Academic Edi o : Geng eng Niu
Recei ed: 25 Feb ua y 2025
Re ised: 17 Ap il 2025
Accep ed: 29 Ap il 2025
Published: 30 Ap il 2025
Ci a ion: Gomes, A. R., & Mo ais, C.
(2025). De eloping Leade ship: The
In eg a i e App oach o P o•Leade
In e en ion P og am. Beha io al
Sciences,15(5), 601. h ps://
doi.o g/10.3390/bs15050601
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Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
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P o ocol
De eloping Leade ship: The In eg a i e App oach o P o
•
Leade
In e en ion P og am
A. Rui Gomes 1and Ca a ina Mo ais 2,*
1Psychology Resea ch Cen e, School o Psychology, Uni e si y o Minho, 4710-057 B aga, Po ugal;
[email p o ec ed]
2Resea ch Cen e o Human De elopmen , Facul y o Educa ion and Psychology, Uni e sidade Ca ólica
Po uguesa, 4169-005 Po o, Po ugal
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac : The impac o leade s on o ganiza ional success has been widely documen ed,
and consequen ly, he leade ship aining indus y has expanded o e he pas decades.
Howe e , his in es men has no consis en ly ansla ed in o be e leade s. Leade ship
in e en ion p og ams ha e ecei ed no able c i icism, including (a) lacking indi idualiza-
ion (‘one size i s all’ app oach), (b) an emphasis on p e-de ined skills, and (c) insu icien
conside a ion o con ex , dis ega ding o he membe s’ and o ganiza ions’ cha ac e is ics.
This pape in oduces and discusses P o
•
Leade , an in e en ion p og am based on he
Leade ship E icacy Model (LEM), which aims o p omo e leade ship h ough a comp e-
hensi e app oach o aining. In essence, LEM p oposes ha leade ship e icacy inc eases i
leade s a e cong uen in how hey in end o exe leade ship (concep ual cycle o leade ship)
and how hey indeed implemen he leade ship (p ac ical cycle o leade ship), conside ing
also he leade ship beha io s hey display when exe ing in luence (leade ship s yles), as
well as hei own, eam membe s’, and con ex ual cha ac e is ics (an eceden ac o s). The
P o
•
Leade in e en ion p og am is s uc u ed acco ding o he LEM and ains pa icipan s
ac oss hese h ee componen s: leade ship cycles, s yles, and an eceden ac o s.
Keywo ds: leade ship aining; Leade ship E icacy Model; leade ship s yles; leade ship
plan; leade ship cycles
1. In oduc ion
The ole o leade s in o ganiza ional success is widely ecognized. Leade ship is a p o-
cess o in luencing o he s owa ds common goals, p omo ing o ganiza ional p oduc i i y
and p o i and, consequen ly, compe i i e ad an ages (Hogan & Kaise ,2005;Kaise e al.,
2008;Voon e al.,2010;Yahaya & Eb ahim,2016). By he end o he 2000s, in he Uni ed
S a es alone, leade ship aining was a $14 billion indus y (O’Leona d & Loew,2012) and
in 2018, Kelle man (2018) a gued o an es ima ion o a ound $50 billion being spen on
leade ship aining. Howe e , he in es men in leade ship aining and de elopmen has
no consis en ly p oduced be e leade s (Kaise & Cu phy,2013). A epo eleased by
McKinsey & Company showed ha wo- hi ds o he 500 senio execu i es in e iewed
conside ed leade ship de elopmen as he mos u gen conce n o human capi al (Gu djian
e al.,2014). I companies a e in es ing so hea ily in leade ship de elopmen , why does i
emain such a p essing issue? Does his sugges ha leade ship de elopmen p og ams a e
ailing o enhance leade ship e icacy?
Beha . Sci. 2025,15, 601 h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/bs15050601
Beha . Sci. 2025,15, 601 2 o 21
Do O ganiza ions Need Leade ship De elopmen P og ams?
P e ious esea ch has shown ha leade ship in e en ions a e e ec i e in a wide ange
o ou comes, such as p omo ions and assuming leade ship oles, inc easing leade ship
knowledge and echnical pe o mance, and educing o ganiza ional absen eeism (Dannels
e al.,2008;Day e al.,2010;Gee s e al.,2019;S aus e al.,2013; en Ha e e al.,2013).
A ew me a-analyses o such esea ch summa ize he esul s. Fo example, Cummings e al.
(2021) conduc ed a me a-analysis examining 93 s udies wi h nu ses (44 co ela ional s udies
and he emaining in e en ion s udies) and concluded ha pa icipa ing in leade ship
in e en ions had a posi i e e ec on he de elopmen o ela ional leade ship s yles. Mo e-
o e , he au ho s highligh ed i e ca ego ies o ac o s con ibu ing o nu sing leade ship
ac oss s udies: expe ience and educa ion (e.g., p o essional de elopmen oppo uni ies
and pe o mance eedback), leade s’ ai s and pe sonal cha ac e is ics (e.g., age, emo ional
in elligence, adjus men ), ela ionship wi h wo k, ole in he o ganiza ional se ing (lowe
senio i y), and o ganiza ional con ex . When examining only he s udies whe e an in e en-
ion occu ed (n= 49), in 82% o hem, sel - epo ed leade ship inc eased pos -in e en ion,
and in 20% o hem, i was epo ed ha he e was an inc ease in obse ed leade ship
p ac ices. Howe e , i is impo an o no e ha ew expe imen al in e en ion s udies
(i.e., hose including a con ol g oup) we e included in his me a-analysis.
