Compu e S anda ds & In e aces 92 (2025) 103888
A ailable online 26 July 2024
0920-5489/© 2024 The Au ho (s). Published by Else ie B.V. This is an open access a icle unde he CC BY license (h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/).
F amewo k o s anda ds, guides and me hodologies o p ojec , p og am,
po olio, and PMO managemen
Jo˜
ao Va aj˜
ao
a
,
*
, Luciana Lopes
b
, Alexand a Tene a
c
a
ALGORTIMI/LASI Resea ch Cen e , Uni e si y o Minho, Po ugal
b
MIEGSI, Uni e si y o Minho, Po ugal
c
UNIDEMI Resea ch Cen e , NOVA Uni e si y o Lisbon, Po ugal
ARTICLE INFO
Keywo ds:
Concep s
S anda ds
Guides
Me hodologies
F amewo ks
Ma u i y
Compe ence
Po olio managemen
P og am managemen
P ojec managemen
P ojec managemen o ice
PMO
ABSTRACT
P ojec , p og am, po olio, and P ojec Managemen O ice (PMO) managemen s anda ds, guides, and me h-
odologies a e indispensable o p o essionals and companies as hey e lec he bes p ac ices in he a ea.
Howe e , he numbe and di e si y o ex an documen s a e signi ican and g owing, making hei iden i ica ion,
s udy, and selec ion di icul . To help o e come his issue, his a icle p esen s a amewo k ha in eg a es and
o ganizes a wide ange o concep s, s anda ds, guides, and me hodologies o p ojec , p og am, po olio, and
PMO managemen . We ca ied ou a li e a u e e iew o he a ailable documen s published by se e al in e -
na ional en i ies, including he leading p o essional associa ions. The documen s we e hen compiled, analyzed,
and o ganized comp ehensi ely. Theo e ically, he p oposed amewo k p o ides a s uc u ed pe spec i e on he
s anda ds, guides, and me hodologies acco ding o hei pu pose, scope, and de ail. I is also a aluable ool o
assis ing p ac i ione s in iden i ying e e ences o managing hei p ojec s, p og ams, po olios, and PMOs.
Mo eo e , i p o ides eache s, s uden s, and aining en i ies wi h a basis o s udying s anda ds, guides, and
me hodologies and designing aining cou ses.
1. In oduc ion
Managing p ojec s, p og ams, po olios, and P ojec Managemen
O ices (PMO) (4P) is complex and challenging, and hey should be
ca ied ou ollowing bes p ac ices in applying knowledge, compe-
encies, p ocesses, echniques, and ools o mee he equi emen s o he
unde akings. In his con ex , using s anda ds, guides, and me hodolo-
gies is manda o y [1], as hey allow adop ing he p ocesses, echniques,
and ools necessa y o mee es ablished objec i es and s akeholde s’
expec a ions.
Fu he mo e, s anda diza ion p omo es knowledge dissemina ion
and inc eases p edic abili y, hus educing unce ain y and isk [2].
P ocess s anda diza ion is a subjec o s a egic impo ance o many
companies as i enables hem o deli e consis en quali y in e ms o
p oduc s and se ices o cus ome s [3]. Many s anda ds, guides, and
me hodologies exis o 4P managemen . S ill, o he bes o ou
knowledge, he e is no amewo k o o ganize and p esen hese docu-
men s acco ding o hei concep ual na u e o acili a e hei adop ion
and use. This in o ma ion would be e y impo an o o ganiza ions o
iden i y, assess be e , and decide which s anda ds, guides, and
me hodologies o in es in [4], leading o be e esul s and a oiding he
loss o oppo uni ies.
Gi en his gap, which a ec s he awa eness, iden i ica ion, s udy,
selec ion, and adop ion o he mos app op ia e e e ences, his a icle
p oposes a new amewo k ha iden i ies, in an o ganized way, a ious
s anda ds, guides, and me hodologies o 4P. The amewo k aims o
suppo esea che s and p ac i ione s when iden i ying s anda ds,
guides, and me hodologies o s udy and use.
To de elop he amewo k, an exhaus i e li e a u e e iew was
ca ied ou , which included he ollowing mac o-ac i i ies: 1) P oblem
o mula ion (p oblem: di icul y in iden i ying he s anda ds, guides,
and me hodologies o 4P managemen ); 2) Da a collec ion (collec ion o
main s anda ds, guides, and me hodologies o 4P managemen ); 3) O -
ganiza ion and e alua ion o da a ( ull eading o he iden i ied s an-
da ds, guides, and me hodologies); 4) Con en analysis and
in e p e a ion (summa izing each s anda d, guide, and me hodology,
aiming a a deepe analysis o hem); 5) O ganiza ion and p esen a ion
(classi ica ion and o ganiza ion o he s anda ds, guides, and me hod-
ologies and de elopmen o he amewo k). Two ocus g oups we e
pe o med o e alua e he amewo k and ge eedback o
* Co esponding au ho : Uni e si y o Minho, Campus de Azu ´
em, 4804-533 Guima ˜
aes, Po ugal.
E-mail add ess: [email p o ec ed] (J. Va aj˜
ao).
Con en s lis s a ailable a ScienceDi ec
Compu e S anda ds &In e aces
jou nal homepage: www.else ie .com/loca e/csi
h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.csi.2024.103888
Recei ed 21 Ap il 2024; Recei ed in e ised o m 5 July 2024; Accep ed 9 July 2024
Compu e S anda ds & In e aces 92 (2025) 103888
2
imp o emen .
Theo e ically, he amewo k p o ides a new o ganized pe spec i e
o s anda ds, guides, and me hodologies acco ding o hei scope, de ail,
and pu pose, allowing esea che s o ha e a clea pe spec i e o he s a e
o he a . Fo p ac ice, i p o ides a ool o p ac i ione s o iden i y he
mos app op ia e e e ences o hei endea o s. Rega ding educa ion,
he amewo k gi es eache s, s uden s, and aining p o ide s a basis
o s udying ele an s anda ds, guides, and me hodologies and
designing aining cou ses.
Following, Sec ion 2 p esen s undamen al concep s. Then, Sec ion 3
desc ibes he esea ch me hod. Sec ion 4 p esen s he amewo k. Sec-
ion 5 discusses he esul s. To conclude, Sec ion 6 add esses he con-
ibu ions, limi a ions, and u u e wo k.
