Diploma ic gi s as as a us symbol. Examples o la e
medie al Dub o nik
Valen ina Šoš a ić
ABSTRACT
This pape ocuses on he de ec ion o gi s ha Ragusan ambassado s p esen ed o hei hos s a a ious
places: Eu opean cou s, p i a e esidences and he Sublime Po e, co e ing he pe iod om he mid-14 h o
he mid-15 h cen u y. The ma e ial cul u e o diploma ic gi s is seen as ade e minan o powe and a isible
sign o he ecipien ’ss a us. O pa icula in e es is he compa ison o speci ic gi s p esen ed o a ious
poli ical ac o s wi h whom he Dub o nik au ho i ies conduc ed diploma ic communica ion, and who e-
sided wi hin he same cou s. This compa ison allows o conclusions ega ding gi -gi ing among di e en
gende s o age g oups, i he ecipien s a e o he same gende . In his sense, diploma ic gi s could be seen
as adis inguishing ac o o an indi idual’spowe wi hin he hie a chical powe ela ions. Finally, such an
analysis allows conclusions abou how hese gi s unde wen diach onic al e a ions, based on he ecipi-
en ’simpo ance in Dub o nik’s o eign policy, he ci y’seconomic powe , o he ecipien ’sp e e ences and
cul u al backg ound.
KEYWORDS
Dub o nik; diplomacy; diploma ic gi s; O oman Empi e; gende diplomacy
DOI
h ps://doi.o g/10.14712/23368144.2025.1.6
INTRODUCTION
The Dub o nik S a e A chi e p ese es sou ces ha enable he econs uc ion o ade ailed
lis o diploma ic gi s sen om Dub o nik/Ragusa1 o a ious ecipien s du ing he pe iod
o in e es . Ma cel Mauss was he i s o add ess he issue o ecip ocal gi ing in p emode n
socie ies.2 Since hen, nume ous his o ians, sociologis s, an h opologis s, and psychologis s
ha e u he de eloped his heo e ical unde s anding o gi s, o en employing an in e dis-
ciplina y pe spec i e.3 In his ega d, he exchange o gi s in diplomacy is unde s ood as an
in eg al pa o ce emonial p ac ices, as well as a o m o ‘cul u al diplomacy’ and la e medie al
‘ma e ial cul u e’.4 Apa icula ly impo an aspec o diploma ic gi s is hei use as ameans
o non e bal communica ion. They con eyed laye ed messages ega ding he hie a chical
1 Fo ade ailed explana ion ega ding he use o bo h names c . K a a 1994, 77–87.
2 Mauss 2002.
3 Zemon Da is 2000; K ausman Ben -Amos 2008; Algazi– G oebne – Jussen eds. 2003; Kom e
ed. 1996; Os een ed. 2014; Godelie 1999; Be king 1999.
4 The e a e di e en app oaches o de ining ma e ial cul u e: Tilley 2006, 7–12; P own 1982, 1–19;
Hicks– Beaud y eds. 2010; Mille 2005, 1–50.
STUDIA HERCYNIA XXIX/1, 75–92
76 STUDIA HERCYNIA XXIX/1
ela ionships be ween nego ia ing pa ies, he iden i y o he gi e , hei economic powe ,
ade ela ions, p e ailing as es, and he a is ic achie emen s o he pe iod. I is impo an
o emphasize ha diploma ic gi s we e simul aneously used as ‘ins umen s o pe suasion’,
whe e speci ic manipula ions and s a egies can be iden i ied in he selec ion and p esen a ion
o he gi . Finally, he e was aheigh ened awa eness among he gi e s o he po en ial o
he gi o p o oke an emo ional esponse om he ecipien , as well as om a‘ hi d pa y’
excluded om he gi ing p ocess, especially when ma e ial bene i s we e a s ake.
In his con ex , i is impo an o emphasize ha he examples analysed will p ima ily
ocus on h ee case s udies wi hin ab oade amewo k o gi exchange: ex iles, sil e wa e,
and money. O he ypes o gi s, which a e essen ial o d awing mo e g ounded conclusions,
such as s a us - ela ed bene i s, ood i ems, as well as animals and weapons, will be b ie ly
discussed. The analysis o diploma ic gi s in his pape will ollow an analy ical amewo k
ha allows o anuanced pe spec i e, shedding ligh on how diploma ic gi s we e s a egi-
cally used. This amewo k no only unde sco es hei impac on con empo a y and u u e
poli ical ela ions bu also highligh s hei ole in os e ing symbolic, ma e ial, and emo ional
exchanges ac oss bo h simila and di e se cul u es and eligions.
CONTEXT
When Louis Io Anjou de ea ed he Vene ians in 1358 h ough nego ia ions in Viseg ád Dub o nik
became apa o he A chi egnum Hunga icum.