A olio e . al. (2009) ook a s ep u he and conduc ed wo me a-analy ic e iews
on leade ship in e en ions and hei impac . The s udy included di e en heo e ical
amewo ks o leade ship de elopmen (e.g., ai heo ies, ans o ma ional leade ship),
di e en in e en ions ( aining, assignmen , scena io, o o he s), me hodologies (expe -
imen al and quasi-expe imen al, lab and ield s udies), and o ganiza ions (public and
p i a e). The o e all esul s suppo he idea ha leade ship in e en ions a e e ec i e
and con ibu e o posi i e ou comes. Howe e , he s udies included in his e iew we e
no ably he e ogeneous, as he au ho s no ed, and he e o e, hei e ec s need o be ca e ully
conside ed. Mo e speci ically, wo majo conce ns we e highligh ed.
Fi s , au ho s compa ed e ec sizes p oduced by s udies ha es ed leade ship in e -
en ions s. o he expe imen al me hodologies (e.g., using scena ios o igne es). While
e ec s we e gene ally simila , hey we e sligh ly weake o leade ship in e en ions com-
pa ed o o he expe imen al s udies (A olio e al.,2009). One possible explana ion p oposed
by he au ho s is ha o he labo a o y s udies did no occu in he eal o ganiza ional se -
ing, and, he e o e, o he ac o s impac ing leade ship e ec i eness we e con olled o ,
which may ha e inc eased e ec sizes. The esul s may also ha e depended on he ou come
measu e chosen o e alua e i s e icacy, as de elopmen al changes may be mo e di icul o
impac (A olio e al.,2009).
A second impo an mode a ing e ec e e s o he heo y behind he di e en s udies
included. Mo e speci ically, A olio e al. (2009) compa ed h ee g oups o leade ship
heo ies: “ adi ional heo ies” (e.g., T ai and Con ingency Theo ies), which domina ed
leade ship esea ch un il he la e 1970s; “newe heo ies” (e.g., cha isma ic, inspi a ional,
ans o ma ional, and isiona y leade ship heo ies); and “Pygmalion based leade ship”
(e.g., sel - ul illing p ophecy e ec s). These we e compa ed ac oss di e en ypes o ou -
comes: a ec i e (e.g., sa is ac ion/enjoymen ), cogni i e (e.g., le el o idea gene a ion o
con idence), and beha io al (e.g., pe o mance measu es o beha io s). The Pygmalion-
based s udies showed an o e all la ge e ec han he o he wo heo y-based s udies,
and s udies ha designed in e en ions based on “newe ” heo ies showed la ge e ec s
on a ec i e and cogni i e ou comes when compa ed o “ adi ional” heo ies, and he
opposi e pa e n was ound o beha io al measu es.
So, i esea ch appea s o show ha leade ship in e en ions enhance posi i e esul s,
and o ganiza ions con inue o in es in leade ship aining, why is he e s ill a conce n abou
Beha . Sci. 2025,15, 601 3 o 21
he s a e o leade ship de elopmen oday? A olio e al. (2009) me a-analysis included
200 s udies o e a cen u y o esea ch, bu his is no a ep esen a i e sample o he esea ch
conduc ed on leade ship (A olio e al.,2009;Kaise & Cu phy,2013), sugges ing ha an
impo an p opo ion o s udies, which may ha e yielded no e ec s o nega i e e ec s o
leade ship de elopmen , we e no conside ed because hey we e no published (c . Siegel
e al.,2022 o a e iew on publica ion bias in o ganiza ional psychology). Mo eo e , o
he s udies conside ed in he me a-analysis, a ound wo- hi ds showed a posi i e ou come.
Howe e , hese we e la gely a ec i e and cogni i e ou comes, wi h ela i ely ew ocusing
on beha io o ac ual pe o mance esul s (Kaise & Cu phy,2013). The emaining one-
hi d o he in e en ions epo ed no posi i e ou comes. Gi en ha published s udies a e
o en mo e igo ously designed han he emaining in e en ions, he ac ual ailu e a e
may be highe han 1:3 (Kaise & Cu phy,2013).
Some c i icism has been made o leade ship in e en ion p og ams, which may help
explain he ailu e a e and, consequen ly, he leade ship e icacy. The i s conce ns he
lack o igo ous impac e alua ion. Leade ship in e en ions o e ed in he indus y a e
a ely e alua ed, o , when e alua ed, hey o en ely only on pa icipan s’ eedback (Alimo-
Me cal e & Lawlo ,2001;Gu djian e al.,2014;Kaise & Cu phy,2013;Kelle man,2012).
The ques ions aised ega ding leade ship in e en ions’ e ec i eness ha e inc eased
p essu e o impac demons a ion so a e u n on in es men can be es ablished (Gee s
e al.,2019). Mo e esea ch on he impac o leade ship in e en ions on beha io al change
is needed, as well as an assessmen o i s long- e m e ec s. Second, mos well-known
leade ship in e en ions a e p e-de ined and skill- ocused (Lega e al.,2017), and i is e y
di icul , due o he complexi y o leade ship p ocesses, o a gue ha “one size i s all”
in e en ions would be adequa e o p omo e beha io al change in di e en o ganiza ional
se ings. Tailo ing in e en ions o mee indi iduals’ needs inc eases he likelihood o
achie ing be e esul s (Mel on & B ooks,2022;Rich e e al.,2015). Mo eo e , i is key o
iden i y one’s deep hough s, eelings, belie s, and assump ions abou beha io o change
i (Gu djian e al.,2014), which will be di icul o achie e wi hou an indi idualized
plan o in e en ion. A hi d, and a guably he mos signi ican , c i icism is ha many
in e en ions ail o adequa ely conside con ex ual ac o s. This ‘one size i s all’ idea is
no only ela ed o he con en o in e en ions hemsel es, bu also o he assump ion ha
by de eloping a ce ain se o skills, leade s will be mo e e ec i e, wi hou conside ing he
o ganiza ional se ing, i s cul u e, alues, e hical clima e, wo king condi ions, o s a egy
(B icon-Sou & Newman,2007;Cummings e al.,2021;Gu djian e al.,2014;Lo d e al.,2013).
