Academic Edi o : Luca Ta eo
Recei ed: 14 Decembe 2024
Re ised: 29 Janua y 2025
Accep ed: 30 Janua y 2025
Published: 1 Feb ua y 2025
Ci a ion: Mo gado, S., Lei e, L.,
Dou ado, L., & Va ela, P. (2025).
Sol ing STEM-Rele an P oblems: A
S udy wi h P ospec i e P ima y
School Teache s. Educa ion Sciences,
15(2), 169. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/
educsci15020169
Copy igh : © 2025 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
This a icle is an open access a icle
dis ibu ed unde he e ms and
condi ions o he C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion (CC BY) license
(h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/
licenses/by/4.0/).
A icle
Sol ing STEM-Rele an P oblems: A S udy wi h P ospec i e
P ima y School Teache s
So ia Mo gado 1,* , Lau inda Lei e 1, Luís Dou ado 1and Paulo Va ela 2
1Resea ch Cen e on Educa ion, Ins i u e o Educa ion, Uni e si y o Minho, 4710-057 B aga, Po ugal;
[email p o ec ed] (L.L.); [email p o ec ed] (L.D.)
2Resea ch Cen e on Child S udies, Ins i u e o Educa ion, Uni e si y o Minho, 4710-057 B aga, Po ugal;
[email p o ec ed]
*Co espondence: so iamo [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac : Sol ing a p oblem equi es and p omo es a di e si y o compe encies, which
include concep ual knowledge, echnical and me hodological knowledge, and ans e sal
compe encies. E e yday STEM- ele an p oblems a e con ex ualized, ill s uc u ed, and
mul idisciplina y in na u e. By ocusing on daily li e issues, hey p omo e s uden s’ engage-
men in he p oblem-sol ing p ocess and enable hem o pe cei e how science ela es o
hei li es. This pape aims o cha ac e ize he p ocesses ollowed by p ospec i e p ima y
school eache s when sol ing h ee STEM- ele an p oblems ha ha e di e en ea u es.
The quali a i e analysis o 77 pa icipan s’ answe s showed ha comple e p oblem-sol ing
pa hways we e one among a a ie y o o he pa hs iden i ied. Mos s a egies adop ed
by he pa icipan s led hem o igno e he con ex ual condi ions o he p oblem and o
each solu ions ha did no a end o hem. The a ec i e ela ionship wi h he objec may
inc ease he p oblem sol e ’s endency o igno e he con ex ual condi ions, bu his issue
dese es u he esea ch. The esul s shed some ligh on he ea u es o he p oblems ha
eache educa o s should selec i hey wish o hei p ospec i e eache s o lea n and
succeed in sol ing e e yday STEM- ele an issues. This is equi ed o p omo e hei u u e
s uden s’ engagemen in p oblem-based lea ning p ocesses.
Keywo ds: p oblem sol ing; STEM- ela ed p oblems; e e yday p oblems; p ospec i e
p ima y school eache s; science educa ion; p oblem-based lea ning
1. In oduc ion
We a e en e ing he second qua e o he cen u y, and i con inues o be impo an
o a gue o he p omo ion o skills ecognized as necessa y o 21s -cen u y ci izens.
The e is a need o schools o pu 21s -cen u y skills on he agenda. This means ha hey
should educa e child en o become esponsible, ac i e, au onomous, and suppo i e
people, who know and exe cise hei igh s and du ies, in dialog and wi h espec o
o he s and wi h a democ a ic, plu alis ic, c i ical, and c ea i e spi i (OECD,2009,2023).
These skills a e equi ed o ci izens o engage in indi idual and collec i e p ocesses ha
call o e lec ion and ac ion ega ding p oblems and dilemmas el by each indi idual
and socie y (OECD,2018,2023).
Nowadays, he mos se ious p oblems a ec ing socie y (e.g., clima e change, he
ene gy ansi ion, wa e sca ci y, and ood p o ision and secu i y) a e pa ly due o
he inapp op ia e ways in which man has used science and echnology de elopmen s
(Cheng e al.,2021). Howe e , science and echnology may o e solu ions o hese
p oblems (J. Chen e al.,2023;Picke ing e al.,2022) i esea ch e o s and good will
Educ. Sci. 2025,15, 169 h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/educsci15020169
Educ. Sci. 2025,15, 169 2 o 26
allow i . The issue is ha some o dina y ci izens and poli icians a oid acing hese
p oblems di ec ly. This is p obably because, as some esea ch sugges s (Gau am e al.,
2021;Moo e e al.,2024;Kulin e al.,2021;Hube e al.,2022;Rica e al.,2019), hey
a e no ully awa e o how h ea ening hese p oblems a e o li e on Ea h. A possible
eason o his may lie in he inabili y o science educa ion o de elop he scien i ic
li e acy o 21s -cen u y ci izens and o equip hem wi h skills ha a e ele an o e e y
science-li e a e and esponsible pe son.
Mo e han a decade ago, Dayna Lau (2013) a gued ha s uden s should engage
wi h complex, ac ion-o ien ed p oblems d i en by open-ended, eal-wo ld ques ions ha
p omo e he de elopmen o 21s -cen u y compe encies (namely, c i ical hinking, collab-
o a ion, communica ion, and c ea i i y). La e , he Science Educa ion o Responsible
Ci izenship Repo (Eu opean Commission,2015) added ha
“As he wo ld aces hese complex challenges, ou abili y o esol e hese issues on ou
own o wi hin ou ield o knowledge sh inks. Due o hei scale and complexi y, hese
majo social and economic p oblems anscend bo de s and disciplines and necessi a e
new ways o hinking and me hodological and o ganiza ional amewo ks”. (p. 20)
The ecogni ion o his need may unde lie he g owing in e es in in eg a ed STEM
(science, echnology, enginee ing, ma hema ics) educa ion, which enables s uden s o
engage wi h complex eal-wo ld p oblems ha in e sec ac oss mul iple ields (Pleasan s,
2020); his aises hei in e es in science, especially i he p oblem asks a e meaning ul o
hem (B oman e al.,2022). Resea ch (Kennedy & Odell,2023;Tan e al.,2023) has shown
ha STEM app oaches assume an in e ela ionship among science, echnology, enginee ing,
and ma hema ics. E e yday p oblems a e ill-s uc u ed and encompass decision-making
p oblems and design p oblems, among o he s (Walke & Lea y,2009). Decision-making
p oblems equi e he sol e o selec om a se o al e na i es and o assess he isks and
bene i s o hei choice. Decision-making is an impo an skill in o he mo e complex
and ill-s uc u ed p oblems, such as design p oblems (Jonassen,2012). The la e include
planning and building a mo e o less echnical p oduc ha inco po a es knowledge ha
c osses disciplines (Walke & Lea y,2009).
Pleasan s (2020) dis inguishes be ween pu e STEM and STEM- ele an p oblems, con-
side ing ha he la e e ain he con ex ual dimensions o complex issues (e.g., he social,
cul u al, poli ical, and e hical dimensions), which he o me elega e o he backg ound
and ans o m in o con ex -speci ic bounda y condi ions. This di e ence may explain
why STEM p oblems (based on scien i ic subjec ma e and i s associa ed p ac ices) o en
appea dis an o lea ne s (Mau e e e al.,2004) and why lea ne s s uggle when hey y
o make meaning ul connec ions be ween science and hei daily expe iences (Tan e al.,
2023). Al hough some s uden s ex ac mul iple pieces o in o ma ion om he con ex
in which each p oblem is embedded (B oman e al.,2018) and pe cei e he con ex ual
in o ma ion as ele an , o he s see i as unimpo an and claim ha i ac s as a dis ac o
(B oman e al.,2022) when hey y o sol e he p oblem.
S uden s’ abili y o ex ac in o ma ion om a p oblem may di e om hei le el o
easoning and a gumen a ion (Chi e al.,2023); in some cases, he o me is g ea e han
he la e . Acco ding o Tan e al. (2023), he ex ac ion o in o ma ion om a p oblem is
in luenced by speci ic wo ds o examples p o ided in he ask. Some s uden s ail o in eg a e
he in o ma ion ex ac ed and he knowledge ha hey ac i a e o design a solu ion o
he p oblem a hand. In addi ion, only a ew s uden s can comp ehend he p oblem ully
(Wide & Wide ,2023) due o a misunde s anding o he con ex ual in o ma ion p o ided.
S uden s migh need app op ia e sca old p omp s o use highe -o de hinking and o
de elop answe s ha a e mo e complex (Lö le e al.,2018;Tan e al.,2023;Vasconcelos &
Pin o,2023) and ha align be e wi h he p oblem’s con ex and demands. Al hough mos
Educ. Sci. 2025,15, 169 3 o 26
s uden s can execu e a pa o he sol ing p ocess co ec ly, only a ew can ob ain he en i e
solu ion co ec ly and e lec on he answe s ha hey achie e (Wide & Wide ,2023).
In eg a ing STEM-based and p oblem-based app oaches leads s uden s o use sophis i-
ca ed hinking s a egies o p ocess in o ma ion (Con en e & Gal ão,2022) and o imp o e
hei p oblem-sol ing skills (Ahmadi e al.,2023;Siswan o e al.,2024), wi h a speci ic
emphasis on p oblem iden i ica ion (Ahmadi e al.,2023) and scien i ic me hodology skills
de elopmen (Con en e & Gal ão,2022). S uden s may also lea n ways o speaking, doing,
and being, as hey sol e in eg a ed STEM p oblems in school (Tan e al.,2023). These
ans e sal compe encies a e also wo h de eloping in school educa ion, as hey a e associ-
a ed wi h communica ing and ela ing o o he s and ha e a sphe e o in luence ha has
been inc easingly ound o c oss coun y bo de s.
In eal li e, as in school, when encoun e ed o he i s ime, a p oblem o e s an
obs acle o he p oblem sol e , which he sol e does no know how o o e come. Howe e ,
he/she needs o o e come he obs acle o each one o mo e solu ions o he p oblem o o
conclude ha he e is no solu ion o i (Jonassen,2004;Ne o,1998;Pozo e al.,1995). Thus,
a p oblem di e s om an exe cise, as he la e does no o e a meaning ul obs acle o
he sol e , who knows how o sol e i a e lea ning he ela ed con en . Thus, he main
goal o sol ing exe cises is o ain using p e iously acqui ed knowledge (Jonassen,1997;
To eg osa,1987).
P oblems may be quan i a i e o quali a i e/concep ual (Ma ies & Singh,2023) and
open o closed, bu a p oblem s a emen usually does no include, a leas explici ly, all
da a needed o sol e he p oblem (Ne o,1998;Pozo e al.,1995;To eg osa,1987). When
he p oblem sol e lea ns how o sol e a p oblem, i ceases o be a p oblem o him/he
(Jonassen,1997;Ne o,1998;To eg osa,1987), as he obs acle ha is unique o he p oblem
no longe exis s.