5
The ci y enjoyed in e nal au onomy while being
unde he p o ec ion o apowe ul ye geog aphically dis an so e eign. This p econdi ion
allowed o unin e up ed in e nal de elopmen and ma ked he beginning o he ‘golden
pe iod’ in i s his o ical de elopmen .6 As he ci y did no possess signi ican mili a y powe , i
p ese ed i s epublican s a us and libe ies7 by elying on he diploma ic skills and s a egies
o Dub o nik s a e o icials,8 wi h diploma ic gi -gi ing playing ap ominen ole. Posi ioned
uniquely on he eas e n sho es o he Ad ia ic Sea, Dub o nik was p esen ed as ahinge be ween
di e en cul u es, and eligions bene i ing om i g ea ly.
9
To achie e hei i al o eign policy
goals, he ci y councillo s es ablished ane wo k o diploma ic con ac s wi h all he signi ican
poli ical en i ies o he pe iod. They had hei ep esen a i es h oughou Eu ope, ac oss he
Medi e anean egion, and e en as a as he Sublime Po e.10 They exchanged gi s wi h all o
5 Fo e ić 1960; Janeko ić -Röme 1998; 2003. Fo asyn he ic o e iew o Dub o nik’sla e medie al
his o y, see: Fo e ić 1980; Ha is 2003.
6 De Di e sis 2001, 11–57; Pešo da Va dić 2004, 1–37. Mo e abou Dub o nik’ss abili y and p ospe i y
om he 14 h o he 17 h cen u y h ough ageos a egic and economic lens, see: Kunče ić 2016.
7 Fo u he insigh s in o he concep o Ragusan libe y, see: Kunče ić 2008, 9–64.
8 Mo e abou hem, such as he use o ce ain he o ical s a egies and emo ional in elligence:
Šoš a ić 2021, 146–158, 242–245.
9 De ailed s udy on Ragusan diploma ic ela ions wi h he O omans is p o ided in: Božić 1952; Bo-
jo ić 1998. Fo Dub o nik’s he o ical s a egy o posi ioning i sel on he on ie wi h he O ho-
dox ‘schisma ics’ and Muslim ‘in idels’, and i s signi ican con ibu ions o Ca holic and Ch is ian
eligion, see: Kunče ić 2010, 179–211. Fo he ad an ages o Dub o nik’sgeo -s a egic posi ion in
acili a ing land and ma i ime ade, see: Bašić 2006, 139–177; Lučić 1991.
10 Sublime Po e, un il 1922, was he diploma ic e m o he O oman go e nmen , de i ed om he
ansla ion o he exp ession Bāb -i‘ālī (High Ga e), which p ima ily e e ed o he o ice o he
G and Vizie . Fo u he insigh s in o he diploma ic ela ions o Dub o nik in he la e medie al
pe iod, see: Polić -Bobić ed. 2011; Mio ić 2003; Šoš a ić 2021. Gene al o e iew o he de el-
opmen o Dub o nik’sdiplomacy can be ound in: K izman 1951; 1957; Janeko ić Röme 1999a,
193–204; Janeko ić Röme 1999b, 136–141.
77VALENTINA ŠOŠTARIĆ
hem, as hese we e expec ed in he sphe e o diplomacy and o med an in eg al pa o ce emo-
nial p o ocols. The he o ic o gi ing was p ima ily used o p omo e he achie emen o a ious
p agma ic goals, wi h gi s being alued as a‘desi able ool o pe suasion’.11 J. L. Aus in’sconcep
o he ‘pe o ma i e unc ion o language’ can be analogously applied o he unde s anding o
diploma ic gi s, wi h he dis inc ion ha gi s possess he powe o p o oke a eac ion in he
eal wo ld.12 The absence o inapp op ia eness o agi could be in e p e ed as an insul , which
could g adually escala e in o ase ious inciden , o e en an open con lic .13
In he umul uous con ex o he la e medie al pe iod, ma ked by cons an con lic s, sec e
nego ia ions, and doub ul in o ma ion, i was c ucial o maneu e h ough he unce ain ies
o complex in e na ional ela ions wi h eliance on hough ul diploma ic decisions. Thei
in eg al pa was he wise selec ion o diploma ic gi s. The ci y au ho i ies demons a ed hei
expe ise in he ca e ul selec ion, ci cula ion, and p oduc ion o gi s. They adep ly na iga ed
he demanding balance be ween ul illing he pe sonal p e e ences o he ecipien , adhe ing
o dominan s yles, and aligning wi h he economic and aes he ic alues o he pe iod. Simul-
aneously, diploma ic gi s ca ied ca e ully w apped messages, a ully exp essing ea u es o
adesi able ‘collec i e iden i y’ shaped by he ideological e o s o he ci y’spoli ical au ho i ies.
They p omo ed local c a smanship, luxu y goods, and s a e symbols, skill ully adap ing o
p e ailing as es ac oss di e se cul u al and eligious landscapes.
The p ese ed eco ds in he Dub o nik S a e A chi e (he eina e : SAD) enable us o
compile an in en o y o diploma ic gi s sen om Dub o nik o di e se ecipien s in he
la e medie al pe iod. The selec ion o diploma ic gi s exp essed mul ilaye ed messages. An
impo an unc ion o diploma ic gi s was o di e en ia e he socio -poli ical posi ions o
indi iduals ac oss di e en ci iliza ions and eligions, p ima ily he O omans, bu also he
membe s o he Bosnian Chu ch om he hin e land o Dub o nik.