O e looking con ex ual ac o s also excludes he in ol emen o ollowe s in leade ship
ac i i ies, neglec ing eams’ needs and cha ac e is ics (Kaise & Cu phy,2013). When
leade ship de elopmen is disconnec ed om he eal-wo ld con ex , i becomes ha de
o pa icipan s o apply new knowledge and skills in hei eal wo k en i onmen . This
de achmen om he eal wo k se ing is also an impo an c i icism o a signi ican amoun
o leade ship p og ams, which ope a e as a “closed sys em” and dis ega d how eedback
loops wi hin an o ganiza ion can help leade s be e manage he consequences o hei
ac ions (c . Day & Dannhäuse ,2024 o a e iew).
In sum, while leade ship in e en ions can p oduce posi i e ou comes, hei design
and implemen a ion gene ally ail o indi idualize leade s’ needs and he con ex whe e
leade ship occu s, namely ollowe s’ and o ganiza ion cha ac e is ics, which may be he
main ac o s con ibu ing o leade ship de elopmen in e en ions no eaching hei ull
po en ial. In o he wo ds, leade ship p og ams need o be ailo ed and heo e ically and
e idence-based, adap ed o he speci ic needs o hei pa icipan s and o ganiza ions whe e
leade ship occu s (Day e al.,2014;Galuska,2014). Thus, his pape p esen s he P o
•
Leade
in e en ion p og am, which is an in e en ion based on he Leade ship E icacy Model
Beha . Sci. 2025,15, 601 4 o 21
(LEM) ha aims o p omo e leade ship e icacy, conside ing no only leade s’ skills bu
hei ela ionship wi h ollowe s’ and o ganiza ions’ speci ic needs, ocusing no only on
he leade bu conside ing also hei su oundings, he e o e aking a mo e comp ehensi e
app oach. The designa ion “P o
•
Leade ” ies o cap u e he idea o “P o essional Leade s”,
p o iding aining o augmen he leade ship expe ise o pa icipan s.
2. The Leade ship E icacy Model: A F amewo k o
Leade ship De elopmen
To ully unde s and he Leade ship E icacy Model (Gomes,2014,2020), i is i s
impo an o cla i y he concep o leade ship i sel . A gene al consensual de ini ion
o leade ship e e s o a p ocess h ough which leade s in luence o he s wi h he aim o
guiding o acili a ing ela ionships wi hin g oups and o ganiza ions (Yukl,2013). Wha his
de ini ion does no encompass is he consequences o leade ship. Thus, Gomes (2023,2024)
a gued ha i is impo an o conside he ou comes in he de ini ion i sel and, he e o e,
leade ship de elopmen should ocus on enhancing he bene i s o hose in ol ed in
he p ocess (bo h leade s and ollowe s). The e o e, he au ho sugges ed a de ini ion o
leade ship ha e e s o i as a p ocess o in luence exe ed on o he s ha is sus ained on
common and posi i e ideals ha lead all in ol ed o a be e si ua ion han he one ha
p eceded he leade ’s in luence. This is in insically linked o he concep o leade ship
e icacy, which has been b oadly de ined as he impac and consequences o leade ship,
i.e., he ou comes o he leade ship p ocess ha can be measu ed a he indi idual, g oup, o
o ganiza ional le el (Kaise e al.,2008; c . Hannah e al.,2008 o a e iew). Following his
de ini ion, leade ship canno be sepa a ed om i s impac s. The “s a us” o leade ship, in
ac , equi es he simul aneous conside a ion o h ee ac o s: (a) he mos known dimension
o he in luence exe ed by he leade on o o he s (indi iduals o membe s o g oups/ eams,
o ganiza ions, communi ies, o e en socie ies), (b) he need o o mula e common and
posi i e ideals o all hose in ol ed in he leade ship phenomenon, and (c) he need o
achie e a be e scena io han he one p eda ing he leade ’s in luence.
The Leade ship E icacy Model (LEM; Gomes,2014,2020) in eg a es di e en ap-
p oaches o leade ship ( ai , beha io al, and con ingency leade ship heo ies) in a comp e-
hensi e amewo k ha es ablishes and combines dis inc ac o s ha in luence leade ship
e icacy. In a nu shell, his heo e ical app oach is based on he assump ion ha leade ship
e icacy inc eases i leade s a e cong uen in how hey in end o exe leade ship (concep-
ual cycle o leade ship) and how hey ac ually implemen he leade ship (p ac ical cycle o
leade ship), conside ing also he beha io s displayed by leade s when exe ing in luence
(leade ship s yles), as well as hei own, eam membe s’, and con ex ual cha ac e is ics
(an eceden ac o s). Speci ically, his amewo k p oposes ha h ee di e en se s o ac o s
in luence leade ship e icacy: (1) leade ship cycles, (2) leade ship s yles, and (3) an eceden
ac o s o leade ship (c . Figu e 1).
The leade ship cycles componen e e s o he cong uency be ween leade s’ ideas
and ac ions. Mo e speci ically, i is p oposed ha a leade ship cycle is composed o
(a) leade ship philosophy, i.e., leade s’ concep o how leade ship should be (one’s alues,
assump ions, and belie s abou leade ship); (b) leade ship p ac ice, i.e., he ac ions ha
e lec leade ship philosophy (how leade ship should be implemen ed); and (c) leade ship
c i e ia, i.e., indica o s used o e alua e he implemen a ion o philosophy and p ac ice o
leade ship. This leade ship cycle occu s a wo di e en le els: a concep ual le el (i.e., how
he leade hinks hei leade ship should be in e ms o philosophy, p ac ice, and c i e ia)
and a p ac ical cycle (i.e., how he leade s implemen he concep ual cycle in a ce ain eal
scena io) (Gomes,2020). Acco ding o he model, he g ea e he deg ee o which leade s’
philosophies and ideas (concep ual cycle) a e in line wi h how hey ac ually implemen hei
Beha . Sci. 2025,15, 601 5 o 21
leade ship (p ac ical cycle), he be e hei leade ship e icacy (Gomes,2020,2023). Thus,
leade s should be awa e o he need o es ablish a cong uence be ween he concep ual and
p ac ical cycles, de ining hei mos impo an ideas, beha io s, and e alua ion indica o s.