Sol ing a p oblem equi es and p omo es a di e si y o concep ual and p ocedu-
al compe encies, anging om concep ual knowledge o echnical and me hodological
knowledge, including ans e sal compe encies like easoning, c ea i i y, planning, inqui y,
analysis, syn hesis (Con en e & Gal ão,2022;Ma ies & Singh,2023), and e alua ion. P ob-
lems a e mo e e sa ile han exe cises. P oblems may be used be o e, du ing, and a e
eaching he con en ha unde lies hem (Lei e & Es e es,2005), hus se ing as lea ning,
eaching, and assessmen ools (Ye ushalmi & Eylon,2015). P oblem-based lea ning is
an example o he use o a p oblem as a s a ing poin o lea ning (Boud & Fele i,1997;
Lamb os,2004). This means o using p oblems di e en ia es hem om exe cises, as he
la e equi e p e iously lea ned knowledge, while he o me may wo k as a ool o acqui e
new knowledge.
The li e a u e shows ha people may use di e se app oaches (Hsu e al.,2024) and
cogni i e and a ec i e ools (Hsu e al.,2024;Oh,2024) o sol e p oblems. This is because
p oblem sol ing is a complex and nonlinea ac i i y (P ice e al.,2021;Wang e al.,2023)
in luenced by a mul i ude o ac o s (Wang e al.,2023). These include he app op ia eness
o he knowledge and skills ha p oblem sol e s ac i a e (P ice e al.,2021). To inc ease
he p obabili y o sol ing a p oblem success ully, a p oblem sol e should ollow a gene al
s a egy (Amanda e al.,2021;Ça a¸s e al.,2023;Lamb os,2004;Lei e & A onso,2001)
composed o ou main s eps. They a e as ollows:
(i)
Pe o ming a quali a i e analysis o he p oblem o de e mine wha is gi en in he
p oblem s a emen , wha he sol e al eady knows abou i , and wha he/she needs
o know and do o sol e he p oblem. This equi es he in e p e a ion and ex ac ion
o in o ma ion om he p oblem s a emen . This p ocess is in luenced by he p oblem
sol e ’s analy ical capabili ies, le el o li e acy, p e ious knowledge, and expe iences,
as well as his/he in e p e a ion o he p oblem eques .
Educ. Sci. 2025,15, 169 4 o 26
(ii)
Planning a s a egy o mo e om wha is gi en in he p oblem s a emen and known
by he sol e o wha he/she needs o know and do o each a solu ion (i he e is one)
o he p oblem. This includes planning, iden i ying speci ic asks and ele an ac o s
ha may a ec he si ua ion desc ibed in he p oblem, loca ing ele an in o ma ion
sou ces, and selec ing pe inen knowledge. Building an in e disciplina y eam may
also need o be conside ed.
(iii)
Implemen ing he planned s a egy and e iewing i i necessa y, which equi es
he con inuous moni o ing o he de elopmen o he asks, sel -moni o ing o he
p oblem sol e ’s ac ions, and he abili y and cou age o eplace any pa o he s a egy
ha is no wo king, i applicable.
(i ) E alua ing he esul agains wha is gi en in he p oblem s a emen and i s pe cei ed
goal. This equi es a c i ical examina ion o he esul ob ained o judge whe he i is
easonable and consis en wi h he eques o he p oblem.
These ou s eps a e p esen ed sequen ially, bu i should be s essed ha hey usually
need o be implemen ed i e a i ely. They a e umb ella s eps ha can encompass a di e si y
o s a egies ha may depend on he con en o he p oblem (Hsu e al.,2024;Oh,2024;
P ice e al.,2021).
Resea ch has shown ha some s uden s ail o pu in o p ac ice s ep (i), as hey
do no in e p e he p oblem s a emen p ope ly (Amanda e al.,2021;Ma ies & Singh,
2023;Sil a e al.,2013) o a e unable o unde s and he p oblem eques (Ogunleye,
2009;Reddy & Panacha oensawad,2017;Saka e al.,2024) o o ex ac in o ma ion
om i (B oman e al.,2018;Ma ies & Singh,2023). These ailu es in e e e wi h he
nex s eps and may lead o unin ended esul s. This in e e ence is mo e impo an
in con ex ualized p oblems han in academic ones (Sal a & Tzoug aki,2010), as, in
he o me case, he solu ion needs o be si ua ed in he con ex gi en in he p oblem
s a emen . Resea ch has also shown ha many s uden s ail in s ep (i ), as hey do no
inalize hei easoning o do no make c i ical and e alua i e judgmen s o he esul s
ob ained (Ma ies & Singh,2023;Sil a e al.,2013). A consequence o his is ha hey may
p esen a nonsensical esul .
To help s uden s o de elop hei p oblem-sol ing compe encies, eache s should be
amilia wi h hei s uden s’ ele an ini ial knowledge and li e acy le els and selec p oblems
ha a e au hen ic and ele an o he li es o hei s uden s, hus inc easing he p obabili y
o hei pa icipa ion and mo i a ion (Aye be-López & Pe ales-Palacios,2023). Resea ch on
chemis y educa ion (B oman e al.,2022) sugges s ha s uden s may pe cei e science as
ele an when hey ind i wo hwhile, meaning ul, and impo an o lea n. In addi ion,
eache s should help s uden s o sol e p oblems by p o iding app op ia e sca olding suppo
(Ma ies & Singh,2023). Mo eo e , eache s should be amilia wi h he p oblem-sol ing
p ocess and eel com o able in sol ing p oblems and eaching p oblem sol ing. Ini ial
eache educa ion should p epa e eache s o his ask. Teache s (Mo gado,2013) and
eache educa o s (Aidoo,2023) belie e ha i is wo h including p oblem-based lea ning in
eache educa ion p og ams, bu his is seldom implemen ed in p ese ice eache educa ion.
The e o e, mo e esea ch is needed on p oblem-based lea ning (Magaji e al.,2024) and he
p oblem-sol ing p ocesses ollowed by p ese ice eache s.
This pape aims o cha ac e ize he p ocesses ollowed by p ospec i e p ima y school
eache s (PPSTs) o sol e h ee e e yday STEM- ele an p oblems, which di e in he
in o ma ion hey p o ide, and he a ec i e ela ionships ha people es ablish wi h he
key objec s men ioned in he p oblem. The esul s will demons a e how PPSTs app oach
di e en p oblems and he obs acles ha should be o e come be o e hey sol e p oblems
success ully. The esul s will also shed some ligh on he ea u es o he p oblem s a e-
men s ha eache s should selec i hey wish o hei s uden s o lea n how o sol e
Educ. Sci. 2025,15, 169 5 o 26
STEM- ele an p oblems. They will p o ide use ul in o ma ion o he imp o emen o
p ospec i e eache s’ aining on p oblem-sol ing- ela ed opics.
2. Ma e ials and Me hods
2.1. Resea ch Ques ion and Design
In line wi h he esea ch objec i e p esen ed in he p e ious sec ion, his esea ch
aims o answe he ollowing ques ion: How do PPSTs app oach p oblem sol ing in
STEM- ela ed con ex s?
Answe ing his ques ion equi es PPSTs o sol e STEM- ela ed p oblems. This would
o e insigh s in o how each pa icipan app oaches each p oblem based on his/he p e ious
knowledge and expe iences. Da a we e collec ed in a con ex ha was as na u al as possible
( hei usual class ooms) and no a p io i ca ego ies we e imposed on he da a. Hence, ou
in e p e a ion o he da a allowed us o unco e and unde s and he di e se app oaches
ha he g oup o pa icipan s used o sol e he p oblems. Thus, his s udy i in o he
quali a i e pa adigm (She man & Webb,2005) and adop ed a phenomenog aphy design
(Ma on,2005).
2.2. Pa icipan s
This s udy was conduc ed wi h unde g adua e s uden s a ending a Basic Educa ion
p og am a a Po uguese uni e si y. Success ul comple ion o his p og am is equi ed o be
admi ed o a p ima y school eache aining Mas e ’s o each 6- o 12-yea -old child en.
Be o e en olling in he unde g adua e p og am, he s uden s comple e seconda y school
(12 h g ade) in a STEM o humani ies a ea. In addi ion, hey ha e o pass wo compul-
so y na ional exams: Po uguese Language and Ma hema ics. Du ing he unde g adua e
p og am, s a ing in he i s yea , hey ake Po uguese, Science, Ma hema ics, His o y,
Geog aphy, A s, Physical Educa ion, and Educa ion cou ses. When he PPST we e in i ed
o pa icipa e in he s udy, hey we e en olled in he hi d yea o hei unde g adua e
s udies. To he bes o ou knowledge, hey had unde gone no p e ious o mal aining in
sol ing p oblems simila o he ones used in his esea ch.
The 77 s uden s who a ended classes on he day ha he da a collec ion ook place
we e in i ed and accep ed o pa icipa e in he s udy. This means ha hey ag eed o answe
he ques ionnai e desc ibed below. As men ioned abo e, his s udy was a quali a i e one.
Howe e , wo king wi h a la ge numbe o pa icipan s, namely PPSTs, ensu ed ha we
achie ed da a sa u a ion and ob ained a good pic u e o he di e si y o he s a egies ha
may be used o sol e such p oblems.
2.3. Technique and Ins umen
This esea ch ocused on unco e ing he p ocesses ollowed by PPSTs when sol ing
e e yday STEM- ele an p oblems. To do so, i was necessa y o ha e a se o pu pose ully
chosen p oblems and o ask he pa icipan s o sol e hem indi idually and in w i ing. The
p oblems deal wi h si ua ions ha PPSTs migh encoun e in hei pe sonal o amilia daily
li es and we e con ex ualized wi hin no mal li e. In addi ion, hey equi ed some scien i ic,
ma hema ical, enginee ing, and echnological knowledge, e en hough he di e se STEM
componen s could ha e di e en weigh s in he di e se p oblems. They also had di e en
ea u es conce ning da a p o ision and he po en ial a ec i e link be ween he indi iduals
and he key objec o he p oblem, as he la e may a ec he p oblem-sol ing p ocess.
Then, i was decided o use h ee p oblems wi h he ollowing gene al ea u es:
•P oblem 1— amilia and emo ional objec , common si ua ion, wi h da a;
•P oblem 2— amilia and emo ional objec , common si ua ion, no da a;
•P oblem 3— amilia bu neu al place, new si ua ion, no da a.
Educ. Sci. 2025,15, 169 6 o 26
P oblem 1 ( he hai d ye p oblem) was adap ed om a p e ious s udy (Sil a e al.,
2013) and i was o a decision ype (Walke & Lea y,2009). P oblems 2 ( he compu e
p oblem) and 3 ( he ins i u e’s ga den p oblem) we e pu pose ully designed o his s udy.
The o me was o a decision ype and he la e was o a design ype (Walke & Lea y,
2009). Two au ho s who we e expe ienced in eaching and esea ching p oblem-based
lea ning c ea ed he p oblems. Two o he au ho s (one expe ienced in p oblem-based
lea ning) commen ed on he p oblems o imp o emen . The imp o ed p oblems we e
es ed wi h a pilo g oup o check hei adequacy among people simila o he pa icipan s
and whe he u he imp o emen s we e needed. Fo his pu pose, a sample ques ionnai e
was applied o ano he g oup o 12 p ospec i e eache s a he same uni e si y. They we e
asked o sol e he p oblems, sha e hei eelings on he p oblems, and commen on he
p oblem s a emen s and p oblem sol ing. The in o ma ion collec ed and he analysis o he
w i en answe s sugges ed ha he e was no need o imp o emen s.