In his con ex , he main aim o his pape is o in e p e he ma e ial cul u e o diplo-
ma ic gi s as ma ke s o hie a chical dis inc ions, emphasizing hei ole in e lec ing he
ecipien ’ssocial s a us and shaping collec i e iden i y. This analysis ex ends o he ca e ul
selec ion o ma e ials, p oduc ion echniques, and inishing p ocesses, p o iding insigh s in o
he dono ’seconomic s eng h, ade connec ions, cu en ashion, and a is ic achie emen s
o he pe iod. Special a en ion is gi en o luxu y i ems, speci ically ex iles, sil e wa e, and
mone a y gi s, highligh ing hei signi icance wi hin he b oade con ex o poli ical ex-
changes be ween Dub o nik and he O omans as well as powe ul Bosnian noblemen om
he hin e land and p ominen Eu opean ule s.
THE GIFTS
GIFT TYPOLOGY– DISTINGUISHING FEATURES ACROSS CULTURES
The exchange o gi s in he sphe e o diplomacy cons i u es a ich seman ic ield ha o e s
a ious in e p e a i e possibili ies.14 An an h opological app oach, pa icula ly ui ul, o-
11 Fo he use o gi s as a he o ical ool in diploma ic nego ia ions o acqui ing new e i o ies, see:
Zo ko 2011, 211–224.
12 Aus in 1962.
13 Lonza 2009, 188–189, 205.
14 The app oach o he analysis o gi s h ough he lens o symbolic meanings is o e ed in: De ille
1974, 341–364; Klapisch -Zube 1990; G oebne 2002.
78 STUDIA HERCYNIA XXIX/1
cuses on s udying he alue o objec s wi hin a ela ional con ex .15 Analysing he diploma ic
gi s p esen ed by Ragusan ambassado s o hei hos s om ha pe spec i e, hey can be
app oached as a o m o p agma ic, mone a y, social, cul u al, and emo ional alue.
16
In o he
wo ds, he analysis will no only conside hei ma e ial alue and hei powe o p omp spe-
ci ic ac ions bu will also ega d hem as ameans o communica ion ha con eyed messages
abou he powe dynamics be ween nego ia ing pa ies, he s eng hening o alliances and
poli ical iendships, and a o m o symbolic exchange. The Dub o nik au ho i ies cons an ly
sough o ailo he gi no only o he ecipien ’s epu a ion and honou bu also o hei as e.
Akey s a egy was o acqui e gi s in places whe e hey had alow ma ke alue, o o p esen
hem o indi iduals who alued hem mo e han hei pu chasing p ice. Apa icula i em could
be highly desi able o he ecipien because i ca ied ace ain au a due o he uniqueness
o he ma e ial om which i was made, he complex p oduc ion echniques in ol ed, o he
di icul y in ob aining i . The signi icance o he gi was de e mined by he ecipien ’ssocio-
-poli ical posi ion and alue sys em, and o e ime, i s alue could inc ease i i became an
objec o pe sonal emo ional a achmen .
Based on hei ca ego y, hese gi s can be ca ego ized as ollows: s a us - ela ed bene i s
(e.g., Ragusan nobili y, ci izenship,
17
palaces in he ci y
18
), luxu y i ems (e.g., sil e wa e,
19
p ecious ab ics, and u s20), ood i ems (e.g., ish,21 swee s,22 ci us ui s,23 suga ,24 spices25),
animals (e.g., hun ing bi ds26), and mone a y gi s.27
The Dub o nik ci izenship and ci y palaces we e o en g an ed o he nobili y om he
hin e land, wi h as anding in i a ion o he hos o isi Dub o nik, as i was conside ed his
home, whose in e es s needed o be ca ed o .
28
Being aDub o nik ci izen was legally, mo ally,
15 Gell 1998. On mu ual bene icial use o agi , see: Fennell 2002, 94.
16 Fo he emo ional engagemen o he gi e and ecei e ha could ha e in luenced he c ea ion o
he gi ’s alue: Cheal 1988, 131.
17 G ujić 1926, 20.
18 S a e A chi e in Dub o nik (he eina e : SAD), Re o ma iones (he eina e : Re .), se ia 2, ol. xxxi,
. 121 , (9 Oc 1398); SAD, Le e e e Commissioni. Le e e di Le an e (he eina e : Le . di Le .), se ia 27/1,
ol. i , . 71 , (6 Sep 1403).
19 SAD, Ac a Mino is Consilii, (he eina e : Cons. Minus), se ia 5, ol. i, . 52 , (12 Jan 1433).
20 SAD, Ac a Consilii Roga o um, (he eina e : Cons. Rog.), se ia 3, ol. i , . 219 , (17 Aug 1430), . 224 ,
(25 Aug 1430).