Beha . Sci. 2025, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 o 22
e lec leade ship philosophy (how leade ship should be implemen ed); and (c) leade ship
c i e ia, i.e., indica o s used o e alua e he implemen a ion o philosophy and p ac ice o
leade ship. This leade ship cycle occu s a wo diffe en le els: a concep ual le el (i.e.,
how he leade hinks hei leade ship should be in e ms o philosophy, p ac ice, and
c i e ia) and a p ac ical cycle (i.e., how he leade s implemen he concep ual cycle in a
ce ain eal scena io) (Gomes, 2020). Acco ding o he model, he g ea e he deg ee o
which leade s’ philosophies and ideas (concep ual cycle) a e in line wi h how hey
ac ually implemen hei leade ship (p ac ical cycle), he be e hei leade ship efficacy
(Gomes, 2020, 2023). Thus, leade s should be awa e o he need o es ablish a cong uence
be ween he concep ual and p ac ical cycles, de ining hei mos impo an ideas,
beha io s, and e alua ion indica o s.
Figu e 1. Leade ship efficacy model ( e ie ed om Gomes, 2020).
The second ac o e e s o he speci ic beha io s ha leade s adop when exe ing
hei leade ship. Based on p e ious li e a u e ha has es ed psychological measu es o
leade ship beha io s (Gomes e al., 2021; Gomes & Resende, 2014), he LEM highligh s
h ee diffe en s yles o leade ship ( ans o ma ional leade ship, ansac ional leade ship,
and decision-making leade ship) and nine leade ship beha io s di ided in o
ans o ma ional leade ship ( ision, inspi a ion, ins uc ion, indi idualiza ion, and
suppo ), ansac ional leade ship (posi i e and nega i e eedback), and decision-making
leade ship (ac i e managemen and passi e managemen ). T ans o ma ional leade ship
ela es o he leade s’ abili y o p omo e change in hei ollowe s’ a i udes, belie s, and
alues owa ds he goals o he g oup/o ganiza ion, so ha leade s’ ision becomes
in e nalized (c . Bass, 1985; Bass & A olio, 1994). In o de o do so, leade s display a
posi i e and en husias ic ision, inspi e ollowe s o make con inuous effo s o achie e
success, p o ide ins uc ions o help hem de elop skills, and a end o he indi idual
needs o each ollowe by suppo ing hei in e es s and wellbeing (Gomes, 2020).
T ans o ma ional leade ship has been widely esea ched (Bass, 1990; Bu ns, 1978; Judge
& Piccolo, 2004; Young e al., 2021), ep esen ing a majo opic o analysis when i comes
o s udying he effec s p oduced by leade ship (Ng, 2017; S ock e al., 2023). The
popula i y o his o m o leade ship emains in ac e en hough new o ms o leade ship
Figu e 1. Leade ship e icacy model ( e ie ed om Gomes,2020).
The second ac o e e s o he speci ic beha io s ha leade s adop when exe ing
hei leade ship. Based on p e ious li e a u e ha has es ed psychological measu es o
leade ship beha io s (Gomes e al.,2021;Gomes & Resende,2014), he LEM highligh s
h ee di e en s yles o leade ship ( ans o ma ional leade ship, ansac ional leade ship,
and decision-making leade ship) and nine leade ship beha io s di ided in o ans o ma-
ional leade ship ( ision, inspi a ion, ins uc ion, indi idualiza ion, and suppo ), ansac-
ional leade ship (posi i e and nega i e eedback), and decision-making leade ship (ac i e
managemen and passi e managemen ). T ans o ma ional leade ship ela es o he leade s’
abili y o p omo e change in hei ollowe s’ a i udes, belie s, and alues owa ds he goals
o he g oup/o ganiza ion, so ha leade s’ ision becomes in e nalized (c . Bass,1985;
Bass & A olio,1994). In o de o do so, leade s display a posi i e and en husias ic ision,
inspi e ollowe s o make con inuous e o s o achie e success, p o ide ins uc ions o
help hem de elop skills, and a end o he indi idual needs o each ollowe by suppo ing
hei in e es s and wellbeing (Gomes,2020). T ans o ma ional leade ship has been widely
esea ched (Bass,1990;Bu ns,1978;Judge & Piccolo,2004;Young e al.,2021), ep esen ing
a majo opic o analysis when i comes o s udying he e ec s p oduced by leade ship
(Ng,2017;S ock e al.,2023). The popula i y o his o m o leade ship emains in ac e en
hough new o ms o leade ship ha e been de eloped. Howe e , hese new p oposals, such
as mo al and e hical leade ship, au hen ic leade ship, and se an leade ship, appea o
o e lap signi ican ly wi h ans o ma ional leade ship (Banks e al.,2018;Hoch e al.,2018;
Maye e al.,2012). On he o he hand, he ansac ional s yle o leade ship is based on
exchange sys ems, in a “nego ia ion” be ween wha leade s wan and wha eam membe s
p o ide (c . A olio & Bass,2004). Mo e speci ically, when using his app oach, leade s
end o espond o hei ollowe s’ ac ions and pe o mance, managing hem using posi i e
and nega i e eedback (Gomes,2020) o es ablish and p omo e he desi ed beha io s. The
hi d and inal s yle is ela ed o how leade s make decisions o , mo e speci ically, how hey
Beha . Sci. 2025,15, 601 6 o 21
manage hei powe (No house,2021). Decision-making leade ship beha io s di e en ia e
be ween ac i e and passi e managemen , e e ing, espec i ely, o whe he leade s end o
sha e o no sha e leade ship powe and whe he hey in ol e ollowe s in decision-making
ela ed o he eams’ unc ioning (Gomes & Resende,2014).