The p oblem s a emen s a e gi en in Figu es 1–3. They a e w i en in English bu we e
p esen ed o he pa icipan s in hei o icial language, which was Po uguese.
Educ. Sci. 2025, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 o 26
• P oblem 2— amilia and emo ional objec , common si ua ion, no da a;
• P oblem 3— amilia bu neu al place, new si ua ion, no da a.
P oblem 1 ( he hai d ye p oblem) was adap ed om a p e ious s udy (Sil a e al.,
2013) and i was o a decision ype (Walke & Lea y, 2009). P oblems 2 ( he compu e
p oblem) and 3 ( he ins i u e’s ga den p oblem) we e pu pose ully designed o his
s udy. The o me was o a decision ype and he la e was o a design ype (Walke &
Lea y, 2009). Two au ho s who we e expe ienced in eaching and esea ching p oblem-
based lea ning c ea ed he p oblems. Two o he au ho s (one expe ienced in p oblem-
based lea ning) commen ed on he p oblems o imp o emen . The imp o ed p oblems
we e es ed wi h a pilo g oup o check hei adequacy among people simila o he
pa icipan s and whe he u he imp o emen s we e needed. Fo his pu pose, a sample
ques ionnai e was applied o ano he g oup o 12 p ospec i e eache s a he same
uni e si y. They we e asked o sol e he p oblems, sha e hei eelings on he p oblems,
and commen on he p oblem s a emen s and p oblem sol ing. The in o ma ion collec ed
and he analysis o he w i en answe s sugges ed ha he e was no need o
imp o emen s.
The p oblem s a emen s a e gi en in Figu es 1–3. They a e w i en in English bu
we e p esen ed o he pa icipan s in hei official language, which was Po uguese.
The hai d ye p oblem (Figu e 1) ocused on h ee hai d ye s. They we e on sale, had
diffe en powe le els, and had he same sales p ice bu diffe en no mal p ices. Fo each
hai d ye , he p ices bo h be o e (an es) and du ing (ago a) he sale we e gi en, oge he
wi h he hai d ye powe (P). Based on p e ious esea ch (Jee, 2021; San ani e al., 2015),
being on sale was expec ed o in e e e wi h he PPSTs’ answe s. Hai d ye s a e i ems ha
people use e y o en. The physical in e ac ion wi h he hai d ye may induce posi i e
ela ionships be ween he use and he p oduc (Han e al., 2023), and his may ha e
in e e ed wi h he answe s. Each PPST was equi ed o choose he bes hai d ye o
ecommend o his/he mo he o daily use. To do his success ully, he/she had o conside
he da a and con ex ual ac o s included in he p oblem s a emen and collec in o ma ion
on his/he mo he ’s hai and hai s yle, which was no gi en in he p oblem.
You mo he wan s o buy a hai d ye because he s b oke down. In a lea le om a
la ge shopping cen e , she has ound h ee models ( igu e below), all a he same p ice.
As she does no unde s and much abou hai d ye s, she needs help o choose he mos
sui able model o use daily.
Which o he hai d ye s (A, B, o C) would you ad ise you mo he o buy?
Desc ibe in de ail he p ocess you ollowed o make he choice, as you mo he wan s
o unde s and exac ly why she should choose one o hese hai d ye s.
Figu e 1. The hai d ye p oblem (an es = be o e; ago a = now).
The compu e p oblem (Figu e 2) was a science and echnology- ela ed p oblem ha
asked each pa icipan in he s udy o p epa e a well- ounded p oposal o p o ide ad ice
o a ela i e willing o offe him/he a compu e (lap op). A compu e is an emo ionally
Figu e 1. The hai d ye p oblem (an es = be o e; ago a = now).
Educ. Sci. 2025, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 o 26
cha ged objec (A ash eh & Razzaghi, 2022), especially o young people. The p oposal
was equi ed o sa is y a condi ion— ha is, he compu e had o be use ul, no only o
communica ing bu also o he PPST’s wo k as a eache a e he comple ion o he ini ial
eache educa ion p og am. No da a we e gi en, bu he in o ma ion indica ed ha he
ela i e was a pe son wi h money who was highly conce ned abou inancial managemen
and expendi u e. Hence, he e had o be good jus i ica ion o he cos o he compu e . I
was expec ed ha he PPSTs would be sensi i e o b ands (Mulle & Kle k, 2020) and
p o ide a p oposal based on he posi i e aspec s o a ce ain b and (Nami anian, 2006),
a he han on he con ex ual in o ma ion p o ided.
In you amily, he e is a pe son who is e y iendly wi h you, who has money bu is e y
ca e ul in how he manages and uses his money.
When you inish he cou se, his pe son wan s o offe you a new lap op. The compu e
mus be use ul, no only o communica ing bu also o you wo k as a eache .
As you amily membe does no know which compu e o buy o you, you mus p epa e
a well- ounded p oposal o he compu e o be pu chased by you ela i e.
Do no o ge ha you need o con ince he pe son in ques ion ha his is he mos sui able
ype o compu e o hem and ha he cos is jus i ied.
Desc ibe in de ail, gi ing easons, he p ocess ha you would ha e o ollow o p epa e
his p oposal.
Figu e 2. The compu e p oblem.
The ga den p oblem (Figu e 3) ocused on an open-ai ga den su ounded by he
Ins i u e o Educa ion (IE) building. This place was amilia o he PPSTs, as hey we e
used o a ending classes in he IE building. The p oblem asked he PPSTs o p epa e a
p oposal o he eno a ion o he ga den. This is a complex ask, as se ing up a ga den
equi es a mul iplici y o compe encies om he STEM a ea (Gulhan, 2023) and om o he
a eas, like d awing, landscape a chi ec u e, economics, e c. Based on p e ious esea ch
(Co ochano e al., 2022; Eugenio-Gozalbo e al., 2020; Gulhan, 2023), i was expec ed ha
he PPSTs would expe ience some difficul y in using he a ie y o knowledge equi ed
o comple e he ask. The en i onmen al ea u es (e.g., sunny o shady), as well as he
shape and he a ea o he place, we e no gi en, bu he esponden s we e old ha hey
could isi he place and alk once o he p esiden o he IE. Visi ing he place enabled
hem o collec ele an en i onmen al da a.
The IE p esidency has decided o eno a e he in e io ga den, on he p esidency side
(nex o he la ge audi o ium), wi h plan s ha make i a ac i e, p o ide pleasan
a omas, and imp o e he en i onmen al condi ions.
The p esidency does no wan he ga den o equi e much main enance and wan s i o
ha e an i iga ion and a ligh ing sys em.
A compe i ion will be opened and compe i o s who wish o submi a p oposal can isi
he si e and speak once wi h he p esiden .
Desc ibe in de ail, gi ing easons, he p ocess ha you should ollow o p epa e a w i en
p oposal o be submi ed o he compe i ion.
Figu e 3. The ga den p oblem (IE = Ins i u e o Educa ion).
2.4. Da a Collec ion P ocedu es
Figu e 2. The compu e p oblem.
Educ. Sci. 2025,15, 169 7 o 26
Educ. Sci. 2025, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 o 26
cha ged objec (A ash eh & Razzaghi, 2022), especially o young people. The p oposal
was equi ed o sa is y a condi ion— ha is, he compu e had o be use ul, no only o
communica ing bu also o he PPST’s wo k as a eache a e he comple ion o he ini ial
eache educa ion p og am. No da a we e gi en, bu he in o ma ion indica ed ha he
ela i e was a pe son wi h money who was highly conce ned abou inancial managemen
and expendi u e. Hence, he e had o be good jus i ica ion o he cos o he compu e . I
was expec ed ha he PPSTs would be sensi i e o b ands (Mulle & Kle k, 2020) and
p o ide a p oposal based on he posi i e aspec s o a ce ain b and (Nami anian, 2006),
a he han on he con ex ual in o ma ion p o ided.
In you amily, he e is a pe son who is e y iendly wi h you, who has money bu is e y
ca e ul in how he manages and uses his money.
When you inish he cou se, his pe son wan s o offe you a new lap op. The compu e
mus be use ul, no only o communica ing bu also o you wo k as a eache .
As you amily membe does no know which compu e o buy o you, you mus p epa e
a well- ounded p oposal o he compu e o be pu chased by you ela i e.
Do no o ge ha you need o con ince he pe son in ques ion ha his is he mos sui able
ype o compu e o hem and ha he cos is jus i ied.
Desc ibe in de ail, gi ing easons, he p ocess ha you would ha e o ollow o p epa e
his p oposal.
Figu e 2. The compu e p oblem.
The ga den p oblem (Figu e 3) ocused on an open-ai ga den su ounded by he
Ins i u e o Educa ion (IE) building. This place was amilia o he PPSTs, as hey we e
used o a ending classes in he IE building. The p oblem asked he PPSTs o p epa e a
p oposal o he eno a ion o he ga den. This is a complex ask, as se ing up a ga den
equi es a mul iplici y o compe encies om he STEM a ea (Gulhan, 2023) and om o he
a eas, like d awing, landscape a chi ec u e, economics, e c. Based on p e ious esea ch
(Co ochano e al., 2022; Eugenio-Gozalbo e al., 2020; Gulhan, 2023), i was expec ed ha
he PPSTs would expe ience some difficul y in using he a ie y o knowledge equi ed
o comple e he ask. The en i onmen al ea u es (e.g., sunny o shady), as well as he
shape and he a ea o he place, we e no gi en, bu he esponden s we e old ha hey
could isi he place and alk once o he p esiden o he IE. Visi ing he place enabled
hem o collec ele an en i onmen al da a.
The IE p esidency has decided o eno a e he in e io ga den, on he p esidency side
(nex o he la ge audi o ium), wi h plan s ha make i a ac i e, p o ide pleasan
a omas, and imp o e he en i onmen al condi ions.
The p esidency does no wan he ga den o equi e much main enance and wan s i o
ha e an i iga ion and a ligh ing sys em.
A compe i ion will be opened and compe i o s who wish o submi a p oposal can isi
he si e and speak once wi h he p esiden .
Desc ibe in de ail, gi ing easons, he p ocess ha you should ollow o p epa e a w i en
p oposal o be submi ed o he compe i ion.
Figu e 3. The ga den p oblem (IE = Ins i u e o Educa ion).
2.4. Da a Collec ion P ocedu es
Figu e 3. The ga den p oblem (IE = Ins i u e o Educa ion).
The hai d ye p oblem (Figu e 1) ocused on h ee hai d ye s. They we e on sale, had
di e en powe le els, and had he same sales p ice bu di e en no mal p ices. Fo each
hai d ye , he p ices bo h be o e (an es) and du ing (ago a) he sale we e gi en, oge he wi h
he hai d ye powe (P). Based on p e ious esea ch (Jee,2021;San ani e al.,2015), being on
sale was expec ed o in e e e wi h he PPSTs’ answe s. Hai d ye s a e i ems ha people use
e y o en. The physical in e ac ion wi h he hai d ye may induce posi i e ela ionships
be ween he use and he p oduc (Han e al.,2023), and his may ha e in e e ed wi h he
answe s. Each PPST was equi ed o choose he bes hai d ye o ecommend o his/he
mo he o daily use. To do his success ully, he/she had o conside he da a and con ex ual
ac o s included in he p oblem s a emen and collec in o ma ion on his/he mo he ’s hai
and hai s yle, which was no gi en in he p oblem.