2. Backg ound
This sec ion p esen s he concep ual backg ound o he wo k ca ied
ou . The i s sec ion in oduces he 4P managemen concep s. The
second sec ion ocuses on he di e en ypes o documen s included in
he s anda ds, guides, and me hodologies amewo k.
2.1. P ojec , p og am, po olio and PMO managemen
Wi hin he global a ea o p ojec managemen , i is help ul o
dis inguish be ween po olio, p og am, and p ojec managemen . In
addi ion o hese di e en le els o managemen , du ing he li e a u e
e iew, i was also possible o iden i y a ele an se o documen s
di ec ly ela ed o PMO managemen .
P ojec s can be de ined as empo a y endea o s o achie e one o
mo e de ined objec i es. In o he wo ds, a p ojec is a empo a y un-
de aking pe o med o c ea e a unique p oduc , se ice, o esul [1].
P ojec managemen in ol es coo dina ed ac i i ies o di ec and
con ol he accomplishmen o ag eed objec i es, comp ising he
applica ion o p ocesses, me hods, skills, knowledge, and expe ience o
achie e speci ic p ojec objec i es in acco dance wi h p ojec accep-
ance c i e ia and wi hin ag eed pa ame e s [5].
P og ams can be de ined as g oups o p og am componen s (p ojec s
o o he ela ed wo k) managed in a coo dina ed way o ealize bene i s
[6] ha a e no achie able h ough indi idual managemen [7]. P o-
g am managemen in ol es coo dina ed ac i i ies o di ec and con ol
he ealiza ion o iden i ied bene i s and deli e ables [6], including he
coo dina ed managemen o ongoing p ojec s and ac i i ies (busi-
ness-as-usual) o achie e bene icial changes [5].
Po olios a e a collec ion o po olio componen s, such as p ojec s,
p og ams, o o he po olios and ela ed wo ks, g ouped o acili a e
hei managemen o mee s a egic objec i es [8]. Those g oups o
p ojec s o p og ams can be ela ed o no [7]. Po olio managemen
in ol es coo dina ed ac i i ies o di ec and con ol he accomplishmen
o s a egic objec i es [8]. I comp ises selec ing, p io i izing, and con-
olling an o ganiza ion’s p og ams and p ojec s acco ding o i s s a-
egic objec i es and execu ion capaci y [5].
PMOs a e o ganiza ional bodies o en i ies ha ha e been assigned
a ious esponsibili ies ela ed o cen alized and coo dina ed p ojec
managemen in hei domain [9]. A PMO is esponsible o imp o ing
and op imizing he p ocesses used in p ojec s, p og ams, and po olios,
di ec ly impac ing hei managemen p ac ices and esul s.
2.2. S anda ds, guides, me hodologies and o he s
In he con ex o 4P managemen , s anda ds and guides can ake
se e al o ms. Those conside ed o his wo k a e s anda ds, me hod-
ologies, guides, ma u i y models, and compe ence amewo ks.
As anda d is de ined by he ISO/IEC [10] as a documen , es ab-
lished by consensus and app o ed by a ecognized body, ha p esen s
he gene al and epea ed use, ules, guidelines, o cha ac e is ics, o
ac i i ies o hei esul s, o ob ain he bes esul s in a gi en con ex .
Documen s such as ISO 21500:2021 [11] a e included in his ca ego y.
Acco ding o Wes land [12], a p ojec managemen me hodology
consis s in a se o p inciples, ools, and echniques used o plan, execu e,
and manage p ojec s. P ojec managemen me hodologies help p ojec
manage s o lead eam membe s and manage he wo k while acili a ing
eam collabo a ion. A ele an example o a p ojec managemen
me hodology is PM
2
[14]. PM
2
explains s ep by s ep wha should be
done o p ope p ojec managemen .
A p ojec managemen guide o amewo k is a se o models,
p ocesses, ac i i ies, o s anda dized ools o plan, s a , con ol, and
inish a p ojec (i.e., some hing ague han a me hodology). Fo
example, he "APM in oduc ion o p og amme managemen " [14] s a es
in i s in oduc ion ha he pu pose o he guide is o gi e an insigh in o
p og am managemen –i.e., wha a p og am is, how i unc ions, and
how o iew i ; in o he wo ds, his kind o documen p o ides an
o e iew o he opic, bu i is no a s ep-by-s ep guide (some hing ex-
pec ed om a me hodology).
Acco ding o Wendle [15], a ma u i y model desc ibes he de el-
opmen o an en i y o e ime. Fo Pullen [16], ma u i y models a e
s uc u ed collec ions o elemen s ha desc ibe he cha ac e is ics o
p ocesses a di e en s ages o de elopmen . An example is OPM3 [17].
Finally, a compe ence amewo k allows he de elopmen o
aining p og ams, he iden i ica ion o compe ence gaps (bo h in in-
di iduals and o ganiza ions), he p omo ion o a p o essional’s sel -
de elopmen , and ensu es common e e ences [18]. Wi h his ype o
documen , i is possible o make he knowledge and skills ounda ion
necessa y o ca y ou ce ain ac i i ies mo e anspa en ly and p o ide
a common ocabula y h ough which expec a ions and p ocesses can be
made conspicuously and publicly. The ICB [19] is an example o a
compe ence amewo k.
3. Me hod
3.1. Li e a u e e iew
One o he main aims o a li e a u e e iew is o summa ise he s a e
o he a in a pa icula a ea [20]. The li e a u e e iew should be
cohe en and logical o cla i y he end esul [21]. Fo he iden i ica ion
o he ele an s anda ds, guides, and me hodologies o he amewo k
de elopmen (pu pose o his wo k), he li e a u e e iew ca ied ou
included he ollowing ac i i ies: 1) Sea ch o s anda ds, guides, and
me hodologies ela ed o 4P managemen ; 2) Con ac wi h p ojec
managemen expe s, o iden i y addi ional ele an e e ences; 3)
Sea ch o leading in e na ional s anda diza ion and p o essional en-
i ies and consequen sea ch o he s anda ds, guides, and me hodologies
p oposed by hem; 4) Addi ional ad-hoc sea ches in Web engines.