21 Cons. Rog., ol. iii, . 142 , (18 Feb 1423).
22 Cons. Rog., ol. i , . 240 , (6 Oc 1430); Le . di Le ., ol. xi, . 7 , (6 Oc 1430).
23 Le . di Le ., ol. iii, . 145 , (16 Feb 1423); Janeko ić -Röme 1999a.
24 Janeko ić -Röme 2003.
25 Vi mandemo pesçe ba ile 27 e con e i sca ole 48 e lemoni ba ile 4 e zuccha o e spese e peue ada como in una
cedula qui den o messa se con ien el qual pesce e limoni e pa e de li con e i p esen a e amisse lo e pe
pa e del nos o egimen o., Le . di Le ., ol. iii, . 138 , (13 Dec 1422)…de mi endo ambassia o ibus
nos is qui sun penes dominum egem Bosne con e iones e pisces in gela ina p o dic o domino ege., Cons.
Rog., ol. iii, . 131 , (3 Dec 1422).
26 P ima pa s es de sol endo p ecium dua um alconum se Ma ino de Bona, u done illas ex pa e sua
domino bano de Dalmacia, (7 Jul 1379), Gelcich ed. 1896, 229; Janeko ić -Röme 2003, 75.
27 Re ., ol. xxxi , . 176 , (22 No 1412); SAD, Ac a Consilii Maio is, (he eina e : Cons. Maius), se ia 4,
ol. , . 107 , (14 Dec 1436).
28 Imp eo p eghemo el de o Radiz come quello in qui habiamo bona spe anza chel se debia adou a come
uno de nuy in quello che sia pe conse amen o de la ci a de Ragusa caxa soa e che ge plaça nos o esse ne
a o e olle aconse amen o dela di a casa cum quelle pa olle ala disc ecion os a pa e a aço con igni .,
Le . di Le ., ol. IV, . 20 , (10 Jun 1403); E Ragusa semp e animo enu o pe special casa sua, Le . di
Le ., ol. x, . 111 , (30 Ap 1430); Pe le qual cosa Ragusa special casa di la co ona os a e li zen ilomeni
79VALENTINA ŠOŠTARIĆ
emo ionally, and p ac ically binding. Those who held he s a us o Dub o nik ci izens we e
expec ed o o e help, p o ec ion, and make sac i ices in o de o p omo e he ci y’sin e es s.
One o hose who enjoyed his s a us was he Bosnian duke Sandalj H anić Kosača. He was
g an ed he s a us o aDub o nik ci izen a he end o he 14 h cen u y and was la e included
in he anks o he Dub o nik nobili y a he beginning o he 15 h cen u y.29 Along wi h hese
honou s, he was also awa ded aluxu ious palace in he ci y.30
Food i ems we e excluded due o he isk o spoilage du ing long -dis ance a el, while
weapons we e mos ly ese ed as diploma ic gi s among Muslim ule s.31 Ragusan au ho i ies
did no hesi a e o es ablish diploma ic con ac s wi h membe s o di e en eligious belie s.
Fo ins ance, on se e al occasions, hey gi ed swee s o dis inguished membe s o he Bosnian
chu ch.32 High - anking indi iduals also eques ed ood gi s, bu a one poin , he Dub o nik
au ho i ies ang ily esponded o he Bosnian king ha i was no cus oma y o p esen aking
wi h such i ial i ems and ha hey we e no ‘cou supplie s who deli e goods upon o de ’.33
Speci ically, he king had asked o ish, o anges, and o he ui s, bu he en oys we e au ho -
ized o e use no only his eques bu any u u e demands om King T koII.34 In doing so,
hey demons a ed su icien au ho i y o decide, on acase -by -case basis, whe he o no o
mee he hos ’sgi eques s. Some a i ac s, such as ood and weapons, which we e commonly
exchanged in diploma ic in e ac ions o he pe iod,35 we e no included in he documen ed
lis s o gi s sen o he O omans. While some ypes o ood could spoil du ing long dis ance
a els, ce ain animals could die o he same eason. Fo ins ance, 1514 King Fe dinand Io
A agon epo ed ha he had ecei ed se en hawks, al hough eigh had been sen o him.36
Hun ing bi ds, especially hawks (as o e) and alcons ( alcone), we e alued gi s in bo h he Eas
and he Wes . They we e sou ced om Dub o nik’s e i o y o i s icini y, specially ained,
and used in hun ing among he high - anking membe s o socie y. Fo ins ance, in he i s
hal o he 16 h cen u y, Ib ahim Pasha exp essed adesi e o apai o alcons wi h a‚whi e
dessa se ui o i e co diali suoi., Le . di Le ., ol. x, . 111 , (30 Ap 1430)…e ad conse ua e e de ende e
Ragusa casa os a manda e lo subsidio e epa o os o di gen e… lassando di ico da e che semp e cusi
caldamen e e di bon co e aue i o e o e p omesso alla conse uacion di Ragusa casa e pa ia os a con a
zascun chi la olesse o ende e, Le . di Le ., ol. x, . 115 , (30 Ap 1430).