The compu e p oblem (Figu e 2) was a science and echnology- ela ed p oblem ha
asked each pa icipan in he s udy o p epa e a well- ounded p oposal o p o ide ad ice
o a ela i e willing o o e him/he a compu e (lap op). A compu e is an emo ionally
cha ged objec (A ash eh & Razzaghi,2022), especially o young people. The p oposal
was equi ed o sa is y a condi ion— ha is, he compu e had o be use ul, no only o
communica ing bu also o he PPST’s wo k as a eache a e he comple ion o he ini ial
eache educa ion p og am. No da a we e gi en, bu he in o ma ion indica ed ha he
ela i e was a pe son wi h money who was highly conce ned abou inancial managemen
and expendi u e. Hence, he e had o be good jus i ica ion o he cos o he compu e .
I was expec ed ha he PPSTs would be sensi i e o b ands (Mulle & Kle k,2020) and
p o ide a p oposal based on he posi i e aspec s o a ce ain b and (Nami anian,2006),
a he han on he con ex ual in o ma ion p o ided.
The ga den p oblem (Figu e 3) ocused on an open-ai ga den su ounded by he
Ins i u e o Educa ion (IE) building. This place was amilia o he PPSTs, as hey we e
used o a ending classes in he IE building. The p oblem asked he PPSTs o p epa e
a p oposal o he eno a ion o he ga den. This is a complex ask, as se ing up a
ga den equi es a mul iplici y o compe encies om he STEM a ea (Gulhan,2023)
and om o he a eas, like d awing, landscape a chi ec u e, economics, e c. Based on
p e ious esea ch (Co ochano e al.,2022;Eugenio-Gozalbo e al.,2020;Gulhan,2023),
i was expec ed ha he PPSTs would expe ience some di icul y in using he a ie y o
knowledge equi ed o comple e he ask. The en i onmen al ea u es (e.g., sunny o
shady), as well as he shape and he a ea o he place, we e no gi en, bu he esponden s
we e old ha hey could isi he place and alk once o he p esiden o he IE. Visi ing
he place enabled hem o collec ele an en i onmen al da a.
Educ. Sci. 2025,15, 169 8 o 26
2.4. Da a Collec ion P ocedu es
Da a we e collec ed in 2023/2024 using a p in ed and anonymous ques ionnai e ha
included he h ee p oblems, as shown abo e, and wo ques ions on some pe sonal da a
(age and gende ), which we e no used. Two co-au ho s we e esponsible o ace- o- ace
da a collec ion du ing class ime. They explained he aims and condi ions o he esea ch,
ensu ed ha he s uden s unde s ood ha hei pa icipa ion was olun a y, and asked
hem o sign he in o med consen s a emen . The Uni e si y E hics Council alida ed his
s a emen and he p ojec ha cons i u ed his esea ch (CEICSH 146/2023). A e wa d,
hey handed ou he anonymous ques ionnai e o he PPSTs. Then, hey asked he PPSTs
o sol e each p oblem and explain he sol ing p ocess as bes as possible. The PPSTs
comple ed his ask indi idually and wi hou a ime limi . The answe ing ime anged
om 25 min o 60 min. Con e sa ions be ween he PPSTs and access o p in ed o digi al
in o ma ion we e no allowed. The op ion o p o ide indi idual answe s was due o ou
in e es in ob aining in o ma ion abou he p ocesses ollowed by each p ospec i e eache .
The op ion o a w i en ques ionnai e (ins ead o a digi al one) was gi en because he
PPSTs may ha e needed o c ea e diag ams, d awings, lowcha s, e c., which is easie o
pe o m using a p in ed ques ionnai e.
2.5. Da a Analysis
Two esea che s, expe ienced in PBL eaching and esea ch, quali a i ely analyzed
he answe s o he h ee p oblems. They sough o iden i y he main cha ac e is ics o
he p ocesses ollowed by each PPST when sol ing each p oblem, wi hou looking o
a p io i p oblem-sol ing s a egies. The objec i e was o iden i y and unde s and he
s a egies used, a he han o compa e hem wi h a model o o coun hei equencies.
This necessi a ed using a hema ic analysis o unco e he main s a egy (o s a egies)
spon aneously used by he p oblem sol e , which eme ged om his/he answe s o he
p oblems. To ca y ou he quali a i e and induc i e da a analyses, o each p oblem, hey
s a ed by eading he answe s sepa a ely. This ensu ed amilia i y wi h he aw da a and
allowed some insigh in o he di e en s a egies used by he pa icipan s in he s udy o
sol e each p oblem. A e wa d, hey ead again he answe s o each p oblem sepa a ely.
This was in ended o unco e he di e en s a egies used by he PPSTs and o egis e
illus a i e examples o each s a egy iden i ied o each p oblem. A e comple ing his
second s age, hey discussed he s a egies used o each p oblem and he examples selec ed
o illus a e hem. This discussion aimed o each a consensus on he di e en s a egies
spon aneously used by he pa icipan s in he s udy o sol e each p oblem. All decisions
on his ma e we e eached by consensus. I is wo h s essing ha each s uden used only
one o he s a egies lis ed. The nex sec ion will show, o each p oblem, he s a egies and
illus a i e examples ha hey ag eed on, a e ansla ion in o English. These examples
also show how he esponden s sol ed he p oblems. One o he au ho s ansla ed he
illus a i e answe s om Po uguese o English (a oiding imp o emen s o he wo ding)
and ano he checked he ansla ed answe s o ensu e ha hey complied wi h he o iginal.
One o wo answe s a e used o illus a e each s a egy, depending on he exis ence o
a ia ions in he implemen a ion o he s a egy and he illus a i e powe o he answe s.
3. Resul s
The esul s o he quali a i e da a analysis will be p esen ed p oblem by p oblem, wi h
each p oblem gi en in a sepa a e sec ion. Some illus a i e examples (a e ansla ion in o
English) suppo he in e ences abou he p ocesses ollowed and he s a egies used by he
PPSTs o sol e he p oblems.
Educ. Sci. 2025,15, 169 9 o 26
3.1. The Hai d ye P oblem
An analysis o how he PPSTs sol ed he hai d ye p oblem (see Figu e 1abo e)
e ealed se en o e a ching s a egies. Fi e o hem did no conside hei mo he ’s hai
when making he choice, one s a egy conside ed a ypical mo he ’s hai , and ano he
s a egy conside ed he esponden ’s mo he ’s hai . Each PPST used one o he s a egies.
The se en di e en s a egies we e as ollows:
(i)
igno e he a ge and ocus on accesso ies;
(ii)
p io i ize he inclusion o accesso ies;
(iii)
p io i ize he p e ious highes p ice;
(i )
p io i ize he powe ;
( )
conside a combina ion o discoun s and accesso ies;
( i)
conside one mo he ’s hai ;
( ii)
conside his/he mo he ’s hai .
One o he s a egies ( ) combined s a egies (ii) and (iii) as he PPSTs conside ed
bo h aspec s o make hei choices. These s a egies will be p esen ed below, and selec ed
answe s will be used o illus a e hem.
(i)
Igno e he a ge and ocus on accesso ies
The p oblem s a ed ha he esponden s should gi e ad ice o hei mo he s on
which hai d ye o buy (see Figu e 1), bu he PPSTs in his g oup based he decision on
hemsel es, wi hou any e e ence o hei mo he s’ hai .
“The p ice o he h ee hai d ye s is he same, so I would ha e o look a o he aspec s. I
conside hai d ye B o ha e a easonable and necessa y powe o e e yday li e, especially
i he e is a need o d y long hai . In addi ion, i o e s a use ul ip o di e si y hai s yles.
So, d ye B would be my choice.” (S37)
Ins ead o choosing a hai d ye o hei mo he s, he PPSTs in his g oup seemed o
conside choosing a hai d ye o someone ha hey did no e en know and hus p e e ed
a e sa ile one ha could be adap ed o changes in s yle.
(ii)
P io i ize he inclusion o accesso ies
The PPSTs in his g oup op ed o hai d ye B because i had some accesso ies. They
did no ealize ha he hai d ye was o hei mo he s, as hey simply discussed “ he
mo he ”. They did no conside how use ul he accesso ies would be o hei mo he s; hey
seemed o belie e ha he mo e i ems he hai d ye had, he be e i was o an unknown
mo he . As illus a ed by he ollowing answe , he e was no e e ence o he mo he ’s ype
o hai (e.g., hin o hick), hai s yle (e.g., s aigh ened hai , wa y hai ), o amoun o hai
(e.g., a lo o a li le), which should ha e been conside ed.
“I would ad ise he mo he o buy d ye B, because al hough i is no he mos powe ul
hai d ye , i is he mos comple e one, as i con ains one mo e objec . Thus, as he h ee
hai d ye s a e a he same p ice, i makes sense o he mo he o buy B.” (S5)
O cou se, he PPSTs whose mo he s enjoyed, o example, d ying hei hai na u ally
could conside he inclusion o accesso ies; hose whose mo he s wo e s aigh ened hai
should no ha e decided based on his aspec , as he di uso would no ha e been use ul
o hei mo he s.
(iii)
P io i ize he p e ious highes p ice
The PPSTs in his g oup op ed o hai d ye B because i was he mos expensi e
be o e he sale. As he sales p ice was he same o he h ee hai d ye s, hai d ye B had
he highes discoun . Fo hese PPSTs, he highe he hai d ye p ice, he highe he quali y.
Educ. Sci. 2025,15, 169 16 o 26
( )
P io i ize he eache ’s needs
The PPSTs in his g oup used eache s’ needs as he a ionale o hei compu e
choices, al hough hey did no ully explain how i wo ked, as shown below.
“Fo me, a compu e , o he mos impo an hing in a compu e , is i s s o age capaci y
and memo y, as we ha e many ools, documen s, and p og ams, which a e e y “hea y”,
and i he compu e does no ha e a la ge memo y capaci y, i will cause p oblems
. . .
i
becomes slow and e en blocks, some imes i no longe e en suppo s some p og ams ha
we need o ins all. Ano he s ong poin o he compu e is he g aphics ca d, o suppo
isual a s p og ams, o example, o explain subjec s h ough hese p og ams o s uden s
wi h good image esolu ion so ha hey a e clea and pe cep ible. And las ly, i mus be
ligh , as we always ca y a lo o ma e ial, including books, and i is mo e con enien o
be small and ligh , ye wi h g ea au onomy o las o a long ime wi hou a need o ca y
he cha ge .” (S25)
In his answe , he unc ion o he compu e g aphics ca d and he s o age capaci y a e
easonably explained bu o he ea u es a e no .
O he PPSTs ecognized ha hey we e no expe s in compu e s and he e o e hey
would need o ob ain in o ma ion on compu e s. Hence, hey decided ha hey would
ask o help o de e mine he model o sugges o hei ela i e. The ollowing answe
illus a es his p ocedu e.