We s a ed by sea ching o s anda ds, guides, and me hodologies
al eady known by he esea ch eam, including some o he mos
p ominen s anda ds and guides in he a ea o p ojec managemen (e.g.,
PMI and IPMA s anda ds). Then, wo expe s in he ield p o ided a long
lis o e e ences. Those expe s we e iden i ied and con ac ed based on
he pe sonal con ac lis o he esea che s, and bo h a e schola s and
in e na ional expe s (pa icipa ing in p ojec , p og am and po olio
managemen and ela ed s anda diza ion commi ees and p o essional
associa ions, including he In e na ional O ganiza ion o S anda diza-
ion) wi h mo e han 20 yea s o expe ience in he ield.
A e ha , a sea ch was made on he ins i u ional websi es o he
leading in e na ional s anda diza ion bodies and p o essional associa-
ions, ocusing mainly on he ollowing en i ies: P ojec Managemen
Ins i u e (PMI), AXELOS, In e na ional O ganiza ion o S anda diza ion
(ISO), Associa ion o P ojec Managemen (APM), In e na ional P ojec
Managemen Associa ion (IPMA), and In e na ional Associa ion o
P ojec Manage s (IAPM). These en i ies’s anda ds, guides, me hodol-
ogies, and ma u i y models we e hen iden i ied, complemen ing he
ini ial lis . Finally, ha ing e i ied some gaps in he ca ego y o ame-
wo ks and ma u i y models, an ad-hoc complemen a y sea ch on he
J. Va aj˜
ao e al.
Compu e S anda ds & In e aces 92 (2025) 103888
3
Web was ca ied ou wi h new keywo ds (e.g., “ma u i y model”), which
allowed en iching he lis o s anda ds, guides, and me hodologies.
The comple e lis o s anda ds, guides, and me hodologies consid-
e ed in his wo k can be ound in he appendix.
3.2. F amewo k de elopmen and e alua ion
A e iden i ying he ele an documen s, he con en o each one
was analyzed in de ail, ollowing he p ocess ep esen ed in Fig. 1. The
i s s ep consis ed o selec ing he documen o be analyzed. Then, a
comple e documen eading was done, and he main cha ac e is ics we e
sys ema ized. Following ha , a summa y was de eloped, which con-
sis ed in a b ie explana ion o he documen ’s objec i e and con en .
Finally, he documen was classi ied and included in he amewo k.
To e alua e he amewo k, we conduc ed wo ocus g oups
ollowing he guidelines o Kon io e al. [22]. They included discussions
wi h ele en expe s wi h signi ican ly di e en backg ounds aimed a 1)
collec ing he pa icipan s’opinions abou he amewo k’s use ulness
and o ganiza ion and 2) ge ing eedback o imp o ing he model and
espec i e dissemina ion. Ca ying ou wo ocus g oups acili a ed he
discussion so all pa icipan s could be e con ibu e. Fu he mo e, i
was also ele an o acili a e he managemen o he pa icipan s’hea y
agenda. Pa icipan s we e selec ed based on hei expe ience in he ield,
ollowing Ki zinge [23]. Looking o he e ogenei y among he g oup
pa icipan s, we conside ed di e si y ega ding backg ounds, oles, and
expe iences o ge a well- ounded pe spec i e. K uege ’s [24] guideline,
which s a es ha he g oup should no exceed wel e pa icipan s, was
also conside ed. See Table 1 o pa icipan s’demog aphics. All he
pa icipan s’con ibu ions we e anonymized and p esen ed as Pn,
whe eas nis he code assigned o each pa icipan .
The ocus g oup sessions, wi h one o he au ho s ac ing as he main
mode a o , we e pe o med ia Zoom in Ma ch o 2024. Each session
las ed an a e age o i y minu es and s a ed wi h an in oduc o y
p esen a ion o he ocus g oup agenda and he esea ch objec i es.
Then, in o med consen was eques ed o eco d he session, and da a
anonymi y was ensu ed. Following his, pa icipan s we e asked o w i e
down all he s anda ds, guides, me hodologies, o o he 4P managemen
documen s hey knew. A e wa d, i was p esen ed a non-o ganized lis
o he s anda ds, guides, me hodologies, and o he documen s (all mixed
down) esul ing om he li e a u e e iew, asking pa icipan s h ee
ques ions: 1) Is he e any s anda d, guide, me hodology, o o he doc-
umen s in he lis ha you w o e down, no p esen in his lis ? 2) Do any
o you ha e all o hese s anda ds, guides, o me hodologies in you lis ?
3) Supposing ha you would need o selec one o hese s anda ds,
guides, o me hodologies o one o you endea o s, wha would be he
di icul ies? I ollowed a b ie discussion o he pa icipan s’answe s o
hese ques ions. The nex s ep o he ocus g oup in ol ed p esen ing he
de eloped amewo k and discussing he ollowing ques ions: 1) Do you
conside his amewo k help ul (and why)? 2) Would you like o ha e
access o i o you wo k? 3) Do you ha e any sugges ions o i s p e-
sen a ion and dissemina ion? Finally, a e ge ing eedback, he
mode a o ended he ocus g oup session by hanking pa icipan s o
hei pa icipa ion and insigh s. The mode a o ied o make bo h ses-
sions as simila as possible o in eg a e esul s. The audio o he ocus
g oup sessions was eco ded and la ely ansc ibed so ha we could
deeply analyze he con en o he discussions. Then, he ansc ip s we e
ca e ully ead o examine he esponses and iden i y he pe cep ions and
opinions o he pa icipan s ega ding he amewo k’s comple eness
and use ulness.
4. F amewo k o s anda ds, guides and me hodologies o he
managemen o p ojec s, p og ams, po olios, and PMOs
This sec ion i s p esen s he p oposed amewo k o s anda ds,
guides, and me hodologies o 4P managemen . Nex , each documen
included in he amewo k is b ie ly desc ibed.
4.1. F amewo k o ganiza ion
The amewo k s uc u e is shown in Fig. 2. A he op, he i s le el
e e s o he scope o he documen , which may be ela ed o po olio
managemen , p og am managemen , p ojec managemen , o PMO. The
second le el speci ies he ype o con en ound in he documen , which
may globally (Global) co e a subjec (e.g., p ojec managemen ),
add ess one o a ew speci ic aspec s (Aspec (s)) (e.g., ime manage-
men ) wi hin he speci ic subjec a he i s le el, conce n compe encies
o skills (Compe encies/Skills), o be ocused in go e nance
(Go e nance).
Gene ally, a documen is classi ied as Global when i comp ehen-
si ely add esses he 4P managemen . I is he case, o example, o ISO
21502:2020 [25], which ocuses on p ojec managemen and p esen s
an o e iew o p ojec managemen h ough i s a eas o in e -
es /knowledge a eas and he p ocesses ela ed o hose a eas.