29 Fo ab oade con ex , see Ku o ić 2009, 100–101, 141, 151, 156.
30 Fo ade ailed s udy o he Sandalj’spalace in Dub o nik, see: G ujić– Zelić 2010, 47–132.
31 Pedani 2009, 191
32 In endessimo lo mo iuo i eci oiuoda pe manda con e i pe hono a pe suo amo lo died e gos i. E
pe o noi oliando a in ques o e al o possibile anoi lo suo hono e piace i mandemo sca ole de con e o
le qual pe pa e nos a ogliamo dobia e dona e e p esen a e alli de i died e gos i come meglio e piu
hono nos o i pa e a., Le . di Le ., ol. xi, . 7 , (6 Oc 1430); P ima pa s es de donando died e gos i qui
ene un ad Sandagl. (Cap um pe omnes). P ima pa s es de donando eisdem in con ec ionibus ype pe os
igin i. (Cap um pe xx iiii con a ), Cons. Rog., ol. i , . 240 , (6 Oc 1430); Dinić 1967, 191, 223.
33 Voi di e che el e domando pesse e na anze e uc i de piu manie e, e la qual cosa e di emo che mai non
u cos umo nos o di so ome e e la e a e ques e cose si minu e con algun signo e. E a an i ho olu o
ques a e a sogiace e e spese di g an doni e di cose di alo e degne di se, che ole si me e e con alguno in
se i u de ques e piccole cose che se o ne pa ei a g an manchamen o de hono an o pe lo e quan o pe
al i suoi co igiani e ba oni che anche domand di ali cose., Le . di Le ., ol. iii, . 145 , (16 Feb 1423);
Janeko ić Röme 1999a, 201–202; Janeko ić Röme 1999b, 138; Ji eček 1915, 87.
34 …el dic o messe lo e i domandasse al cose, e oi scusa e nos a comuni a pe quello piu bell modo che
i pa e., Le . di Le ., ol. iii, . 145 , (16 Feb 1423).
35 Fo example, weapons we e sen as agi o Ludo ic he G ea in he second hal o he 14 h cen u y,
Janeko ić -Röme 2003, 112.
36 Mi ić 1978, 118.
80 STUDIA HERCYNIA XXIX/1
ma k‘ ( alconi con lo signal biancho). Howe e , despi e all he e o s made, he au ho i ies we e
unable o ul ill his eques and acqui e he eques ed gi .37
Luxu ious ab ics we e equen ly used as diploma ic gi s among he medie al social eli e.
38
These high -quali y ex iles con eyed messages o p es ige, epu a ion, and honou exp essed
o he ecipien s. They se ed as a o m o paymen o axes in Islamic socie ies, u he
con i ming hei signi ican alue and es eem.39 Ragusan au ho i ies gi ed luxu y ex iles o
high - anking indi iduals, bo h in he Eas 40 and he Wes ,41 ap ac ice ha emained consis en
h oughou he en i e pe iod o in e es . In addi ion o ex iles, sil e wa e was ahighly alued
gi a he Sublime Po e, as e idenced by a1442 ag eemen in which he Ragusan au ho i ies
commi ed o paying he O oman Empi e an annual ‘gi ’ o 1,000 duca s in sil e wa e.42 In
he la e medie al pe iod Dub o nik goldsmi hs manu ac u ed ala ge numbe o sil e ob-
jec s ha we e sen as diploma ic gi s o o eign ule s and p ominen poli ical igu es o he
ime. The Republic did no pu chase luxu y i ems made o p ecious me als om o eigne s
bu a he elied on he se ices o local c a smen such as Ži ko Gojko ić, Jako Rusmano ić,
An un B anko ić, and o he s, who p oduced diploma ic gi s o he Hunga ian -C oa ian
kings Ma hias Co inus and Władysław II Jagiełło, as well as his son, in hei independen
p oduc ion acili ies.43 This indica es ha bo h ex iles and luxu y i ems made om p ecious
me als we e conside ed equally aluable gi s in bo h he Eas and he Wes .
To sum up, add essing he ypes o p esen s, i is no iceable ha hose sen as diploma ic
gi s om Dub o nik o i s neighbou ing egions o wi hin b oade Eu opean coun ies did
no di e signi ican ly. The challenge a ose wi h he ini ially es ablished diploma ic con ac s
wi h he Sublime Po e, whe e i was necessa y o ind he ideal calcula ion– o in es as li le
as possible in a inancial sense while igge ing aposi i e eac ion om he ecipien . When
he Dub o nik au ho i ies de ined hei ibu a y obliga ions o he O oman Empi e in he
mid-15 h cen u y, he ci y ound i sel in an uncom o able posi ion ha equi ed an expla-
na ion o he p omised annual ibu e and loyal y o he Sul an o o he Eu opean Ca holic
ule s. These new ci cums ances led o eelings o shame, guil , and discom o , as he ci y was
pa o he communi y es publica ch is iana.44 Ch is ian con ac wi h Muslims was conside ed
undesi able since Pope John VIII o mula ed he doc ine o ‘impious alliance’ in he 9 h cen-
u y.45 While ade con ac s we e pe mi ed,46 o he o ms o coope a ion we e sanc ioned by
excommunica ion. Acknowledging hei ibu a y s a us, he uling eli e ul ima ely jus i ied
i wi h wo a gumen s: he necessi y o p ese ing hei eedom and he sel less sac i ice o
he en i e La in Wes , whose in e es s hey could be e se e wi h hei new s a us in ela ion
37 Mi ić 1978, 118.
38 Fo mo e de ailed discussion abou ex iles and u s, sil e wa e, and mone a y gi s c . he ollowing
chap e s.