“To begin wi h, and as I wouldn’ unde s and much abou he subjec , I would go o a
s o e whe e hey sell compu e s, and ask a echnician wha would be he ideal compu e
o buy based on my needs. Gi en he in o ma ion collec ed, I would hen decide which
compu e o choose and unde s and how i di e s om he o he s. A e analyzing all
he de ails, I would look o he same compu e in di e en s o es, o unde s and i he
p ices di e om one s o e o he o he and i his would be he ideal compu e . Finally,
a e choosing he compu e and he buying loca ion, I would p esen he p oposal o my
ela i e.” (S28)
The PPSTs in his g oup ecognized he need o collec in o ma ion on di e en b ands
and o compa e i in o de o p epa e a p oposal o p esen o hei ela i e. A e deciding
on he equi ed ea u es, hey would look o he compu e o hei choice a he lowes
p ice. Fo hese PPSTs, he selec ion should be based on ele an ea u es, and he p ice
se ed as a ieb eake .
I is wo h no ing ha some PPSTs did no conside ha hey did no possess su icien
knowledge o choose he compu e , while o he s did. To make an in o med decision and
p epa e a p oposal, he la e claimed ha hey would make b and-based decisions (S7) o
ask o a hi d pe son’s help (S28) ins ead o looking o in o ma ion.
Some ansc ip ions showed ha he PPSTs men ioned quan i a i e a iables and da a
(e.g., S4, S17, and S45), while o he s (e.g., S7, S23, S50, and S64) e e ed o quali a i e
compa isons, wi hou men ioning o a guing o he need o quan i a i e da a.
Some ansc ip ions om he s uden s’ answe s showed ha he PPSTs used in o -
ma ion aken om he p oblem s a emen , wi hou globally analyzing he con ex ha
i desc ibed. Fo ins ance, S4, S17, and S23 pu o wa d ideas abou compu e ea u es
wi hou explici ly ela ing hem o hei u u e needs as eache s; S25 and S50 did no
conside ha he compu e would be on o e , which should ha e ul illed some condi ions.
S44 and S64 ex ac ed in o ma ion om he p oblem con ex bu did no explici ly use i o
decide. Thei ansc ip s— o example, hose o S17, S25, and S50—do no p o ide e idence
o he comple ion o he p oblem, as he e is no men ion o he p oposal o e idence o an
awa eness o i s absence. This sugges s ha he PPSTs did no pe o m a quali a i e analysis
o he p oblem s a emen and did no c i ically analyze he solu ion. The la e would
Educ. Sci. 2025,15, 169 17 o 26
ha e allowed he PPSTs o pe cei e ha he p oposal was missing and he p oblem-sol ing
p ocess was incomple e.
3.3. The Ga den P oblem
An analysis o he s a egies used o sol e he ga den p oblem (see Figu e 3abo e)
e ealed ou o e a ching s a egies. Some s a egies did no answe he p oblem, as hey
showed a sequence o ecommenda ions o s eps o ollow in enewing he IE ga den.
Howe e , o he s mo ed beyond his, as hey planned da a collec ion o conside ed how o
use he da a collec ed. The ou s a egies iden i ied a e as ollows:
(i)
make ecommenda ions ins ead o a p oposal;
(ii)
lis he s eps o ollow;
(iii)
collec addi ional in o ma ion;
(i )
collec and use addi ional in o ma ion.
As wi h he p e ious p oblems, hese ideas will be u he de eloped and illus a ed
wi h selec ed answe s.
(i)
Make ecommenda ions ins ead o a p oposal
The PPSTs in his g oup c ea ed a lis o ecommenda ions o he IE o ollow, ins ead
o desc ibing how he/she would p epa e a p oposal ha complied wi h he e ms o
e e ence men ioned in he p oblem s a emen . The ollowing answe illus a es his.
In my opinion, he educa ion ins i u e should op o plan s ha do no exac ly ha e a
season, ha is, ha a e only beau i ul in summe o win e . I hink hey should choose
o c ea e se e al beds wi h cac us plan s, as a cac us does no equi e main enance o a
lo o wa e . They should pu mo e ables so ha e e yone can enjoy he ga den. Cac i
should be o di e en colo s su ounded by black o whi e li le s ones, hus c ea ing a
welcoming a mosphe e. (S21)
This PPST is an example o one who did no pe cei e ha he/she should p esen a
conc e e p oposal o he ga den, ins ead o c ea ing ecommenda ions o p opose o he IE.
(ii)
Lis he s eps o ollow
The PPSTs in his g oup c ea ed a lis o s eps o ollow o answe he p oblem, al hough
he lis was incohe en o incomple e. The ollowing answe illus a es a case in which he
sequence o s eps lacked unde lying logic.
“S a by hinking abou wha plan s you could place, ollowing he c i e ia ha he
p esidency o he Ins i u e o Educa ion wan s.
A e wa d, isi he place o see wha i is like and so on, and speak o he p esiden o
cla i y any doub s ha migh eme ge o so.
A e isi ing he place and ha ing a con e sa ion wi h he p esiden o he Ins i u e o
Educa ion, ag ee on all he ini ial ideas.
And inally, submi he w i en p oposal o he compe i ion.” (S61)
Selec ing plan s be o e isi ing he place is illogical. Simila ly, isi ing he place “ o
see wha i is like” ails o ake ull ad an age o he isi o o conside he impo ance o
da a (e.g., dimensions) in p epa ing a good p oposal.
O he answe s in his g oup omi ed ele an s eps/p ocedu es needed o p epa e he
p oposal, as illus a ed below.
“Ini ially, I would ha e o go o he si e o unde s and he cu en s a e o he ga den.
F om he e, I would hink, based on he demands/ eques s made, I would esea ch and
s udy he bes way o espond o he eques , wi h he lowes possible budge and in he
Educ. Sci. 2025,15, 169 18 o 26
mos beau i ul way. F om he e, I would make a budge and p esen i o he IE p esidency
wi h a physical model ha I would p epa e oo.” (S2)
I is unclea whe he in o ma ion collec ed onsi e (on he cu en s a e o he ga den)
would be used o build he physical model o p opose o he ga den and submi o
he con es .
(iii)
Collec addi ional in o ma ion
This g oup included answe s ha lis ed s eps o ollow and in o ma ion o collec om
he p esiden (as sugges ed in he p oblem s a emen ), bu hey did no desc ibe how he
in o ma ion collec ed would be used. The ollowing answe illus a es his idea.
“- Plan possible ques ions o ask he p esidency be o e isi ing he si e.
- Du ing he isi , ca e ully obse e he acili ies and assess he needs o he space aking
in o accoun he equi emen s men ioned.
- Find ou which ma e ials a e sui able and wha he di e en p ices a e.
- Es ablish a budge based on he di e ences in p oposed solu ions ound, explaining he
ad an ages no only in cos bu also in he quali y and du abili y o he p oduc , as well
as he possibili y o equi ing less o mo e main enance.
- S a e which p oposals you conside mos app op ia e gi en he in o ma ion p o ided.
- Show a ailabili y o cla i y doub s.” (S65)
The answe s in his g oup conside ed posing ques ions and pe o ming obse a ions,
bu i was unclea how he da a collec ed would be used o c ea e he p oposal. An analysis
o some o hem sugges ed ha he in o ma ion collec ed would simply be pu oge he
and submi ed o he con es . This idea is illus a ed by he ollowing answe .
“To p epa e he w i en p oposal o submi o he compe i ion, i is impo an o isi he
space whe e he in e en ion will ake place and e alua e he le el o a ac i eness and
a endance by s uden s a he Ins i u e o Educa ion.
I possible, I could alk o s uden s who use his space and ask wha hey would change/add
o make he space mo e enjoyable o use.
A e his space assessmen p ocess, he cos assessmen p ocess ollows ega ding he
ins alla ion o an i iga ion and ligh ing sys em, oge he wi h he assessmen o he cos
o he plan s o be placed and any ex as/ma e ials sugges ed by he s uden s (e.g.,: ga den
benches, se o ables and chai ).
A e his in ensi e p ocess o e alua ing cos s on he a ious su aces/deco a ion i ems
and he budge s gi en by p o essionals ins alling i iga ion and ligh ing sys ems, i is
impo an o ga he all his in o ma ion in a documen and communica e he esul s
ob ained, as well as he p oposal o be made mos ad an ageous o he p esidency o he
Ins i u e o Educa ion.” (S4)
This answe s a es ha “i is impo an o ga he all his in o ma ion in a documen and
communica e he esul s ob ained”, bu he esul s should be used o p epa e he ga den
p ojec and no simply handed o he p esiden o he ins i u e.
(i )
Collec and use addi ional in o ma ion
The answe s in his g oup desc ibed he collec ion o in o ma ion and he use o
such in o ma ion, albei no always in an explici way. Some PPSTs planned o collec
in o ma ion om he p esiden only, bu o he s conside ed o he indi iduals, like s uden s
o communi y membe s. The ollowing answe s illus a e hese si ua ions.
“1s —Visi he space, ake measu emen s, see sun exposu e, analyze he ype o soil, and
he use i will ha e a e eno a ion.
Educ. Sci. 2025,15, 169 19 o 26
2nd—Taking in o accoun he esul s ob ained in he 1s s ep, selec he species mos
sui able o he space and ha mee s he in ended eno a ion equi emen s; d awing up
a space plan aking in o accoun sun exposu e and he unc ion o be pe o med (e.g.,
whe he i will be a leisu e and/o es space).
3 d—In he ga den plan, place he selec ed species and o ecas he e olu ion o he
space [
. . .
], include he ule poin s and how i will wo k [
. . .
], and include he ligh ing
sys em [. . .].
4 h—P epa e a epo including he esea ch wo k, he inal space plan, and he app oxi-
ma e budge o he p oposal.” (S43)
“1. Visi he place in he mo ning.
2. In e iew some membe s o he communi y ha use he place.
3. Visi he place in he a e noon.
Du ing hese isi s and ha ing my no es, I would make a p elimina y p oposal based on
he ambiance, luminosi y, he mal com o , and use s’ opinions on wha would please
hem mo e o less, wha hey expec , e c.
Once his is in place, I would mee wi h he p esidency, o align he p oposals and “smoo h
ou he edges”, seeing wha can be done o please mos o he in e es ed pa ies. Finally, I
would submi he p oposal o he compe i ion, a e , o cou se, ha ing s udied he cos s
and ying o a ionalize esou ces. (S50)
Acco ding o hese answe s, only a single pe son would p opose a ga den. Howe e ,
o he PPSTs ecognized ha his would be a challenging and demanding ask and planned
o use a mul idisciplina y eam, as shown below.
“Fi s ly, i in ol es he o ma ion o a mul idisciplina y eam in he a eas o landscaping,
bo any/ga dening/i iga ion sys ems/pe son connec ed o he Ins i u e (bu no linked o
he p esidency) [ o assis in p epa ing he p oposal].
In he i s phase, he eam’s ini ial ideas and possible p oblems we e discussed [–>
p epa a ion o he isi o he place and con e sa ion wi h a membe o he p esidency].
Following he isi and collec ion o in o ma ion, he eam would again assess p oblems
and solu ions. The possibili y o in ol ing he educa ional communi y h ough a su ey
would be conside ed.