A documen is classi ied as ocusing on an Aspec (s) when i con-
ce ns a pa icula aspec o 4P managemen . Fo example, ISO
21508:2018 [26] ocuses on Ea ned Value Managemen , a speci ic
p ojec and p og am managemen aspec .
ACompe ence is a se o knowledge, pe sonal a i udes, skills, and
expe ience equi ed o succeed in a pa icula ole [27]. A skill e e s o
he lea ned abili y o p oduce p ede e mined esul s wi h maximum
ce ain y, wi h he minimum expendi u e o ime, ene gy, o bo h [28].
The Compe encies/skills dimension includes he documen s (such as
he ICB [19]) ha add ess skills and abili ies ha he manage o p o-
essional o 4P needs o ca y ou his wo k.
Finally, Go e nance consis s o p inciples, policies, and models
guiding he di ec ion and con ol o an o ganiza ion [29] o p o ide
alue in mee ing s a egic and ope a ional objec i es [30]. The docu-
men s ha p esen con en on go e nance a e included in his dimen-
sion. An example is ISO 21505:2017 –P ojec , p og am, and po olio
managemen –Guidance on go e nance [29]; his s anda d ocuses on
he go e nance o p ojec s, p og ams, and po olios.
The comple e amewo k is p esen ed in Fig. 3 and de ailed in he
Fig. 1. P ocess o de eloping he amewo k.
J. Va aj˜
ao e al.
Compu e S anda ds & In e aces 92 (2025) 103888
4
ollowing sec ions.
4.2. S anda ds and guides desc ip ion
Fi e ypes o documen s a e conside ed in he amewo k: S anda ds,
Me hodologies, Guides &F amewo ks, Ma u i y Models, and Compe-
ence F amewo ks.
4.2.1. S anda ds
The documen s o he S anda ds ca ego y a e desc ibed nex .
ISO 21500:2021 –P ojec , p og amme and po olio manage-
men –Con ex and concep s [11]: The o ganiza ional con ex and
unde lying concep s o unde aking p ojec , p og am, and po olio
managemen a e speci ied in his s anda d. Fu he mo e, i o e s
guidance on implemen ing o enhancing p ojec , p og am, and po olio
managemen . I may be used ega dless o p ojec , p og am, o po olio
size, complexi y, o du a ion.
ISO 21502:2020 –P ojec , p og amme and po olio manage-
men –Guidance on p ojec managemen [25]: I p o ides p ojec
managemen guidelines, o e ing high-le el explana ions o p ac ices
ha , in he con ex o p ojec managemen , a e seen o be e icien and
e ec i e. I is ele an o e e y kind o p ojec , independen o i s goals,
deli e y me hods, li e cycle model, size, complexi y, cos , o leng h, and
o all kinds o o ganiza ions, including nonp o i , public, and p i a e
ones.
ISO 21503:2022 –P ojec , p og amme and po olio manage-
men –Guidance on p og amme managemen [6]: I o e s p og am
managemen guidelines as well as high-le el explana ions o pe inen
e minology, de ini ions, p e equisi es, concep s, and p ac ices,
including oles and du ies ha con ibu e o good p ac ice. I may be
used by any o ganiza ion, public o p i a e, o any size o indus y, and
wi h any kind o p og am, ega dless o i s complexi y.
ISO 21504:2022 –P ojec , p og amme and po olio manage-
men –Guidance on po olio managemen [8]: I p o ides guidelines
and p inciples o po olio managemen . The guidelines a e mean o be
cus omized o i each po olio’s unique con ex . I does no include
ins uc ions o managing p og ams, p ojec s, o o he pa icula kinds
o po olio managemen (e.g., inancial).
ISO 21505:2017 –P ojec , p og amme and po olio manage-
men –Guidance on go e nance [29]: I o e s guidelines o he
Table 1
Pa icipan ’s demog aphics.
Code Age Gende O ganiza ion
size
Academic
quali ica ions
Cu en posi ion P o issional
expe ience
Expe ience
P1 54 F La ge;
Public sec o
PhD (in p ojec
managemen )
P o esso ; Resea che >30 (yea s) P ojec eam leade ; Consul an ; P o esso ; Resea che ;
Coo dina o o p ojec managemen eaching p og ams
P2 37 F SME; P i a e
sec o
MSc
MBA (in p ojec
managemen )
P ojec manage ;
Se ice manage
>15 P ojec manage
P3 23 F SME;
Public sec o
MSc Consul an ainee;
PhD S uden
<1 Consul an
P4 41 M SME;
P i a e sec o
MSc Se ices di ec o ;
PhD S uden
>23 Business analys ; P ojec manage ; IT coo dina o , Se ices
di ec o
P5 22 F La ge; P i a e
sec o
BSc P ojec managemen
ainee;
MSc s uden
<1 P ojec managemen eam membe (e alua ion)
P6 44 M La ge; Public
sec o
PhD
MBA in p ojec
managemen
P o esso ; Resea che >25 P ojec manage ; PMO di ec o ; Po olio manage ;
P og am manage ; Consul an ; Resea che ; P o esso
P7 23 F La ge; P i a e
sec o
MSc Business analys <1 Business analys
P8 26 F La ge; P i a e
sec o
MSc P ojec manage <2 Consul an ; P ojec manage
P9 27 F La ge; Public
sec o
MSc Resea che >2 De elope ; Analys ; Resea che
P10 38 M La ge; P i a e
sec o
MSc P ojec manage ;
PhD s uden
17 CIO; Minis e y di ec o ; Coo dina o o minis y
mode niza ion; Po olio, p og am, and p ojec manage
P11 22 F –BSc MSc s uden 22 (only academic)
Fig. 2. S uc u e o he amewo k o s anda ds and guides.
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5
go e nance o p ojec s, p og ams, and po olios, as well as an expla-
na ion o he con ex in which i is conduc ed. Addi ionally, i may be
used o p ojec , p og am, o po olio go e nance unc ion e alua ion.
ISO 21508:2018 –Ea ned Value Managemen in p ojec and
p og amme managemen [26]: I p o ides guidelines o Ea ned Value
Managemen p ocedu es in p ojec and p og am managemen . I may be
used by any o ganiza ion, whe he public o p i a e, o any size o in-
dus y and in any kind o p ojec o p og am, ega dless o i s size,
complexi y, o leng h.