39 A cak 2012, 251.
40 Fo some examples see chap e Luxu ious ab ics and powe hie a chy.
41 C owned heads, such as Bosnian king T ko II, we e gi ed wi h luxu ious ab ics…il dono il qual i
abiamo da o da a e pe pa e nos a allo e son peze 4 de panno e onese e se e al e peze de l’ al a, Le .
di Le ., ol. xi, . 66 , (25 No 1431).
42 S ojano ić 1934, 234.
43 Fisko ić 1949, 189–190. Mo e ecen s udies on Dub o nik’sgoldsmi hs, he sac ed a e ac s hey
p oduced, and hei connec ions can be ound in Lupis 2015.
44 Fo an analysis o Dub o nik’sposi ion owa ds he O oman Empi e, see: Kunče ić 2013, 91–122.
45 Fo he idea o impium oedus, see: Visma a 1974; Mas nak 2002, 108–113, 149–151.
46 Fo ins ance, in he yea 1433 he pa icipan s o he Chu ch Council in Basel g an ed Dub o nik
he p i ilege o ading in he O oman Empi e: Radonić 1934, 430.
81VALENTINA ŠOŠTARIĆ
o he Empi e.47 By he mid-15 h cen u y, bo h Eu opean ule s and he O omans adhe ed o
asimila sys em o alues ega ding luxu y diploma ic gi s om Dub o nik, wi h ex iles,
sil e wa e, and mone a y gi s playing acen al ole, an aspec s explo ed in g ea e de ail in
he ollowing chap e s.
LUXURIOUS FABRICS AND POWER HIERARCHY
The ole o gi s in shaping social ela ionships was pa icula ly emphasized in he medie al
pe iod.48 Luxu ious ab ics, in pa icula , se ed as powe ul non e bal messages, symbolizing
he s a us and ank o he ecipien . This use o ex iles o signi y hie a chical di e ences is
clea ly illus a ed in 1428, when Bosnian King T ko II was p esen ed wi h ab ics alued a
400 duca s,
49
while he Bosnian duke Sandalj ecei ed alesse quan i y, alued a 240 duca s.
50
A his place i is wo h men ioning ha Ragusan au ho i ies did no miss he oppo uni y
o accompany impo an ce emonial e en s in he li es o in luen ial women wi h gi s o
ex iles, he eby building hei poli ical ne wo ks and c ea ing condi ions o ui ul col-
labo a ion in he yea s ha ollowed. On he occasion o he wedding o Do o eja, he wi e
o Bosnian king T ko II, hey p esen ed he wi h ab ics wo h 300 duca s.51 Howe e , i is
wo h no ing ha some imes only he g oom was honou ed wi h gi s, especially when he
b ide came om alowe social ank.52
The dis inc ion in he ecipien ’s ank was de e mined by he ype o aw ma e ials used,
leng h and wid h o he ab ic, he numbe o laye s, he ype o dye used, he dyeing ech-
nique, embellishmen s, he p esence o p ecious me als and u s on he ab ic, and he o igin
o he ma e ial. Focusing ou u he analysis on gi s in ex iles sen om Dub o nik o he
Sublime Po e du ing he i s hal o he 15
h
cen u y can lead o in e es ing conclusions abou
he co ela ion be ween an indi idual’spowe s a us and he ecei ed gi .
Discussing he ype o aw ma e ial, only silk ab ic c a ed in he echnique ze anin a e-
lu a was ese ed o he Sul an.53 C. C. F ick w i es ha his was ‘one o he mos luxu ious
and expensi e ma e ials in his o y. I is asilk ab ic wi h asingle - h ead wea e, in con as o
el e , which is isible in ce ain a eas’.54 I s p ice was condi ioned by acomplica ed p oduc-
ion p ocess ha equi ed special echniques and wea ing skills. In addi ion o el e -wo en
silk, b ocade was also exclusi ely p esen ed o he Sul an. This e e s o a ich and hea y silk
ab ic wi h asa in backg ound, ea u ing an embedded design emphasized by he con as
o colou s, in his speci ic case wi h golden h eads.55 G and izie s ecei ed ab ics made o
sca le o lowe ma ke alue compa ed o ab ics gi ed o he Sul an.