As a esul , he p oposal ha was al eady being p epa ed would be e iewed; he e may
be mo e momen s o inqui y o con e sa ion wi h membe s o he p esidency, i possible;
which would lead o he inal p oposal.”. (S12)
To comply wi h he call’s e ms o e e ence, a mul idisciplina y eam would be
equi ed, which would pe o m a a ie y o specialized asks (e.g., c ea ing a plan o
he ga den, selec ing plan s, and choosing ligh ing and wa e ing sys ems), as a gued by
S12. Howe e , eading he ansc ip s abo e, i can be ound ha some PPSTs planned o
comple e all asks hemsel es, as illus a ed by S2. O he s used a non-pe sonal w i ing
mode, which did no indica e whe he hey we e conscious o he ask’s demands. In any
case, i was unclea whe he hey we e awa e o he di e si y o knowledge and abili ies
equi ed and whe he o no hey possessed hem.
Some ansc ip ions (e.g., S21 and S61) indica e ha he PPSTs did no men ion o eel
he need o quan i a i e a iables and da a. O he s men ioned quan i a i e i ems, like he
a ea o he ga den (S12), he budge (S43), and he cos s (S50), bu did no de elop hem.
An analysis o he ansc ip s p esen ed abo e indica es ha S4 s a ed by men ioning
he p oposal, while he o he s do no . The e is some e idence ha he PPSTs ead he
p oblem s a emen , as hey men ioned some i ems included in i . Howe e , hey did no
Educ. Sci. 2025,15, 169 20 o 26
explici ly indica e hei knowledge o he p oblem and wha hey needed o know o do o
sol e i . Some PPSTs showed planning abili ies (e.g., S12, S43), as hey men ioned wha
hey would need o do. Some ansc ip s showed ha he PPSTs ailed o add ess he
objec i e as hey did no men ion he p oposal (e.g., S21), while o he s unde s ood ha
hey had o p epa e a physical model (S2). O he ansc ip s indica ed ha he PPSTs
men ioned he p oposal’s submission bu showed no e idence o he p oposal’s e ision
conside ing he da a gi en in he p oblem s a emen o collec ed (e.g., S61). These indings
e eal ha a c i ical analysis o he p oblem’s solu ion agains he p oblem’s demands was
no pe o med.
4. Discussion
This esea ch aimed o cha ac e ize he p ocesses ollowed by PPSTs when sol ing
h ee STEM- ele an p oblems, which had di e en ea u es. A quali a i e analysis o
he PPSTs’ answe s was pe o med o iden i y he o e a ching s a egies unde lying hei
p oblem-sol ing p ocesses. The la ge numbe o answe s analyzed sugges s ha sa u a-
ion was eached. This means ha he di e se ange o app oaches adop ed by simila
pa icipan s o sol e hese p oblems was p obably iden i ied.
An analysis o he o e a ching s a egies ollowed by he pa icipan s when sol ing
he h ee p oblems shows ha he PPSTs used a a ie y o app oaches when sol ing
each p oblem, as expec ed based on p e ious s udies (e.g., Hsu e al.,2024;Oh,2024).
In con as o wha is equi ed when sol ing a complex and in e disciplina y p oblem
(P ice e al.,2021;Wang e al.,2023), he PPSTs’ app oaches we e, in gene al, linea , and
he PPSTs did no e u n o he p oblem s a emen , e en o pe o m a c i ical analysis o
he esul s. P ice e al. (2021) a gue ha app op ia e knowledge and skills in luence he
p oblem-sol ing p ocess. Some PPSTs’ answe s indica ed a lack o ele an knowledge,
which hey seldom acknowledged. Mos o he s a egies iden i ied depended on p oduc
a ibu es (W.-L. Chen & Chiang,2010), hedonic ac o s (Jee,2021;San ani e al.,2015),
i.e., sma shopping pe cep ions, and b and ac o s (Mulle & Kle k,2020), al hough
hose ac o s in luenced he PPSTs in di e en ways.
P oblems 1 and 2 we e ela ed o pu chasing objec s. Acco ding o W.-L. Chen and
Chiang (2010), “Consume s’ pu chasing beha io is a ec ed no only by cul u al, social,
pe sonal and psychological ac o s bu also, mos impo an ly, by he conside a ion o
p oduc a ibu es” (p. 396). In he case o he hai d ye p oblem, mos o he s a egies
ocused on he p oduc a ibu es and p ice, i.e., on he hai d ye ’s powe (s a egy i ),
accesso ies (i and ii), o accesso ies combined wi h a discoun ( ). These s a egies we e
in luenced by he p oduc ea u es, as could be expec ed based on W.-L. Chen and Chiang
(2010), and hey did no conside he a ge use o he hai d ye ( he p oblem sol e ’s
mo he ). S a egy (iii) appea ed o be d i en by hedonic bene i s (Jee,2021), a beha io
associa ed wi h sales ha leads o choosing he i em wi h he la ges discoun , due o he
sel -pe cep ion o being a sma shoppe (e.g., Jee,2021;San ani e al.,2015). Quan i a i e
in o ma ion on he powe and p ice explici ly unde laid h ee s a egies (iii, i , and )
and seemed o in luence he o he s, namely s a egy (i). This may ha e been because he
s uden s we e used o sol ing algo i hmic (Sal a & Tzoug aki,2010) ins ead o decision-
making p oblems, which equi e making choices and assessing he isks and bene i s
o al e na i es (Walke & Lea y,2009;Jonassen,2012). A hai d ye is a p oduc ha is
o en used in people’s daily li es. The e o e, some people may exhibi s ong physical
in e ac ions wi h hai d ye s. As Han e al. (2023) a gue, his physical in e ac ion may
induce a posi i e ela ionship be ween he use and he p oduc , which may o e ide
o he key elemen s. These posi i e ela ionships and he PPSTs’ di icul y in in eg a ing
he in o ma ion ex ac ed in he p oblem-sol ing s a egy (B oman e al.,2018;Ma ies &
Educ. Sci. 2025,15, 169 21 o 26
Singh,2023;Tan e al.,2023) may explain why all bu one ( ii) o he s a egies igno ed
he ac ha he hai d ye was o he p oblem sol e ’s mo he . Ins ead, hey ocused on
choosing a p oduc as i i we e o hemsel es o o a non-iden i ied mo he (as seen in
s a egy i). Despi e hese di icul ies, all s a egies led o a inal esul , al hough he e was
li le e idence o a c i ical analysis o he la e , which se e al au ho s (Ça a¸s e al.,2023;
Lamb os,2004;Lei e & A onso,2001) conside an impo an s ep.
A compu e is a echnological p oduc ha s uden s (including PPSTs) use daily.
Compu e use s de elop a achmen s o hem, mos ly ela ed o hei u ili a ian aspec s
(A ash eh & Razzaghi,2022). This a achmen is o en assessed based on emo ionally
pe cei ed pe o mance. Acco ding o Han e al. (2023), a achmen may cause an emo ional
bond ha may o e ide o he ea u es o con ex ual ac o s. Emo ional bonds may unde lie
s a egy (iii), which ocused on he compu e ’s ea u es wi hou conside ing i s u u e
pu pose. Young people a e sensi i e o b ands associa ed wi h good pe o mance and
conside “s a us indica o s” (Nami anian,2006). Hence, a b and’s name in luences hei
choices (Mulle & Kle k,2020) and wo ks as a choice simpli ie and a gua an ee ha a
p oduc can be elied upon (Nami anian,2006). One o he o e a ching s a egies (ii)
was based on ai h in a gi en b and (name omi ed), which esul ed in he pe cep ion
o good pe o mance and ul illed a desi e o s a us, as he b and in ques ion was mo e
expensi e han he o he s. The b and-d i en choice, alone o oge he wi h he di icul y in
in e p e ing he p oblem (Ma ies & Singh,2023;Sil a e al.,2013) and ex ac ing in o ma ion
om he p oblem (B oman e al.,2018;Ma ies & Singh,2023), p e en ed some p oblem
sol e s om conside ing wo o he con ex ual condi ions o he p oblem. These we e he
ac ha he compu e had o be use ul o hei wo k in he u u e (as eache s) and he ac
ha he pe son who was o e ing hem he compu e was conce ned abou spending money.
This equi ed he sol e o compa e he in o ma ion p o ided by di e en b ands. Some
yea s ago, Nami anian (2006) concluded ha young people wish o b ands o p o ide
in o ma ion ha enables hem o compa e he al e na i es a ailable easily and simply.
Some pa icipan s desc ibed a se o s eps o ollow (as in s a egy i), which may include a
b and compa ison (as in s a egy ii), bu hey did no explain how his should be pe o med.
In some cases, his p ocedu e seemed o be an excuse o impose he sol e ’s p e e ences,
p obably based on an a ec i e bond wi h a gi en b and o model. They ailed o make
c i ical and e alua i e judgmen s o he esul s ob ained, which a e ele an p ocedu es
in p oblem sol ing (Ma ies & Singh,2023;Sil a e al.,2013). S a egy (i ) p io i ized he
ea u es o e he p ice and used he p ice as a ieb eake ; his would be easonable in ligh
o he con ex ual in o ma ion gi en. Howe e , he impo ance o he p io i ized ea u es
was no ully explained. Omi ing a good analysis and explana ion o he ele an ea u es
would esul in a weak p oposal. Only s a egy ( ) p esen ed a easonable explana ion.
I d ew on in o ma ion om di e en b ands and used he p ice as a ieb eake . In his
s a egy, he b and did no o e ide he p ice o he compu e ’s ea u es.
Se ling and keeping a ga den is a demanding ask ha equi es and p omo es he de-
elopmen o ele an knowledge, skills, and a i udes unde he scope o STEM disciplines
and o he knowledge a eas (Gulhan,2023). This is why ga den-based educa ion has been
desc ibed as ha ing educa ional alue o se e al school le els (Eugenio-Gozalbo e al.,
2020;Kong & Chen,2023), including o p ese ice eache educa ion (Co ochano e al.,
2022). I should be s essed ha a ga den is an “objec ” ha can be app oached a di e en
le els o complexi y, hus se ing a di e si y o pu poses. The p oblem used in his wo k
complied wi h he condi ions acknowledged by Aye be-López and Pe ales-Palacios (2023)
o a p oblem, as i had a high le el o complexi y and equi ed knowledge o a di e si y o
disciplines, including he STEM disciplines, d awing, landscape a chi ec u e, economics,
and o he s. S a egy (i) indica es ha he p oblem sol e s did no unde s and he goal o he
Educ. Sci. 2025,15, 169 22 o 26
p oblem, as was seen in p e ious esea ch (Ogunleye,2009;Reddy & Panacha oensawad,
2017;Saka e al.,2024). In addi ion, s a egies (i) and (ii) do no demons a e he abili y o
he esponden s o iden i y he knowledge equi ed, which is one o he demands o he
p oblem-sol ing p ocess (Ça a¸s e al.,2023;Lamb os,2004). While he use s o s a egy (ii)
pu o wa d some s eps o ollow, hey did no p esen conc e e desc ip ions o he asks
ha hey would include o he in o ma ion ha hey would look o . As in o he esea ch
s udies (Ma ies & Singh,2023;Sil a e al.,2013), he pa icipan s did no inalize hei
easoning and ailed o conside he design o a p ojec o he ga den. Al hough s a egy
(iii) conside ed collec ing addi ional in o ma ion, i was unclea wha his in o ma ion
would be used o . The pa icipan s pe cei ed he a ge as he con es , a he han he
design o he p oposal. This indica es ha he PPSTs did no unde s and he p oblem, as
was ound by o he au ho s (Ogunleye,2009;Reddy & Panacha oensawad,2017;Saka e al.,
2024), and hey did no pe cei e i as a design p oblem ha equi ed he inco po a ion o
knowledge ac oss se e al disciplines o de elop a p oduc (Walke & Lea y,2009), namely
he ga den p ojec . S a egy (i ) was be e aligned wi h he goal o he p oblem, as i
conside ed a logical pa h o ollow, acknowledged he need o a a ie y o knowledge, as
poin ed ou by Gulhan (2023), and conside ed he use ulness o a mul idisciplina y eam.