ISO 21511:2018 –Wo k B eakdown S uc u es o p ojec and
p og amme managemen [31]: I o e s wo k b eakdown s uc u es
guidance o o ganiza ions managing p ojec s o p og ams. I also p o-
ides ele an e minology, concep s, de ini ions, bene i s, cha ac e is-
ics, applica ions, and o he aspec s o wo k b eakdown s uc u es.
ISO 10006:2017 –Quali y managemen –Guidelines o quali y
managemen in p ojec s [32]: Guidelines o implemen ing quali y
managemen in p ojec s a e p o ided in his s anda d. Wi h he aim o
sa is ying p ojec in e es ed pa ies by implemen ing quali y manage-
men , i may be used by o ganiza ions wo king on p ojec s o a ious
le els o complexi y, whe he hey a e s andalone ini ia i es o a e pa
o a po olio o p og am, in a ious se ings, and ega dless o he ype
o he in ol ed p ocess, p oduc , o se ice.
ISO/IEC/IEEE 16326:2019 –Sys ems and so wa e enginee ing –
Li e cycle p ocesses –P ojec managemen [33]: I s pu pose is o
assis p ojec manage s in managing he e ec i e comple ion o p ojec s
in ol ing sys ems (e.g., so wa e). I ou lines wha mus be included in
he p ojec managemen plan. I also includes comp ehensi e p ojec
managemen guidelines.
SP ogM –S anda d o P og am Managemen [34]: I o e s
guidelines on p og am managemen p inciples, p ac ices, and ac i i ies
widely accep ed as p omo ing good p og am managemen p ac ices and
applicable o mos p og ams. I also aims o es ablish a sha ed unde -
s anding o he p og am manage ole.
PSPCM –P ac ice S anda d o P ojec Con igu a ion Manage-
men [35]: I ex ends and de ails he PMBOK Guide, de ining p ocesses,
echniques, and ools u ilized in p ojec con igu a ion managemen . I
guides he eam, p ojec manage , and o he in e es ed pa ies in un-
de s anding p ojec con igu a ion managemen and p ac icing i p op-
e ly in a p ojec .
PSPE –P ac ice S anda d o P ojec Es ima ing [36]: I ea s
es ima ing as a li e p ocess inside p ojec s and o e s o ien a ion o
implemen ing a s ong es ima ing discipline h oughou a p ojec . I
se es as a guide o he p ojec eam, p ojec manage , and any in e -
es ed pa ies.
Fig. 3. F amewo k o s anda ds, guides, and me hodologies o 4P managemen .
J. Va aj˜
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6
PSS –P ac ice S anda d o Scheduling [37]: I s pu pose is o gi e
p ojec managemen p ac i ione s a concise o e iew o he ad an ages
and bene i s o a good schedule model. I ou lines he essen ial
componen s o a eliable and e icien p ojec scheduling me hodology
and o e s quan i a i e ools o e alua ing how well his s anda d’s
guidelines a e being applied.
Fig. 3. (con inued).
J. Va aj˜
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7
PSWBS –P ac ice S anda d o Wo k B eakdown S uc u es
[38]: I o e s guidelines and p inciples o c ea ing, de eloping, and
implemen ing Wo k B eakdown S uc u es (WBS). Howe e , his s an-
da d does no p o ide de ailed “how- o”guidance.
EVM –The S anda d o Ea ned Value Managemen [39]: I o e s
an o e iew o Ea ned Value Managemen (EVM). I is p ac ice-o ien ed
and expands he pe spec i es on choosing and selec ing he bes cou se
o ac ion o p ojec planning and deli e y. Consequen ly, i helps
p ojec eams and o he in e es ed pa ies o cus omize hei amewo k
o planning, managing, and implemen ing deli e y. I o e s in-
s uc ions on how o apply EVM in p edic i e, hyb id, and agile se ings.
SRMPPP –The S anda d o Risk Managemen in Po olios,
P og ams, and P ojec s [40]: The implemen a ion o isk managemen
in he con ex o en e p ise isk managemen (ERM), which encompasses
he domains o p ojec , p og am, and po olio, is desc ibed in his
s anda d. I explains isk managemen e minology and concep s and
iden i ies he key elemen s o isk managemen ha mus be included in
po olio, p og am, and p ojec go e nance laye s.
SPo M –The S anda d o Po olio Managemen [41]: To help
o ganiza ions e ec i ely manage complex and demanding p og ams
and p ojec in es men s, i iden i ies pe o mance managemen domains
and p ojec po olio managemen p inciples ha a e widely acknowl-
edged as good p ac ices.
OPM –The S anda d o O ganiza ional P ojec Managemen
[42]: Guidelines o de eloping an O ganiza ional P ojec Managemen
(OPM) amewo k a e p o ided in his s anda d. By c ea ing and con-
nec ing po olio, p og am, and p ojec managemen p inciples and
p ac ices wi h o ganiza ional enable s and o ganiza ional p ocesses o
suppo s a egic objec i es, OPM en ails modi ying and aligning p ac-
ices and p ocesses o p o ide he bes suppo o accomplishing he
o ganiza ion’s s a egic objec i es.
4.2.2. Me hodologies
The documen s o he Me hodologies ca ego y a e desc ibed nex .
PM
2
P ojec Managemen –PM2 P ojec Managemen Me hod-
ology [13]: I helps p ojec manage s o e see he whole p ojec li ecycle
and p o ide ad an ages and solu ions o hei o ganiza ions by e ec-
i ely managing hei p ojec s. I inco po a es widely ecognized bes
p ac ices in p ojec managemen .
PRINCE2 –Managing success ul p ojec s [43]: I is an adjus able
p ocess-based p ojec managemen me hodology. Acco ding o his
me hodology, a p ojec should ha e an o ganized and egula ed begin-
ning, o ganized and con olled means, and he abili y o decla e i sel
inished once he desi ed ou come is a ained.
PRINCE2 Agile [44]: I o e s he ounda ions o agile p inciples and
echniques, oge he wi h PRINCE2 me hodology. I combines he
well-s uc u ed PRINCE2 go e nance wi h agile esponsi eness and
lexibili y.
4.2.3. Guides & amewo ks
The documen s o he Guides &F amewo ks ca ego y a e desc ibed
nex .
