle Sys ems: Challenges and
T ends. IEEE Veh. Technol. Mag. 2021,16, 89–98. [C ossRe ]
172.
Dai, X.; Wang, Y.; Wu, Y.; Luo, H.; Liu, G.; Li, D.; Jones, S. Reliabili y design o di ec liquid cooled powe semiconduc o module
o hyb id and elec ic ehicles. Mic oelec on. Reliab. 2016,64, 474–478. [C ossRe ]
173.
Li, J.; Zhang, H. The mal cha ac e is ics o powe ba e y module wi h composi e phase change ma e ial and ex e nal liquid
cooling. In . J. Hea Mass T ans . 2020,156, 119820. [C ossRe ]
174.
Bhalla, A.; Na a, M.; Zhu, M.; Suda io, F.; Sumaoang, D.; Alexand o , P.; Li, X.; Losee, P. Ul a-high speed 7mohm, 650V SiC
hal -b idge module wi h obus sho ci cui capabili y o EV in e e s. In P oceedings o he 2019 31s In e na ional Symposium
on Powe Semiconduc o De ices and ICs (ISPSD), Shanghai, China, 19–23 May 2019; pp. 191–194.
175.
Guan, Y.; Wang, Y.; Wang, W.; Xu, D. Analysis and Design o a 1-MHz Single-Swi ch DC–DC Con e e wi h Small Winding
Resis ance. IEEE T ans. Ind. Elec on. 2018,65, 7805–7817. [C ossRe ]
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 2336 40 o 40
176.
Knabben, G.C.; Schä e , J.; Peluso, L.; Kola , J.W.; Kaspe , M.J.; Deboy, G. New PCB Winding “Snake-Co e” Ma ix T ans o me
o Ul a-Compac Wide DC Inpu Vol age Range Hyb id B+DCM Resonan Se e Powe Supply. In P oceedings o he 2018
IEEE In e na ional Powe Elec onics and Applica ion Con e ence and Exposi ion (PEAC), Shenzhen, China, 4–7 No embe 2018;
pp. 1–6.
177.
K isme , F.; Round, S.; Kola , J.W. Pe o mance op imiza ion o a high cu en dual ac i e b idge wi h a wide ope a ing ol age
ange. In P oceedings o he 2006 37 h IEEE Powe Elec onics Specialis s Con e ence, Jeju, Republic o Ko ea, 18–22 June 2006;
pp. 1–7.
178.
Conca i, L.; Ba a e , D.; Toscani, A.; Conca i, C.; F anceschini, G.; Bu icchi, G.; Lise e, M.; Zhang, H. Assessmen o E iciency
and Reliabili y o Wide Band-Gap Based H8 In e e in Elec ic Vehicle Applica ions. Ene gies 2019,12, 1922. [C ossRe ]
179.
Wang, Y.; Ding, Y.; Yin, Y. Reliabili y o Wide Band Gap Powe Elec onic Semiconduc o and Packaging: A Re iew. Ene gies 2022,
15, 6670. [C ossRe ]
180.
Huang, A.Q.; Zhu, Q.; Wang, L.; Zhang, L. 15 kV SiC MOSFET: An enabling echnology o medium ol age solid s a e
ans o me s. CPSS T ans. Powe Elec on. Appl. 2017,2, 118–130. [C ossRe ]
181.
Wang, J.; Veliadis, V.; Zhang, J.; Alsmadi, Y.; Wilson, P.R.; Sco , M.J. IEEE ITRW Wo king G oup Posi ion Pape -Sys em In eg a ion
and Applica ion: Silicon Ca bide: A Roadmap o Silicon Ca bide Adop ion in Powe Con e sion Applica ions. IEEE Powe
Elec on. Mag. 2018,5, 40–44. [C ossRe ]
182.
Pengelly, R.S.; Wood, S.M.; Milligan, J.W.; Sheppa d, S.T.; P ibble, W.L. A Re iew o GaN on SiC High Elec on-Mobili y Powe
T ansis o s and MMICs. IEEE T ans. Mic ow. Theo y Tech. 2012,60, 1764–1783. [C ossRe ]
183.
Millan, J.; Godignon, P.; Pe pina, X.; Pe ez-Tomas, A.; Rebollo, J. A Su ey o Wide Bandgap Powe Semiconduc o De ices. IEEE
T ans. Powe Elec on. 2014,29, 2155–2163. [C ossRe ]
184. ROHM Semiconduc o . SiC Powe De ices and Modules Re . 003; Applica ion Repo ; ROHM: Kyo o, Japan, 2020.
185.
Bind a, A. Wide-Bandgap-Based Powe De ices: Reshaping he powe elec onics landscape. IEEE Powe Elec on. Mag. 2015,2,
42–47. [C ossRe ]
186.
Lumb e as, D.; Za agoza, J.; Mon, J.; Gal ez, E.; Collado, A. E iciency analysis o wide band-gap semiconduc o s o wo-le el
and h ee-le el powe con e e s. In P oceedings o he IECON 2019—45 h Annual Con e ence o he IEEE Indus ial Elec onics
Socie y, Lisbon, Po ugal, 14–17 Oc obe 2019; pp. 5126–5133.
187.
Sco , M.J.; Fu, L.; Zhang, X.; Li, J.; Yao, C.; Sie e s, M.; Wang, J. Me i s o gallium ni ide based powe con e sion. Semicond. Sci.
Technol. 2013,28, 074013. [C ossRe ]
188.
Behesh i, M. Wide-Bandgap Semiconduc o s: Pe o mance and Bene i s o GaN Ve sus SiC. 2020. A ailable online: h ps://www.
i.com/li /an/sly 801/sly 801.pd ? s=1741160652383& e _u l=h ps%253A%252F%252Fwww.google.com%252F (accessed on 1
Decembe 2024).
Disclaime /Publishe ’s No e: The s a emen s, opinions and da a con ained in all publica ions a e solely hose o he indi idual
au ho (s) and con ibu o (s) and no o MDPI and/o he edi o (s). MDPI and/o he edi o (s) disclaim esponsibili y o any inju y o
people o p ope y esul ing om any ideas, me hods, ins uc ions o p oduc s e e ed o in he con en .