F om he abo e, i seems ha ex e nal ac o s, a he han he p oblem i sel , in luenced
mos o he s a egies used by he pa icipan s o sol e he h ee p oblems. As expec ed,
da a in luenced he p oblem-sol ing p ocess when p o ided (as in he hai d ye p oblem),
bu he pa icipan s did no show a s ong abili y o iden i y da a in he o he p oblems.
The in luence o ex e nal ac o s led o solu ions ha did no sa is y he p oblem’s goal,
lacked scien i ic suppo , and depended on b ands and a achmen . In addi ion, wo key
s eps o he gene al p oblem-sol ing s a egy desc ibed in Sec ion 1we e no p esen in
he p oblem-sol ing p ocesses o he PPSTs, as shown in he p e ious sec ion. As in o he
s udies (Amanda e al.,2021), hese s eps we e he i s (quali a i e analysis o he p oblem)
and he las (c i ical analysis o he solu ion) ones. They we e iden i ied (Pozo e al.,1995;
To eg osa,1987) as p oblema ic because o he ypes o p oblems ha s uden s a e usually
asked o sol e in school. The s uc u e o school p oblems may lead o success wi hou
a ca e ul analysis o he p oblem s a emen (Sal a & Tzoug aki,2010). Success in simila
condi ions is no possible wi h ill-s uc u ed and con ex ualized p oblems, which esea ch
(Amanda e al.,2021;Ma ies & Singh,2023;Sil a e al.,2013) shows a e challenging o
p oblem sol e s o in e p e . The absence o a c i ical analysis o he solu ion was epo ed
in he li e a u e (Ma ies & Singh,2023;Sil a e al.,2013) as a eason o incomple e p oblem-
sol ing. Again, school p oblems a e s aigh o wa d and usually ha e a (single) solu ion
(Ma ies & Singh,2023;Pozo e al.,1995). These ea u es lead o success e en wi hou
analyzing he p oblem s a emen o he esul ob ained, bu hey should be ejec ed o he
bene i o s uden s o all school le els.
5. Conclusions
This pape desc ibes quali a i e esea ch aiming o cha ac e ize he p ocesses ollowed
by p ospec i e p ima y school eache s when sol ing h ee STEM- ela ed p oblems. The
esea ch was based on da a collec ed by a ques ionnai e a one highe educa ion ins i u ion
and ocused on h ee STEM- ele an p oblems. The pa icipan s used a a ie y o s a egies
o sol e each p oblem, mos o which did no lead o a comple e answe . The in luence
o ex e nal ac o s (e.g., hedonic ac o s, a achmen , and b ands) and he omission o
some key s eps o he p oblem-sol ing p ocess (i.e., a quali a i e analysis o he p oblem
s a emen and a c i ical analysis o he esul s) we e obse ed in mos s a egies used by
he p oblem sol e s. This means ha , when eache educa o s ain p ospec i e eache s o
sol e p oblems, hey should use ill-s uc u ed STEM- ele an p oblems, which equi e hei
Educ. Sci. 2025,15, 169 23 o 26
s uden s, ei he p ospec i e eache s o o he s uden s, o use and de elop c oss-discipline
knowledge and o plan, implemen , and assess a p oblem-sol ing s a egy. In addi ion,
eache educa o s should ocus on he key gene al s eps o he p oblem-sol ing p ocess, as
ad oca ed o by se e al au ho s (e.g., Amanda e al.,2021;Ça a¸s e al.,2023;Lamb os,
2004), paying speci ic a en ion o he analysis o he p oblem and he c i ical analysis o
he esul s. They should also conside he in e nal and ex e nal ac o s (Jonassen,2000)
ha may a ec he p oblem-sol ing p ocess, including he con ex o he p oblem (Sal a &
Tzoug aki,2010), emo ional issues (A ash eh & Razzaghi,2022;Jonassen,2012), b ands
(Mulle & Kle k,2020), and hedonic ac o s (Jee,2021). Un o una ely, science educa ion
pays li le a en ion o hese ac o s.
As wi h o he esea ch s udies, ou wo k has some limi a ions. We de eloped ou
in e p e a ions o he ansc ip s wi hou consul ing he pa icipan s. In e iewing some
pa icipan s abou hei answe s would ha e inc eased he eliabili y o he da a analysis.
Mo eo e , using pai s o p oblems wi h simila ea u es would enable he analysis o he
consis ency o he pa icipan s’ answe s ac oss p oblem con ex s. Conduc ing quan i a i e
su ey-like s udies would allow esea che s o iden i y which s a egies p e ail. Such
s udies should include pa icipan s om di e en ins i u ions so ha hei esul s a e
gene alizable. I would also be wo h de e mining whe he s uden s o o he cul u al
con ex s and school le els use he o e a ching s a egies iden i ied. This would p o ide
a be e basis o he de elopmen o educa ional s a egies ha add ess he endency o
allow ex e nal ac o s o o e ide he da a and he con ex ual in o ma ion p o ided in he
p oblem s a emen .
Au ho Con ibu ions: Concep ualiza ion, S.M. and L.L.; me hodology, S.M. and L.L.; alida ion, L.D.
and P.V.; da a collec ion, L.D. and P.V.; o mal analysis, L.D. and S.M.; o mal analysis— alida ion,
L.L. and P.V.; da a cu a ion, L.D.; w i ing—o iginal d a p epa a ion, S.M.; w i ing—o iginal d a
e iew L.D. and P.V.; w i ing— ansla ion, L.L. All au ho s ha e ead and ag eed o he published
e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding: This esea ch was unded by CIEd—Resea ch Cen e on Educa ion, Ins i u e o Educa ion,
Uni e si y o Minho, p ojec s UIDB/01661/2020 and UIDP/01661/2020, h ough na ional unds o
FCT/MCTES-PT, and by CIEC—Resea ch Cen e in Child S udies, p ojec s UIDB/00317/2020 and
UIDP/00317/2020, h ough na ional unds o FCT/MCTES-PT.
Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d S a emen : The s udy was conduc ed in acco dance wi h he Decla a ion
o Helsinki, and app o ed by he E hics Commi ee) o he Uni e si y o Minho (p o ocol code
CEICSH 146/2023, 11 Janua y 2024).
In o med Consen S a emen : In o med consen was ob ained om all subjec s in ol ed in he s udy.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen : Da ase a ailable on eques om he co esponding au ho .
Acknowledgmen s: The au ho s would like o acknowledge all o he p ospec i e eache s who
pa icipa ed in he s udy.
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic s o in e es . The unde s had no ole in he
design o he s udy; in he collec ion, analyses, o in e p e a ion o he da a; in he w i ing o he
manusc ip ; o in he decision o publish he esul s.
Re e ences
A ash eh, S., & Razzaghi, M. (2022). P oduc a achmen and pleasu e: A modus ope andi o sus ainabili y. Jou nal o Design Thinking,
3(2), 217–230. [C ossRe ]
Ahmadi, F., Kadkhoda, A., Hamidi, F., & Fa zaneh, N. (2023). E ec s o he STEM app oach on s uden s’ p oblem sol ing skill in
science educa ion. I anian Dis ance Educa ion Jou nal,4(1), 144–154. [C ossRe ]
Aidoo, B. (2023). Teache educa o s expe ience adop ing p oblem-based lea ning in science educa ion. Educa ion Sciences,13(11), 1113.
[C ossRe ]
Educ. Sci. 2025,15, 169 24 o 26
Amanda, F. F., Sumi o, S. B., Les a i, S. R., & Ib ohim, I. (2021). Analysis o he ela ionship be ween concep mas e y and p oblem-
sol ing skills o p e-se ice biology eache s in human physiology cou ses. Jou nal Pendidikan Sains Indonesia,9(3), 421–432.
[C ossRe ]
Aye be-López, J., & Pe ales-Palacios, F. J. (2023). E alua ing a seconda y educa ion u ban ecology p ojec wi hin he amewo k o a
p oblem-based lea ning me hodology. Educa ion Sciences,13(9), 915. [C ossRe ]
Boud, D., & Fele i, G. (1997). Changing p oblem-based lea ning. In oduc ion o second edi ion. In D. Boud, & G. Fele i (Eds.), The
challenge o p oblem-based lea ning (pp. 1–14). Kogan Page.
B oman, K., Be nhol , S., & Ch is ensson, C. (2022). Rele an o in e es ing acco ding o uppe seconda y s uden s? A ec i e aspec s o
con ex -based chemis y p oblems. Resea ch in Science & Technological Educa ion,40(4), 478–498. [C ossRe ]
B oman, K., Be nhol , S., & Pa chmann, I. (2018). Using model based sca olds o suppo s uden s sol ing con ex -based chemis y
p oblems. In e na ional Jou nal o Science Educa ion,40(10), 1176–1197. [C ossRe ]
Ça a¸s, B., Ça a¸s, P., & Yílmaz, Y. (2023). P oblem sol ing in science educa ion and echnology educa ion. In B. Akpan, B. Ca as, & T.
Kennedy (Eds.), Con empo a y ends and issues in science educa ion (pp. 253–266). Sp inge .
Chen, J., Zhang, L., Wang, L., Kuang, M., Wanh, S., & Yang, J. (2023). Towa d ca bon neu ali y: Selec i e con e sion o was e plas ics
in o alue-added chemicals. Ma e ,6, 3322–3347. [C ossRe ]
Chen, W.-L., & Chiang, Y.-M. (2010, May 5–7). A s udy on he p oduc design o hai d ye using neu al ne wo k me hod. 2010 In e na ional
Symposium on Compu e , Communica ion, Con ol and Au oma ion (pp. 396–399), Tainan, Taiwan. [C ossRe ]
Cheng, Y., Awan, U., Ahmad, S., & Tan, Z. (2021). How do echnological inno a ion and iscal decen aliza ion a ec he en i onmen ?