The no el y behind leade ship s yles in he Leade ship E icacy Model is he a gu-
men ha leade ship s yles should be combined o build an op imal p o ile o leade ship
(Gomes,2020). Speci ically, an op imal p o ile o leade ship is achie ed when leade s
use ans o ma ional beha io s (i.e., ision, inspi a ion, ins uc ion, indi idualiza ion,
and suppo ), posi i e eedback om ansac ional leade ship, and ac i e managemen
om decision-making leade ship (decen alizing decision-making), while educing he
occu ence o nega i e eedback om ansac ional leade ship and passi e managemen
om decision-making leade ship. The main assump ion is ha he posi i e combina-
ion o hese beha io s (op imal p o ile) will augmen leade ship e icacy by maximizing
leade ship cycles.
Finally, he hi d and inal dimension o LEM e e s o he an eceden ac o s o lead-
e ship. This dimension comp ises a se o ac o s ha can impac leade ship e icacy,
namely leade s’ cha ac e is ics, ollowe s’ cha ac e is ics, and si ua ional cha ac e is ics
(
c . Gomes,2020)
. B oadly, hese h ee dimensions include pe sonal and men al cha ac-
e is ics o bo h leade s and membe s (e.g., age, gende , pe sonali y, coping s a egies,
compe ence le els, e c.), as well as he cha ac e is ics o he con ex whe e leade ship occu s
(e.g., ype o o ganiza ion, wo king condi ions, esponsibili ies gi en o he leade , e c.)
(
c . Fiedle ,1993
;Gomes,2020). The o e all idea is ha leade ship does no occu in a
acuum bu is ins ead a dynamic p ocess ha needs o adap and be adap ed by he ci cum-
s ances, he eby imp o ing si ua ional a o abili y. In o he wo ds, he be e he ma ch
be ween leade s’ and ollowe s’ cha ac e is ics, he highe hei compe encies o pe o m,
and he be e he condi ions p o ided by he con ex , he highe he leade ship e icacy.
In conclusion, he Leade ship E icacy Model p o ides a heo e ical amewo k o
leade ship de elopmen by conside ing holis ically he p ocess o leade ship, emphasizing
ha in o de o inc ease he e icacy o leade ship, a mul i ude o ac o s need o be
conside ed: he leade ship cycles (by achie ing a cong uence be ween concep ual and
p ac ical cycles), he leade ship beha io s (by assuming he op imal p o ile o leade ship),
and he an eceden ac o s o leade ship (by conside ing he cha ac e is ics o he leade s,
he ollowe s, and he con ex ). Acco dingly, he P o
•
Leade in e en ion p og am is a
p oposal o leade ship de elopmen based on he Leade ship E icacy Model.
3. Leade ship De elopmen : P o•Leade In e en ion P og am
The P o
•
Leade in e en ion p og am is o ganized acco ding o he LEM p oposal,
aining pa icipan s in he h ee componen s o he model: leade ship cycles, leade ship
s yles, and an eceden ac o s o leade ship.
The p og am is based on i e co e ideas ha cha ac e ize he way in e en ion is
deli e ed o pa icipan s. Fi s , he in e en ion p og am is aligned wi h he no ion o li e
skills aining, including, sequen ially, ac i i ies ha a e pa o he ou s ages o li e skills
acquisi ion (c . Gomes & Resende,2020): (a) mo i a ion: ac i i ies ha aim o gua an ee
ha pa icipan s mobilize a en ion and pe sonal in e es o he de elopmen o leade ship
skills; (b) lea ning: ac i i ies ha aim o enhance pa icipan s’ unde s anding o how
leade ship wo ks and how i can be used p ope ly; (c) au oma iza ion: ac i i ies ha aim
o p o ide pa icipan s he oppo uni y o use he li e skill in a eal-se ing si ua ion; and
(d) ans e ence: ac i i ies ha allow pa icipan s o unde s and how o use he li e skills in
di e en si ua ions, p e e ably om dis inc li e con ex s. In p ac ical e ms, he p og am
in ends o s imula e he in e es and knowledge o pa icipan s ega ding leade ship and
Beha . Sci. 2025,15, 601 7 o 21
o de elop hei leade ship skills by p o iding s uc u ed oppo uni ies ha acili a e he
au oma iza ion and gene aliza ion o leade ship skills o pa icipan s’ con ex s.
Second, he p og am is heo e ically g ounded by b inging oge he aspec s ela ed o
he philosophy, p ac ice, and c i e ia o leade s (e.g., Gould e al.,2017;Lyle & Cushion,
2016), he beha io s o leade s (e.g., An onakis,2012;Sosik & Jung,2018), and he cha ac-
e is ics o leade s, eam membe s, and con ex whe e leade ship occu s (e.g., No house,
2021). These dis inc ac o s allow pa icipan s o unde s and he key poin s ela ed o he
e icacy o leade ship, namely he cogni ions, belie s, and p inciples o leade s (leade ship
cycles); he ac ions o leade ship (leade ship beha io s); and he con ingencies o he exe -
cise o leade ship (an eceden ac o s o leade ship ela ed o he cha ac e is ics o leade s,
eam membe s, and con ex whe e leade ship occu s). O cou se, many o he ac o s a e
in ol ed in he leade ship ac i i y, bu his se o ac o s included in he LEM is in ol ed in
he impac p oduced by leade ship.