P3O –Po olio, P og amme and P ojec O ices [45]: I o e s a
s uc u e o decision-making and deli e y suppo o o ganiza ional
changes. I p o ides gene al guidelines o help people and o ganiza ions
c ea e, de elop, and sus ain sui able business suppo s uc u es.
MoP –P inciples, p ac ices, and p ocedu es o success ul
po olio managemen [46]: I includes p inciples, echniques, and
p ac ices ha help an o ganiza ion implemen po olio managemen
success ully. Ins ead o ocusing on he e o s o indi idual ini ia i es, i
concen a es on he ans o ma ion ha p ojec and p og am manage-
men as a whole deli e s.
M_o_R –The Managemen o Risk [47]: I s pu pose is o assis o -
ganiza ions in pu ing in place a amewo k o success ul isk man-
agemen , helping o make well-in o med decisions ega ding he isks
a ec ing hei ope a ional, p ojec , p og am, o s a egic goals.
PRAMG –P ojec Risk Analysis and Managemen Guide [48]:
This guide is ocused on he isk issues ha a ec he p ojec manage . I
add esses how he p ojec -le el isk managemen p ocess connec s o
co po a e o p og am-le el isk managemen .
PMBOK guide –A Guide o he P ojec Managemen Body o
Knowledge [1]: I o e s he undamen als o p ojec managemen . I is
applicable independen o he indus y, egion, size, o mode o deli e y
(e.g., p edic i e, hyb id, o adap i e). I explains he sys em ha p ojec s
wo k in, including go e nance, unc ions, p ojec en i onmen , and
aspec s o conside when de e mining how p ojec and p oduc man-
agemen in e ac .
GE PMBOK –Go e nmen Ex ension o he PMBOK Guide [49]: I
o e s an o e iew o he main p ojec go e nance cha ac e is ics
commonly accep ed as bes p ac ices and applicable o mos public
sec o o ganiza ions. I es ablishes a amewo k o ensu ing public
sec o p ojec s’success ul and e icien managemen .
BRM –Bene i s Realiza ion Managemen : A P ac ice Guide [50]:
I desc ibes how o conduc Bene i s Realiza ion Managemen (BRM),
emphasizing se ices and p oduc s, esul s, and p ocess enhancemen . I
co e s he daily o ganiza ion and managemen o he endea o o
ealize and main ain po en ial bene i s om in es men s in p ojec s,
p og ams, and po olios.
RM –Requi emen s Managemen : A P ac ice Guide [51]: I o e s
o ien a ion o p og am and p ojec manage s seeking o comp ehend
he elemen s and signi icance o equi emen s managemen . I desc ibes
asks o pe o m and he undamen al knowledge equi ed o ca y ou
equi emen s managemen on p ojec s and p og ams in an e icien
manne .
GPPP –Go e nance o Po olios, P og ams, and P ojec s: A
P ac ice Guide [30]: I o e s o ien a ion o o ganiza ions and p ac i-
ione s abou imp o ing o implemen ing go e nance on p ojec s, p o-
g ams, and po olios. I cla i ies he di e ences and o e s u he
insigh in o he a ious ypes, domains, and unc ions o go e nance.
PMG –P ojec Manage s’Guide [52]: I comp ehensi ely co e s
he opics o p ojec implemen a ion, om he ini ia ion o he p ojec
close-ou , p o iding he p ojec manage wi h an o e iew o ele an
opics in he daily ope a ions o he p ojec .
APMG –Agile P ojec Manage s’Guide [53]: To imp o e he
analysis and e alua ion o he p ojec en i onmen , i desc ibes me hods
ha may be applied o agile p ojec managemen . I co e s he “so
ac s”o agile p ojec managemen and he people in ol ed in he
p ojec s.
PM
2
Agile –The PM
2
-Agile guide [54]: I suppo s ins i u ions and
o ganiza ions using PM
2
o e ec i ely in oduce Agile p ac ices o hei
p ojec s while main aining en e p ise awa eness and compliance a he
o e all p ojec le el. PM
2
-Agile should be pe cei ed/unde s ood as an
ex ension o PM
2
.
APMBoK –APM Body o Knowledge [5]: I desc ibes concep s,
unc ions, and ac i i ies ha make up p o essional p ojec managemen .
I is a well-es ablished collec ion o p ojec , p og am, and po olio
managemen knowledge.
APMIPM –APM In oduc ion o P og amme Managemen [14]: I
aims o gi e insigh s in o p og am managemen , including de ini ions,
how i wo ks, and pe spec i es.
GUBMF –A guide o using a bene i s managemen amewo k
[55]: To p io i ize in es men s (p ojec s and ac i i ies), i aligns busi-
ness uni s and p ojec bene i s wi h he o ganiza ional s a egic objec-
i es o KPIs (Key Pe o mance Indica o s). A collec ion o echniques,
p ocesses, and ools unde pin he amewo k, ensu ing ha bene i s a e
p ecisely iden i ied, maximized, and collec ed.
PMPG –Po olio Managemen –A p ac ical guide [56]: I de-
sc ibes how po olio managemen is a c i ical ool o help an o gani-
za ion maximize alue and op imize he ul illmen o i s s a egic goals.
PM
2
Po olio Managemen –PM
2
Po olio Managemen Guide
[57]: I is a amewo k de eloped o suppo ins i u ions and o ganiza-
ions using PM
2
o e ec i ely c ea e, manage, and ob ain bene i s om
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managing p ojec s, p og ams, and componen s a he po olio le el. I
has been de eloped as an ex ension o PM
2
.
DC: GGPM –Di ec ing Change: A Guide o Go e nance o P ojec
Managemen [58]: I s aim is o pe suade di ec o s and o he indi iduals
holding co po a e go e nance posi ions o emb ace he bes p ojec and
p og am go e nance p ac ices. The in e es s o di ec o s, p ojec and
p og am eams, and o he in e es ed pa ies mus be aligned o accom-
plish i .
EVM Handbook –Ea ned Value Managemen Handbook [59]: I
o e s o ien a ion o Ea ned Value Managemen (EVM) ounda ions and
p ac ice. EVM is use ul o managing, planning, and con olling p o-
g ams and p ojec s, om small o la ge ones.
EVM: APMGuide –Ea ned Value Managemen : APM Guidelines
[60]: I ou lines he p ocess o se ing up and main aining an Ea ned
Value Managemen sys em.