A s o y o he ou h indus ial e olu ion and sus ainable g ow h. Technological Fo ecas ing & Social Change,162, 120398. [C ossRe ]
Chi, S., Wang, Z., & Liu, X. (2023). Assessmen o con ex -based chemis y p oblem-sol ing skills: Tes design and esul s om
nin h-g ade s uden s. Resea ch in Science Educa ion,53, 295–318. [C ossRe ]
Con en e, J., & Gal ão, C. (2022). STEM educa ion and p oblem-sol ing in space science: A case s udy wi h CanSa . Educa ion Sciences,
12(4), 251. [C ossRe ]
Co ochano, D., Fe a i, E., López-Luengo, M. A., & O ega-Que edo, V. (2022). Educa ional ga dens and clima e change educa ion:
An analysis o Spanish p ese ice eache s’ pe cep ions. Educa ion Sciences,12(4), 275. [C ossRe ]
Eugenio-Gozalbo, M., A agón, L., & O ega-Cube o, I. (2020). Ga dens as science lea ning con ex s ac oss educa ional s ages: Lea ning
assessmen based on s uden s’ g aphic ep esen a ions. F on ie s in Psychology,11, 2226. [C ossRe ]
Eu opean Commission. (2015). Science educa ion o esponsible ci izenship—Repo o he Eu opean Commission o he expe g oup on science
educa ion. Eu opean Commission. [C ossRe ]
Gau am, B., Mandal, P. K., & Yangden, N. (2021). S uden s’ awa eness owa ds clima e change: A s udy o clima e change e ec s on
human heal h in Nepal. P i h i Academic Jou nal,4, 18–26. [C ossRe ]
Gulhan, F. (2023). The o de o ga den-based lea ning om science educa ion o STEM educa ion. Eu asian Jou nal o Science and
En i onmen al Educa ion,3(1), 17–23. [C ossRe ] [PubMed]
Han, G., Kim, C., & Sel , J. (2023, Oc obe 9–13). An in es iga ion in o he p oduc a achmen be ween single-pe son household and hei home
appliances. IASDR 2023: Li e-Changing Design, Milan, I aly. [C ossRe ]
Hsu, J. L., Sung, R.-J., Swa a , S. L., Go e, A. J., Kim, S., & Lo, S. M. (2024). Va ia ions in s uden app oaches o p oblem sol ing in
unde g adua e biology educa ion. CBE—Li e Sciences Educa ion,23, 1–19. [C ossRe ]
Hube , R. A., G eussing, E., & Ebe l, J.-M. (2022). F om populism o clima e skep icism: The ole o ins i u ional us and a i udes
owa ds science. En i onmen al Poli ics,31(7), 1115–1138. [C ossRe ]
Jee, T. (2021). The pe cep ion o discoun sales p omo ions—A u ili a ian and hedonic pe spec i e. Jou nal o Re ailing and Consume
Se ices,63, 102745. [C ossRe ]
Jonassen, D. (1997). Ins uc ional design model o well-s uc u ed and ill-s uc u ed p oblem-sol ing lea ning ou comes. Educa ional
Technology: Resea ch and De elopmen ,45(1), 65–95.
Jonassen, D. (2000). Towa d a design heo y o p oblem sol ing. Educa ional Technology Resea ch and De elopmen ,48(4), 63–85. [C ossRe ]
Jonassen, D. (2004). Lea ning o sol e p oblems: An ins uc ional design guide. P ei e .
Jonassen, D. (2012). Designing o decision making. Educa ional Technology Resea ch and De elopmen ,60, 341–359. [C ossRe ]
Kennedy, T., & Odell, M. (2023). STEM educa ion as a me a-discipline. In B. Akpan, B. Ca as, & T. Kennedy (Eds.), Con empo a y ends
and issues in science educa ion (pp. 37–51). Sp inge .
Kong, C., & Chen, J. (2023). School Ga den and ins uc ional in e en ions os e child en’s in e es in na u e. People and Na u e,6(2),
712–732. [C ossRe ]
Kulin, J., Se ä, I. J., & Dunlap, R. E. (2021). Na ionalis ideology, igh wing populism, and public iews abou clima e change in Eu ope.
En i onmen al Poli ics,30(7), 1111–1134. [C ossRe ]
Lamb os, A. (2004). P oblem-based lea ning in middle and high school class ooms. Thousand Oaks.
Lau , D. (2013). Au hen ic lea ning expe iences. A eal-wo ld app oach o p ojec -based lea ning. Rou ledge.
Educ. Sci. 2025,15, 169 25 o 26
Lei e, L., & A onso, A. (2001). Ap endizagem baseada na esolução de p oblemas. Ca ac e ís icas, o ganização e supe isão [P oblem-
based lea ning: Cha ac e is ics, o ganiza ion and supe ision]. Bole ín das Ciências,48, 253–260.
Lei e, L., & Es e es, E. (2005). Ensino o ien ado pa a a ap endizagem baseada na esolução de p oblemas na Licencia u a em Ensino de
Física e Química [Teaching o p oblem-based lea ning in an unde g adua e p og am o Physical Sciences eache s]. In B. Sil a,
& L. Almeida (Eds.), Ac as do Cong esso Galaico-Po uguês de Psico-Pedagogia (pp. 1751–1768). Uni e sidade do Minho.
Lö le , P., Pozas, M., & Kaue z, A. (2018). How do s uden s coo dina e con ex -based in o ma ion and elemen s o hei own
knowledge? An analysis o s uden s’ con ex -based p oblem-sol ing in he modynamics. In e na ional Jou nal o Science Educa ion,
40(16), 1935–1956. [C ossRe ]
Magaji, A., Adjani, M., & Coombes, S. (2024). A sys ema ic e iew o p ese ice science eache s’ expe ience o p oblem-based lea ning
and implemen ing i in he class oom. Educa ion Sciences,14(3), 301. [C ossRe ]
Ma ies, A., & Singh, C. (2023). Helping s uden s become p o icien p oblem sol e s pa I: A b ie e iew. Educa ion Sciences,13(2), 156.
[C ossRe ]
Ma on, R. B. (2005). Phenomenog aphy: A esea ch app oach o in es iga ing di e en unde s andings o eali y. In R. R. She man, &
R. B. Webb (Eds.), Quali a i e esea ch in educa ion: Focus and me hods (pp. 140–160). Rou ledge Falme .
Mau e e, Y., Kandlbinde , P., & Soucisse, A. (2004). The p oblem in p oblem-based lea ning is he p oblems: Bu do hey mo i a e
s uden s? In M. Sa in-Baden, & K. Wilkie (Eds.), Challenging esea ch in p oblem-based lea ning (pp. 11–25). Maidenhead.
Moo e, B., Geese, L., Kenny, J., Dudley, H., Jo dan, A., P ados Pascual, A., Lo enzoni, I., Schaub, S., Engue , J., & Tosun, J. (2024).
Poli icians and clima e change: A sys ema ic e iew o he li e a u e. WIREs Clima e Change,15(6), 1–17. [C ossRe ]
Mo gado, S. (2013). Ap endizagem baseada na esolução de p oblemas: Um es udo cen ado na o mação con ínua de p o esso es de ciências e de
geog a ia [P oblem-based lea ning: A s udy ocused on in-se ice science and geog aphy eache educa ion] [Mas e ’s Thesis,
Uni e si y o Minho].
Mulle , C., & Kle k, N. (2020). In luence o design aes he ics and b and name on gene a ion y s uden s’ in en ion o use wea able
ac i i y- acking de ices. In e na ional Jou nal o eBusiness and eGo e nmen S udies,12(2), 107–121. [C ossRe ]
Nami anian, L. (2006). Teenage s and b and engagemen in eme ging ma ke s. Decision Analys 2. A ailable online: h ps://ci esee x.is
.psu.edu/documen ? epid= ep1& ype=pd &doi=0 9 b7664cc6 3716c42c5b2c4ebbba510dc74e (accessed on 25 No embe 2024).
Ne o, A. (1998). Resolução de p oblemas em ísica: Concei os, p ocesso e no as ap endizagens [Sol ing p oblems in physics: Concep s,
p ocesses and new lea nings]. Educa ional Inno a ion Ins i u e.
OECD. (2009). PISA 2009 Assessmen amewo k—Key compe encies in eading, ma hema ics and science. OECD. [C ossRe ]
OECD. (2018). Educa ion a a Glace 2018: OECD indica o s. OECD. [C ossRe ]
OECD. (2023). PISA 2022 esul s ( olume I): The s a e o lea ning and equi y in educa ion. OECD. [C ossRe ]
Ogunleye, A. (2009). Teache s’ and s uden s’ pe cep ions o s uden s’ p oblem-sol ing di icul ies in physics: Implica ions o
emedia ion. Jou nal o College Teaching & Lea ning,6(2), 85–90.
Oh, P. S. (2024). How a s uden uses knowledge as a esou ce o sol e scien i ic p oblems: A case s udy on science lea ning as
edisco e y. Science & Educa ion,33, 213–247. [C ossRe ]
Picke ing, B., Lomba di, F., & P enninge , S. (2022). Di e si y o op ions o elimina e ossil uels and each ca bon neu ali y ac oss he
en i e Eu opean ene gy sys em. Joule,6, 1253–1276. [C ossRe ] [PubMed]
Pleasan s, J. (2020). Inqui ing in o he na u e o STEM p oblems: Implica ions o p e-college educa ion. Science & Educa ion,29,
831–855. [C ossRe ]
Pozo, J., Pos igo, Y., & Gómez-C espo, M. (1995). Ap endizaje de es a égias pa a la solución de p oblemas en ciencias [Lea ning
science p oblem-sol ing s a egies]. Alambique,5, 16–26.
P ice, A. M., Kim, C. J., Bu kholde , E. W., F i z, A. V., & Wieman, C. E. (2021). A de ailed cha ac e iza ion o he expe p oblem-sol ing
p ocess in science and enginee ing: Guidance o eaching and assessmen . CBE—Li e Sciences Educa ion,20(43), 1–15. [C ossRe ]
[PubMed]
Reddy, M., & Panacha oensawad, B. (2017). S uden s p oblem-sol ing di icul ies and implica ions in physics: An empi ical s udy on
in luencing ac o s. Jou nal o Educa ion and P ac ice,8(14), 59–62.
Rica , S., Olcina, J., & Rico, A. M. (2019). E alua ing public a i udes and a me s’ belie s owa ds clima e change adap a ion:
Awa eness, pe cep ion, and populism a Eu opean le el. Land,8(1), 4. [C ossRe ]
Saka, A. Z., Ebeneze , J., & Saka, T. (2024). Tu kish p e-se ice eache s’ pe cep ions o ac o s in luencing physics p oblem-sol ing
abili ies. Science Insigh s Educa ion F on ie s,20(1), 3173–3200. [C ossRe ]
Sal a, K., & Tzoug aki, C. (2010). Concep ual e sus algo i hmic p oblem-sol ing: Focusing on p oblems dealing wi h conse a ion o
ma e in chemis y. Resea ch in Science Educa ion,41, 587–609. [C ossRe ]
San ani, F., Sampaio, C., Pe in, M., & Viei a, V. (2015). An analysis o he in luence o discoun sales p omo ion in consume buying
in en and he mode a ing e ec s o a ac i eness. Re is a de Adminis ação,50(4), 416–431. [C ossRe ]
She man, R. R., & Webb, R. B. (2005). Quali a i e esea ch in educa ion: A ocus. In R. R. She man, & R. B. Webb (Eds.), Quali a i e
esea ch in educa ion: Focus and me hods (pp. 2–20). Rou ledge Falme .