Thi d, he p og am should be deli e ed o small g oups (maximum o 15 pa ici-
pan s) by wo p ac i ione s wi h p o essional ce i ica ion in psychology. This pa ici-
pan /p ac i ione a io aims o maximize he likelihood ha all pa icipan s will ha e he
oppo uni y o acqui e leade ship skills in an indi idualized manne and ecei e de ailed
eedback. This is e iden , as all pa icipan s de elop, discuss, and implemen a leade ship
plan du ing he aining, ecei ing eedback om bo h p ac i ione s and pee s. Addi ion-
ally, his p ac i ione - o-pa icipan a io enhances he po en ial o pa icipan s o p og ess
h ough he ou s ages o li e skills, as p e iously desc ibed.
Fou h, he p og am includes pa icipan s om di e en p o essional con ex s, hus
ein o cing ha he leade ship aining is applicable o all pa icipan s (due o he gene al
heo e ical backg ound o he LEM). I also achie es speci ici y as pa icipan s acqui e
leade ship skills ele an o hei li e con ex s. The e a e no p e equisi es o en e he
p og am, so pa icipan s may ha e a ying le els o expe ience in leade ship oles, o hey
may simply be in e es ed in imp o ing hei leade ship knowledge and skills. The p ima y
goal o he p og am is o empowe pa icipan s wi h he knowledge and skills needed o
enhance hei leade ship capabili ies.
Fi h, he p og am includes oppo uni ies o da a collec ion o e alua e i s e icacy.
Speci ically, da a will be collec ed be o e he p og am begins (Phase 1), immedia ely a e i
ends (Phase 2), and h ee o ou mon hs a e he las session (Phase 3). The hi d da a col-
lec ion phase allows pa icipan s su icien ime o apply hei leade ship plans de eloped
du ing he P o•Leade in e en ion p og am o hei speci ic li e con ex s.
In sum, se e al ac o s con ibu e o leade ship e icacy. I is e iden ha including all
o hese ac o s in a single in e en ion p og am is challenging, i no impossible. Howe e ,
he P o
•
Leade in e en ion p og am inco po a es key ac o s ha enhance leade ship
e icacy and, by ex ension, pa icipan s’ abili y o lead.
The P o
•
Leade in e en ion p og am is o ganized in o se en pa s (c . Table 1):
(1) p e-in e en ion e alua ion; (2) leade ship beha io s (co esponding o he leade ship
s yles o he LEM): pa icipan s a e ained in di e en leade ship beha io s; (3) lead-
e ship plan (co esponding o he leade ship cycles o he LEM): pa icipan s a e asked
o de ine hei own leade ship philosophy, p ac ice, and c i e ia (leade ship cycles) and
o mula e an indi idual leade ship plan; (4) leade ship plan adjus men (co esponding
o he an eceden ac o s o leade ship o he LEM): pa icipan s e lec on how hei own
cha ac e is ics, hei eam membe s’ cha ac e is ics, and hei o ganiza ional con ex can
in luence hei leade ship and a e encou aged o adjus hei leade ship plan acco dingly;
(5) aining o he leade ship plan: pa icipan s assume hei own leade ship plans by
using a oleplay me hodology o ec ea e, as much as possible, hei scena io o leade ship;
Beha . Sci. 2025,15, 601 8 o 21
(6) pos -in e en ion e alua ion; and (7) ollow-up in e en ion e alua ion. In he ollowing
sec ions, we desc ibe each pa o he P o•Leade in e en ion p og am in mo e de ail.
Table 1. P o•Leade In e en ion P og am: O ganiza ion and A eas o T aining.
Leade ship E icacy Model P o•Leade P og am
Pa 1. P e-in e en ion e alua ion
Goal: De e mining he leade ship abili y o
pa icipan s be o e in e en ion
Du a ion: 15 min (be o e s a ing session 1)
P og am p esen a ion
Leade ship s yles
•T ans o ma ional leade ship
•T ansac ional leade ship
•Decision-making leade ship
P esen a ion
#P esen ing he p og am’s goals and
main ac i i ies
#Fo ming he eams o pa icipan s
Pa 2. Leade ship beha io s
Goal: Lea ning and demons a ing posi i e
leade ship beha io s (e.g., ans o ma ional,
ansac ional, and decision-making)
Du a ion: 6 sessions; 3 h pe session (18 h)
Leade ship cycles
•Leade ship philosophy
•Leade ship p ac ice
•Leade ship c i e ia
Pa 3. Leade ship plan
Goals:
•
De ining he leade ship plan, acco ding o
he philosophy, p ac ice, and c i e ia
o pa icipan s
•Selec ing he leade ship beha io s o he
leade ship plan (e.g., ans o ma ional,
ansac ional, and decision-making)
Du a ion: 6 sessions; 3 h pe session (18 h)
An eceden ac o s o leade ship
•Leade cha ac e is ics
•Team membe s cha ac e is ics
•Si ua ional cha ac e is ics
Pa 4. Leade ship plan adjus men
Goal: Adjus ing he leade ship plan o he
cha ac e is ics o he pa icipan s, ollowe s,
and si ua ion
Du a ion: 1 session; 1 h pe session (3 h)
Pa 5. T aining o he leade ship plan
Goal: Assuming he leade ship app oach in
simula ed si ua ions
Du a ion: 2 sessions; 3 h pe session (6 h)
Pa 6. Pos -in e en ion e alua ion
Goal: De e mining he leade ship abili y o
pa icipan s a e he in e en ion
Du a ion: 15 min (a e las session)
Pa 7. Follow-up in e en ion e alua ion
Goal: De e mining he leade ship abili y o
pa icipan s a e he in e en ion
Du a ion: 15 min (3 o 4 mon hs a e
las session)
To al
•Sessions: 15
•Du a ion: 45 h
Beha . Sci. 2025,15, 601 9 o 21
3.1. In e en ion E alua ion (Pa s 1, 5, and 6)
Tes ing he e icacy o he in e en ion is c ucial o acili a e p og ess in leade ship
knowledge and guide u u e adjus men s o he aining p og am. The P o
•
Leade in e en-
ion p og am includes e alua ions conduc ed be o e and a e he in e en ion (
c . Table 1:
Pa s 1, 6, and 7). The measu es used o e alua e e icacy should be selec ed acco ding
o he in e es s o each p o essional o esea che ; howe e , in gene al, i is impo an o
include wo ypes o measu es.