56
When indi iduals
we e gi ed he same ype o ab ic (e.g., woolen ab ic), he di e ence in hei hie a chical
posi ion was signalled by he quan i y, i.e., he leng h o he ab ic. Fo ins ance, Isa -bey
57
47 Fo some examples see Kunče ić 2010, 190–191.
48 Bijs e eld 2001, 124–156; Cu le 2008, 79–102.
49 Zo ko 2012, 166.
50 Le . di Le ., ol. x, . 91 , (10 Jun 1428); Cons. Rog., ol. i , . 57 , (5 and 9 Jun 1428).
51 Cons. Rog., ol. i , . 63 , (23 Jul 1428); Cons. Maius, ol. iii, . 219 , (23 Jul 1428); Anđelić 1972-1973, 381.
52 Cons. Maius, ol. x, . 18 , (29 May 1455).
53 Cons. Rog., ol. i , . 224 , (25 Aug 1430).
54 F ick 2002, 98.
55 Gooch ed. 2011, 129.
56 Le . di Le ., ol. xi, . 50 , (28 Jul 1431).
57 Isa -bey is he successo o he Sanjak -bey o Skopje, Jigi .
82 STUDIA HERCYNIA XXIX/1
ecei ed ou pieces o woolen ab ic, alued a 70 duca s,58 while he woolen ab ic gi en o
he g and izie s measu ed one ka e ac, app oxima ely 1–1.5 me e s longe han he ab ic
ecei ed by alowe - anking O oman o icial.59 Dub o nik la gely elied on impo s o he
aw ma e ials necessa y o ex ile p oduc ion. The ci y did no p oduce i s own silk o o he
luxu y ab ics; ins ead, i sou ced hese om Venice o use in diploma ic gi s.60 Luxu ious
me ino wool was impo ed om egions such as Cas ile and A agon, England, F ance, Apulia,
Tu key, and no he n A ica.61 A he beginning o he 15 h cen u y, Dub o nik’sau ho i ies
made conside able e o s o mode nize local wo kshops and imp o e he echniques o woo-
len ex ile p oduc ion. In he ea ly s ages, hese ini ia i es we e mainly en us ed o o eign
c a smen, pa icula ly hose om he Apennine Peninsula.62 By he 15 h cen u y, he e we e
a ound 50 wea ing shops in he small ci y. The p oduc ion o wool was subjec o s ic s a e
con ol, ensu ing ha he manu ac u ed ab ics ca ied an o icial quali y and au hen ici y
ma k. This was e i ied by aseal ea u ing he image o S . Blaise along wi h asize designa ion
on one side and aseal depic ing he ci y o Dub o nik on he o he .63
Dyes we e also impo ed om awide ange o egions.
64
The ma e ial alue o he in-
ished ab ics depended no only on he ype bu also on he dye used. The name gi en o he
colou usually indica ed he me hod o dyeing he ab ic and se ed as adi ec indica o o
he ab ic’s alue and he o igin o he dye used. While he e we e cul u al p e e ences in
choosing he colou o he ab ic, popula i y changed ac oss space and ime, consequen ly
shaping ashion. Colou and dye we e isual indica o s o he wo h, social signi icance, and
app op ia eness o he ecipien ’ss a us. Fo example, in compa ison o o he O oman o i-
cials, only he Sul an was gi ed wi h c imson sa in el e .65 C imson had di e en unde ones
leaning owa ds pu ple, which was ese ed o ule s in La in Wes . C imson (c emesi) was
a e m designa ing he colou ese ed o silk, indica ing he dye used. The e m ‘C emesi’
is de i ed om he Balkan Tu kish wo d g imiz, mo e speci ically pu pu , o he G eek wo d
po i , indica ing ha ue c imson was ob ained om dye ex ac ed om insec s.66 This dye
is ypically de i ed om he insec Coccus ilicis (also known as Ke mes e milio, He mes ilices,
Lecanium ilicis), mo e p ecisely by d ying he emales and eggs o hese insec s unde he sun.
These insec s pa asi ize he Medi e anean holm oak (Que cus ilex).67
While g and izie s we e also gi ed wi h ab ics dyed in a ious shades o ed, he e was
asigni ican di e ence in he dye used. Typically, sca le de g ana
68
o panno de g ana
69
dye was
used o hei ab ics. G ana was a ed dye de i ed om he desicca ed bodies o he Medi-
e anean scale insec . In addi ion o c imson, sky blue70 and black sa in el e we e ese ed
58 Cons. Rog., ol. i , . 224 , (25 Aug 1430).
59 Mio ić 2003, 51.
60 Jemo– Pa ac -Os e man 2016, 37.
61 Belama ić 2020, 304.
62 Dinić -Kneže ić 1982, 149–152.
63 Jemo– Pa ac -Os e man 2016, 39.
64 Cochineal o c imson, lapis lazuli, and ul ama ine we e impo ed om Bosnia and Se bia: Lučić
1985, 95–114; Ko ače ić 1961, 166–177. Fo mo e in o ma ion on he dyes used by Ragusan c a smen,
see Rolle 1951, 58–59.
65 Cons. Rog., ol. i , . 224 , (25 Aug 1430).
66 Monnas 2014, 46.
67 Lo ge 2011, 27.
68 Le . di Le ., ol. xi, . 50 , (28 Jul 1431).
69 Le . di Le ., ol. xi, . 61 , (2 Dec 1431); ol. xii, . 213 , (15 Jun 1441).
70 Cons. Rog., ol. i , . 224 , (25 Aug 1430).
83VALENTINA ŠOŠTARIĆ
exclusi ely o he Sul an.