P2M –A Guidebook o P og am &P ojec Managemen o En-
e p ise Inno a ion [61]: I is a body o knowledge ha combines
p ojec and p og am managemen o add ess complex issues. I s goal is
o inc ease o ganiza ional alue by conside ing changes in he ex e nal
en i onmen , p o iding solu ions o complex p oblems, and inc easing
alue.
GAPP –A Guide o Audi ing P og ammes and P ojec s [62]: This
guide aims o p o ide di ec ion o indi iduals in ol ed wi h he exec-
u i es and p o essionals pa icipa ing in he p og am and p ojec audi
p ocesses.
MSP –Managing Success ul P og ammes [63]: I is a
well-es ablished amewo k o bes p ac ices o p og am managemen
ha aims o acili a e en e p ise agili y and align p ojec s and p og ams
wi h o ganiza ional s a egy. MSP p io i izes deli e ing bene i ou -
comes while ac i ely in ol ing in e es ed pa ies and educing isk.
PM
2
P og am Managemen –PM
2
P og amme managemen Guide
[64]: I is a amewo k de eloped o suppo ins i u ions and o ganiza-
ions using PM
2
o un hei P og ammes e ec i ely. I has been
de eloped as an ex ension o PM
2
.
SCRUM –The SCRUM Guide [65]: I o e s a ligh weigh , agile
amewo k ha helps indi iduals, eams, and o ganiza ions c ea e alue
by inding adap i e solu ions o challenging p oblems. I pu posely jus
ou lines he componen s needed o pu Sc um in o p ac ice.
4.2.4. Ma u i y models
The documen s o he ma u i y models ca ego y a e desc ibed nex .
P3M3 –Po olio, p og amme, and p ojec managemen ma u-
i y model [66]: I se es as a amewo k o pe o mance e alua ion,
benchma king, and imp o emen plan de elopmen wi hin an o gani-
za ion. P3M3 enables he e alua ion o he en i e o ganiza ion o ce ain
business uni s o unde s and be e . I looks a he en i e sys em a he
han jus he p ocesses.
OPM3 –O ganiza ional P ojec Managemen Ma u i y Model
[17]: I is an o ganiza ional p ojec managemen ma u i y model. I
p o ides knowledge abou o ganiza ional p ojec managemen , a ool o
assess ma u i y, he abili y o de e mine he o ganiza ional s a e on a
ma u i y con inuum, and he in o ma ion necessa y o he o ganiza ion
o decide whe he o no o pu sue a plan o imp o emen .
CMMI –Capabili y Ma u i y Model In eg a ion [67]: I o e s
o ien a ion o enhancing he o ganiza ion’s p ocesses and abili y o
o e see he c ea ion, acquisi ion, and upkeep o goods and se ices.
Inco po a ing p o en app oaches in o a amewo k assis s an o gani-
za ion in e alua ing i s p ocesses and o ganiza ional ma u i y, se ing
imp o emen p io i ies, and ca ying ou changes. I g ounds many
o he ma u i y models.
4.2.5. Compe ence amewo ks
The documen s o he Compe ence amewo ks ca ego y a e
desc ibed below.
PMCD –P ojec Manage Compe ency De elopmen F amewo k
[68]: I o e s a amewo k o de ining, e alua ing, and imp o ing
p ojec , p og am, and po olio managemen compe encies. I ou lines
he essen ial componen s o compe ence and pinpoin s he mos likely o
impac how well manage s execu e in he p ojec , p og am, and po -
olio domains.
APM CF –APM Compe ence F amewo k [69]: I de ines he
compe encies ha p ojec p o essionals mus possess o success ul 4P
managemen .
ICM PMO –IPMA Re e ence Guide ICB4 o PMO [70]: This
s anda d de ines he compe encies o he indi iduals wo king in s uc-
u es (P ojec Managemen O ices) ha suppo p ojec s, p og ams, and
po olios o un hem e ec i ely and e icien ly.
OCB –O ganisa ional Compe ence Baseline o De eloping
Compe ence in Managing by P ojec s [71]: I in oduces he concep
o o ganiza ional compe ence in p ojec managemen . I p o ides a
holis ic app oach o help o ganiza ions imp o e how hey manage hei
p og ams, p ojec s, and po olios.
ICB –Indi idual Compe ence Baseline o P ojec , P og amme
and Po olio Managemen [19]: I is a wo ldwide s anda d o indi-
idual compe ence in p ojec , p og am, and po olio managemen . I
p o ides a comp ehensi e in en o y o compe ence elemen s ac oss
p ojec s, p og ams, and po olios, suppo ing indi idual compe encies
de elopmen .
ICB Po olio Managemen –Indi idual Compe ence Baseline o
Po olio Managemen [72]: I is a ho ough in en o y o he compe-
encies a pe son mus possess o acqui e o manage po olios p ope ly.
ICB P og am Managemen –Indi idual Compe ence Baseline o
P og amme Managemen [73]: I is a ho ough in en o y o he
compe encies a pe son mus possess o acqui e o manage p og ams
p ope ly.
ICB P ojec Managemen –Indi idual Compe ence Baseline o
P ojec Managemen [74]: I is a ho ough in en o y o he compe-
encies a pe son mus possess o acqui e o manage p ojec s p ope ly.
ICB4CCT –Indi idual Compe ence Baseline o Consul an s,
Coaches and T aine s [75]: The compe encies o people in p ojec ,
p og am, and po olio managemen consul ing, coaching, and aining
a e co e ed in his amewo k. I concen a es on coaching, aining, and
consul ing abili ies, conside ing ha p o essionals in hese domains
migh ha e o ansi ion be ween hem.
5. F amewo k e alua ion and discussion
Two ocus g oups we e ca ied ou o e alua e and discuss he p o-
posed amewo k. The discussion was s uc u ed a ound wo main
hemes: 1) pa icipan s’opinions abou he amewo k’s use ulness and
o ganiza ion; and 2) insigh s o imp o ing he model and espec i e
dissemina ion. The main esul s a e p esen ed nex .
5.1. F amewo k comple eness and use ulness
The ocus g oup pa icipan s we e i s in i ed o w i e down a lis o
all s anda ds, guides, me hodologies, and o he 4P managemen docu-
men s hey we e awa e o . On he one hand, no s anda d, guide, me h-
odology, o o he documen iden i ied by he pa icipan s was missing
om he p oposed amewo k. On he o he hand, he s anda ds, guides,
and me hodologies iden i ied by he pa icipan s we e conside ably
ewe han hose in he amewo k. This con i med he comple eness o
he amewo k. Mo eo e , we asked a simple addi ional ques ion:
whe he one o he documen s was a amewo k o a me hodology.