The i s ela es o leade ship and is speci ically designed o e alua e he leade ship
cycles, he leade ship s yles, and he an eceden ac o s o leade ship (c . Gomes e al.,
2022). Fo example, o he LEM, he e a e a ailable measu es o he leade ship cycles
(e.g., Leade ship Cycles Ques ionnai e; Gomes e al.,2022), leade ship s yles (e.g., Mul idi-
mensional Scale o Leade ship; Gomes e al.,2021), and an eceden ac o s o leade ship
(e.g., Leade ship An eceden Fac o s Ques ionnai e; Gomes e al.,2022). The da a collec ed
om hese ins umen s can be sha ed wi h pa icipan s o inc ease hei unde s anding o
hei leade ship skills and suppo hei leade ship plan de eloped h oughou he p o-
g am, namely when hey hink abou hei leade ship s yles and beha io s (Pa 3.3.), hei
leade ship cycles (Pa 3.4.), and ac o s ha in luence he exe cise o leade ship
(Pa 3.5.)
.
The second ype o measu e ela es o he impac s p oduced by he pa icipan s’
leade ship. In his las case, i is impo an o e alua e he implici impac s p oduced
by leade ship (psychological, ela ional, and social impac s o leade ship) bu also he
explici impac s p oduced by leade ship (beha io al impac s o leade ship in e ms o
ac ions/achie emen s assumed by eam membe s) (Gomes,2024). I is also ecommended
ha measu es be collec ed om he pe spec i e o pa icipan s and om he indi iduals
who in e ac wi h hem (e.g., ollowe s, collabo a o s, eam membe s, e c.), which helps
educe he common me hod bias (Podsako e al.,2012). None heless, i is e iden ha sel -
e alua ion om pa icipan s is easie o collec be o e and a e he P o
•
Leade in e en ion
p og am han ex e nal e alua ion.
3.2. P og am P esen a ion (Pa 2)
The p og am is p esen ed in he i s session (included in Pa 1 o he p og am; Table 1)
by in o ming pa icipan s abou he goals, s uc u e o aining, and e alua ion sys em.
Pa icipan s a e di ided in o h ee g oups, and hey mus choose a name and mo o o
hei g oup ( o ein o ce eam iden i y and acili a e a ious aining ac i i ies) (c . Houl
e al.,2024;Sla e e al.,2019).
3.3. Leade ship S yles and Beha io s (Pa 2)
Pa 2 o he p og am is dedica ed o educa ing and aining pa icipan s in using
eigh leade ship beha io s (c . Table 1). S a ing he p og am wi h a ocus on leade ship
s yles and beha io s is essen ial because pa icipan s need o mas e he eigh beha io s
when hey a e asked o la e o mula e he leade ship plan. Thus, pa icipan s a e i s
in oduced o ans o ma ional, ansac ional, and decision-making leade ship, along wi h
he espec i e beha io s o each s yle (see Figu e 2). Then, he concep o an op imal
leade ship p o ile is explo ed. This includes i e ans o ma ional leade ship beha io s
(i.e., ision, inspi a ion, ins uc ion, indi idualiza ion, and suppo ), posi i e eedback om
ansac ional leade ship beha io s, and ac i e managemen om decision-making leade -
ship. I is impo an o cla i y ha passi e managemen is no ained in he P o
•
Leade
in e en ion p og am and ha nega i e eedback is ained only unde highly con olled
condi ions. Pa icipan s a e in o med ha nega i e eedback should be used only when
ollowe s display unaccep able beha io s ha iola e p e iously ag eed-upon s anda ds. I
is also explained ha hese beha io s will be impo an o help pa icipan s o se hei lead-
Beha . Sci. 2025,15, 601 16 o 21
The aining p o ides he oppo uni y o pa icipan s o assume hei leade ship
plans di ec ed o one speci ic a ea o hei li es (s age o au oma iza ion) bu also p o ides
he oppo uni y o discuss wi h o he pa icipan s he po en ial implica ions o he plan o
dis inc a eas o li ing (s age o ans e ence). Typically, he o mula ion and aining o
he leade ship plan ep esen s a aluable ask o pa icipan s because hey can ha e he
oppo uni y o e lec on how he LEM ac o s (leade ship cycles, leade ship s yles, and
an eceden ac o s o leade ship) can be applied o hei own speci ic si ua ion (i.e., mo i a-
ion and lea ning s ages). Then, he aining o he leade ship plan allows pa icipan s o
assume leade ship skills in ole-play scena ios while being p o ided eedback om o he
pa icipan s and p ac i ione s (au oma iza ion s age). The exchange o expe iences and
aining o dis inc leade ship plans be ween all pa icipan s helps each one o comp e-
hend mul iple scena ios whe e leade ship can be used, allowing also he possibili y o
inal adjus men s o he plans acco ding o he sha ing o li ing expe iences be ween all
pa icipan s in ol ed in he in e en ion p og am (i.e., ans e ence s age).