71
This may be su p ising as black and blue a e o en associa ed wi h
mou ning, ex eme asce icism, and he humili y in medie al Wes e n cul u e. Ne e heless,
owa ds he end o he 15 h cen u y, blue and black became symbols o powe and u ban
a is oc acy in he La in Wes .72 G een was also ep esen ed among ab ic gi s, ese ed o
socially p i ileged classes. E en hough g een was sui able o he Sul an and g and izie s,
he dis inc ion in hei posi ions was made by he choice o ab ic dyed in his colou .73
Fab ics con aining gold and sil e we e qui e popula among he O oman uling eli e.74
Typically, golden h eads we e added a ound he loom as an addi ional laye o wea ing on
he base luxu ious ab ic.75 Fab ics wi h gold and sil e we e ese ed o he Sul an, his
b o he , and he Pasha o Rumelia.76 Fu s we e also ep esen ed on he lis o diploma ic gi s
o he highes O oman o icials, ei he independen ly o as pa o ailo ed ga men s. On
one occasion, he Sul an ecei ed milia o uno de dossi ini cauala eschi and an equal amoun o
e mine u .77 E en mo e equen ly han e mine, among he gi s dispa ched om Dub o nik,
one comes ac oss he es eemed u o he squi el. Du ing he Middle Ages, squi el u was
alued as one o he ines among all u s.78 Acoa p esen ed o he Sul an and g and izie s
was c a ed om 250 squi el back u s.
79
Dub o nik’sau ho i ies o en gi ed he Sul an
ga men s made om acombina ion o luxu ious ab ics and es eemed u . A es made o
b ocade, wi h wo en gold h eads, included 300 e mine u s, while wo o he es s o he
Sul an made o sa in el e inco po a ed 600 squi el back u s.80 In addi ion o he ype o
gi , he ma e ial used, dyeing me hod, and colou selec ion, ano he impo an pa ame e ,
he quan i y o he same i em, was u ilized in signaling di e ences in he hie a chy o powe
among gi ecipien s a he Sublime Po e. Speci ically, when i came o iden ical i ems, hei
quan i y di e en ia ed he posi ion o he ecipien . Fo ins ance, he Sul an ecei ed h ee
cloaks, while each o he h ee g and izie s ecei ed only one such iden ical i em.81
As he examples p esen ed in his chap e ha e shown, he choice o ab ic and colou
exp essed powe ul messages abou he poli ical powe o he ecipien se ing as a isual
me apho o pe sonal iden i y and socio -poli ical s a us.82 On he o he hand, i e lec ed he
economic powe o he dono , hei access o speci ic ma ke s o he Medi e anean and he
Balkans h ough which he ci y was in e connec ed wi h he es o he wo ld. This is pa -
icula ly e iden in hei eliance on impo s o ab ics and dyes, a he han local esou ces
and domes ic p oduc ion. By selec ing ce ain o he gi s, he ci y au ho i ies, on he o he
71 Le . di Le ., ol. xii, . 213 , (15 Jun 1441).
72 Pleij 2004, 6; Piponnie – Mane 1997, 20. This is con i med by he p ac ice o F ench kings, who
egula ly c owned hemsel es d essed in blue (Sco 2011, 63), while Al onso o A agon p edom-
inan ly wo e black ga men s (Muzza elli 1999, 252).
73 The ga men o he Sul an was c a ed om silk ab ic using he el e echnique wi h added u ,
while ha o izie s was made o wool, Le . di Le ., ol. xii, . 213 , (15 Jun 1441).
74 Le . di Le ., ol. xii, . 218 , (wi hou da e); ol. xiii, . 40 , (2 Aug 1441); ol. xi , . 52 , (15 Dec 1450).
75 Wa dwell 1976-1977, 180.
76 Le . di Le ., ol. xii, . 213 , (15 Jun 1441); ol. xiii, . 40 , (2 Aug 1441); ol. xi , . 52 –53 , (15 Dec 1450).
77 Cons. Rog., ol. i , . 219 , (17 Aug 1430).
78 Gage 1993, 82. Fu became highly alued in Islamic socie ies om he Middle Eas o Cen al Asia
om he second hal o he 8 h cen u y un il he end o he Middle Ages. Many pel s we e ob ained
om he Middle Volga/Volga Bulga egion, as epo ed by Ma co Polo. Fo o he p ized u s om
he Middle Volga egion acco ding o Ma co Polo’sw i ings, see: Ko ale 2001, 58–59.
79 Le . di Le ., ol. xi, . 50 , (28 Jul 1431).
80 Le . di Le ., ol. xii, . 213 , (15 Jun 1441).
81 Le . di Le ., ol. xi, . 50 , (28 Jul 1431).
82 Da is 1992, 25.
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Valen ina Šoš a ić
Uni e si y o Zada , His o y depa amen
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