Abou 50 % o he pa icipan s could no answe co ec ly, ein o cing
he impo ance o he concep ual cla i y p o ided by he p oposed
amewo k.
Then we p esen ed an uno ganized lis o he s anda ds, guides, and
me hodologies and asked pa icipan s, supposing ha hey would need
o selec one o hem o one endea o , wha would be he di icul ies?
They s a ed ha : 1) I is ime-consuming o y o ind all sui able doc-
umen s (s anda ds, guides, me hodologies, and o he s) due o hei high
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numbe and di e si y (P2, P4, P7, P9); 2) I is di icul o be awa e o all
documen s and espec i e e sions since he sou ces a e dispe sed (P1,
P7); 3) I is no easy o know he ocus o each documen (P7, P8, P9,
P11); 4) The e is cu en ly a g ea misunde s anding ega ding concep s
like “guide”,“ amewo k”o “me hodology”, o o wha expec ed om
each one (P9, P11); 5) The in o ma ion a ailable online (including he
in o ma ion p o ided by A i icial In elligence (AI) apps) is no o ga-
nized and i easy o ge imp ecise o inco ec in o ma ion (P6, P7).
Fu he mo e, pa icipan s men ioned ha i would be use ul o ha e
o ganized in o ma ion abou he guides, a leas iden i ying hei ocus
(e.g., po olio managemen ), o make i easie o p ac i ione s o
iden i y he sui able documen s o hei endea o s (P1, P2, P7). P3 also
men ioned ha ha ing ha o ganized in o ma ion would con ibu e o
mo e p ac i ione s’awa eness ega ding he se e al al e na i e docu-
men s o use.
A e ge ing hese insigh s, we p esen ed he amewo k, asking
pa icipan s i hey would conside i use ul (and why) and i hey we e
in e es ed in accessing i o suppo hei ac i i ies. The answe s we e
unanimously a ou able since, in he pa icipan s’opinion: 1) I helps o
iden i y he documen s acco ding o hei ocus (e.g., p ojec manage-
men ) (P4, P5, P7); 2) I b ings concep ual cla i y, educing ambigui y
and misunde s anding ega ding he documen ypes (e.g., guides s
me hodologies) (P1, P3, P6, P9), which is an impo an heo e ical
con ibu ion; 3) I educes he ime needed when looking o sui able
documen s (P5, P6, P8, P9); 4) I aises awa eness ega ding he ex an
documen s (P2, P3, P6, P8); 5) I is help ul o lea ning/ eaching/
esea ching pu poses due o he p o ided o ganized lis o documen s
(including in cou se design) (P3, P5, P6, P10, P11); 6) I educes he isk
o p ac i ione s no hinking abou al e na i es o he guides ha hey
know (P6, P7, P8); 7) I may help o ganiza ions, when con ac ing, o
iden i y he guides ha p ac i ione s should know o apply o he posi-
ion (P2); 8) I helps p ac i ione s o hink beyond he ending/main-
s eam documen s (P7, P8, P9, P10); 9) I aises con idence on he
documen s classi ica ion (e.g., me hodology) and ocus (e.g., p ojec
managemen ) (P9, P11). Pa icipan s P1 and P6 no ed ha i would be
in e es ing o ha e in o ma ion abou he mos used s anda ds, o
ins ance, in ce ain coun ies, indus ies, p ojec ypes, e c. I would also
be use ul o ha e so wa e capable o sugges ing s anda ds, guides, e c.,
acco ding o use equi emen s.
5.2. F amewo k dissemina ion
Dissemina ion is a undamen al s ep in esea ch. In ha sense, we
asked pa icipan s o sugges ions o p esen a ion and dissemina ion.
As expec ed, hey sugges ed academic and p ac i ione publica ions (P1,
P2, P5, P9, P11) and dissemina ion wo kshops (P2). Ano he impo an
sugges ion was o c ea e a websi e o make he amewo k accessible o
he b oade public (P3, P6, P10).
We hen in oduced a p o o ype o a websi e wi h in o ma ion abou
he amewo k (see Fig. 4). The websi e is pa o a la ge p ojec o an
Obse a o y o P ojec , P og am, and Po olio s anda ds p oposed by
Tene a and Va aj˜
ao [4]. Again, we asked o he pa icipan s’opinions.
The o e all pe spec i e was e y good, and he only sugges ion o
imp o emen was o c ea e a complemen a y iew o he a ailable in-
o ma ion. A he ime, he in o ma ion was only o ganized by documen
ype (e.g., guides & amewo ks, me hodologies, e c.). Pa icipan s (P1,
P3, P6, P7, P9) sugges ed adding a new iew o enable in o ma ion iew
by ocus (e.g., p ojec managemen ). The websi e is a ailable a
obse a o y4ps.sciencesphe e.o g. A he end o he discussion,
pa icipan P1 asked, “Well, when will I be able o sha e he link wi h my
s uden s?…[smile]”. The inal ema ks we e en husias ic, pa icula ly
om some pa icipan s (e.g., P1, P2, P4, P9), all conside ing he
amewo k and he suppo ing websi e bene icial o heo y and
p ac ice.
6. Conclusion
This pape p oposes a new amewo k o s anda ds, guides, and
me hodologies o 4P managemen . Addi ionally, ele an documen s
ela ed o PMO managemen a e also conside ed.
The wo k p esen s se e al con ibu ions. Theo e ically, he ame-
wo k p o ides concep ual cla i y and an in eg a ed pe spec i e o
s anda ds, guides, and me hodologies, acili a ing i s s udy and esea ch.
I also has he alue o p ese ing he his o y o p ojec managemen
since i is a snapsho o he cu en s a e o he a o s anda ds, guides,
and me hodologies in his a ea. On he p ac ical le el, he amewo k is
a aluable ool o suppo he p ac ices o p ojec manage s and o ga-
niza ions since p o essionals can use i o iden i y exis ing al e na i es o
s anda ds and guides sui able o hei needs. A he educa ional le el,
he amewo k p o ides eache s, s uden s, and aining en i ies wi h a
basis o s udying ele an e e ences and designing aining cou ses.
Fig. 4. Websi e p o o ype (sample pages).
J. Va aj˜
ao e al.