3.7. O he Aspec s
Al hough no c i ical o he implemen a ion o he p og am, b ie w i en es s a e also
used o analyze he acqui ed knowledge o pa icipan s abou each pa o he p og am
(leade ship cycles, leade ship s yles, and an eceden ac o s o leade ship); mo e case
analyses o a be e unde s anding o he h ee componen s o he LEM p oposal a e also
used, and an e alua ion sys em is also included ha p o ides quan i a i e eedback o
pa icipan s. In his las case, a Like scale o ou poin s is used (1 = I can be imp o ed;
2 = Good; 3 = Ve y good; 4 = Excellen ).
4. Tes ing he P o•Leade In e en ion
This manusc ip desc ibes he P o
•
Leade in e en ion p og am in de ail, which is
based on p e ious li e a u e and, he e o e, also p o ides e idence-based guidelines o
de eloping e ec i e leade s. Howe e , his in e en ion p og am s ill needs o be es ed in
o de o es ablish i s impac on imp o ing leade ship skills. Thus, i is impo an o collec
da a o e i y i he LEM ep esen s a use ul app oach o explain leade ship e icacy and i
he h ee ac o s included in he model (leade ship cycles, leade ship s yles, and an eceden
ac o s o leade ship) ep esen use ul dimensions o s imula e leade ship. While he e is
some encou aging da a abou he LEM (e.g., Gomes e al.,2022), he e a e cu en ly no
indica ions ela ed o he e icacy o he in e en ion. This is qui e c i ical o demons a e
i he in e en ion is e ec i e and scien i ically alid. Figu e 6summa izes he aspec s o
conside when es ing he P o•Leade in e en ion p og am.
The p og am can ep esen a use ul ool o bo h p o essionals in e es ed in s imula ing
he leade ship abili y o hei clien s and o indi iduals ha a e (o can be) in a posi ion o
leade ship. In ac , by mas e ing he way leade ship cycles should be se , how o posi i ely
use he leade ship beha io s, and how o con ol he an eceden ac o s o leade ship,
pa icipan s can ha e a be e pe spec i e o how o modula e he h ee ac o s in ol ed in
he leade ship ac i i y.
Beha . Sci. 2025,15, 601 17 o 21
Beha . Sci. 2025, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 o 22
Figu e 6. Tes ing he efficacy o he P o●Leade in e en ion p og am (Gomes, 2014, 2020; Gomes e
al., 2021, 2022; O’Shea e al., 2016).
Figu e 6. Tes ing he e icacy o he P o
•
Leade in e en ion p og am (Gomes,2014,2020;Gomes
e al.,2021,2022;O’Shea e al.,2016).
Beha . Sci. 2025,15, 601 18 o 21
5. Conclusions
The P o
•
Leade in e en ion p og am is a leade ship aining p og am based on he
Leade ship E icacy Model ha akes a comp ehensi e app oach o leade ship, aiming o
espond o some o he ecu en c i icism o leade ship de elopmen p og ams. Speci ically,
i s inno a ion elies on he ac ha he whole p og am is cen e ed on he o mula ion o a
leade ship plan, which is indi idualized o each pa icipan , conside ing hei own needs
(con adic ing he “one size i s all” app oach). The o mula ion o an indi idual leade ship
plan implies ha pa icipan s conside deeply hei belie s, eelings, and assump ions
abou leade ship beha io s when o mula ing hei leade ship cycles, which inc eases he
likelihood o change. Mo eo e , in his p ocess, pa icipan s lea n di e en beha io s ha
can be used o enhance leade ship e icacy and adap o hei own ci cums ances and skills.
A hi d impo an ea u e o his in e en ion p og am is ha i challenges pa icipan s
o deeply conside he en i onmen in which hey expec o exe leade ship, namely he
cha ac e is ics o hei ollowe s and o ganiza ions, o maximize hei e icacy as leade s.
Finally, because he p og am is designed o include he ou le els o li e skill acquisi ion
(mo i a ion, lea ning, au oma iza ion, and ans e ence), and i does no ocus on speci ic
leade ship skills bu on he p ocess o hinking and de eloping leade ship i sel , we belie e
pa icipan s will be mo e equipped o ans e he knowledge o di e en con ex s, adap ing
o new si ua ions and o ganiza ions (by adap ing hei indi idual plans). O cou se, as
wi h o he p og ams, he P o
•
Leade in e en ion p og am assumes a choice abou he
numbe o ac o s ha explain he leade ship e icacy (leade ship cycles, leade ship s yles,
and an eceden ac o s o leade ship), meaning ha pa icipan s a e ained o lea n and
assume he leade ship skills based upon hese ac o s, which does no mean ha o he
ac o s can adap i ely in luence leade ship. Also o impo ance, his pape p oposes a
s ep-by-s ep in e en ion ha can help o de elop he leade ship skills o an in e es ed
audience whils ecognizing i is now necessa y o collec da a o es he e ec i eness o
he P o•Leade p og am.
In a nu shell, he P o
•
Leade in e en ion p og am aims o espond o he challenge
o enhancing leade ship wi h a concep ual and empi ical backg ound by implemen ing
h ee impo an ac o s in ol ed in leade ship de elopmen and e icacy (leade ship cycles,
leade ship s yles, and an eceden ac o s o leade ship).
Au ho Con ibu ions: Concep ualiza ion, A.R.G.; in es iga ion, A.R.G. and C.M.; w i ing—o iginal
d a p epa a ion, A.R.G. and C.M.; w i ing— e iew and edi ing, A.R.G. and C.M.; unding acquisi-
ion, A.R.G. and C.M. All au ho s ha e ead and ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding: This esea ch was suppo ed by he Founda ion o Science and Technology (Psychol-
ogy Resea ch Cen e—CIPsi/UM, e e ence UIDB/01662/2020; and Resea ch Cen e o Human
De elopmen , e e ence UIDB/04872/2020).
Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d S a emen : No applicable.
In o med Consen S a emen : No applicable.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen : No applicable.
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic s o in e es .
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