Thresholds of the sublime: Life, Death, and Nature in the Works of Emily Brontë

Isabel Luísa Fe ei a Pin o
Th esholds o he Sublime: Li e, Dea h,
and Na u e in he Wo ks o Emily B on ë
dezemb o de 2024
Th esholds o he Sublime: Li e, Dea h, and Na u e in he Wo ks o Emily B on ë
Isabel Luísa Fe ei a Pin o
UMinho|2024
Uni e sidade do Minho
Escola de Le as, A es e Ciências Humanas
Isabel Luísa Fe ei a Pin o
Th esholds o he Sublime: Li e, Dea h,
and Na u e in he Wo ks o Emily B on ë
dezemb o de 2024
Disse ação de Mes ado
Mes ado em Língua, Li e a u a e Cul u a Inglesas
T abalho e e uado sob a o ien ação da
P o esso a Dou o a Paula Alexand a Va anda Ribei o
Guima ães
Uni e sidade do Minho
Escola de Le as, A es e Ciências Humanas
ii
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iii
Acknowledgemen s
This disse a ion has been bo h a es amen o my esilience and an immensely
ewa ding jou ney. Along he way, I ha e been o una e o ecei e suppo om many
inc edible indi iduals, wi hou whom his wo k would no ha e been possible.
Fi s and o emos , I would like o exp ess my deepes g a i ude o P o esso Paula
Guima ães. He b illiance, expe ise, and unwa e ing belie in my po en ial we e he
co ne s one o his p ojec . He demanding ye in aluable guidance no only shaped he
di ec ion o my wo k bu also ele a ed i . He wi and encou agemen ca ied me h ough he
mos challenging momen s, and o ha , I am o e e g a e ul.
I ex end my hea el hanks o my iends, my classma es, and my colleagues a
BabeliUM, pa icula ly E a Gonçal es, who chee ed me on om day one. He elen less
s eng h and wa m h p o ided he ex a push I o en needed o pe se e e.
I am also deeply g a e ul o my daugh e , Luísa, whose pa ience and sac i ice will always
be emembe ed. Thank you, Luísa, o endu ing coun less hou s wi hou you mo he ’s ull
a en ion while she w o e abou “Emily Jane.” You lo e and unde s anding ha e mean
e e y hing.
To my b o he Rica do, hank you o he engaging discussions on 19 h-cen u y opics,
which en iched my pe spec i e and con ibu ed meaning ully o his wo k.
Finally, I am and will be endlessly indeb ed o my pa en s, who ha e always belie ed in
me; hank you o you uncondi ional suppo and lo e.
This has been a long oad, bu i is inally done. To e e yone who suppo ed me along
he way, his achie emen is also you s.

i
S a emen o In eg i y
I he eby decla e ha ing conduc ed his academic wo k wi h in eg i y. I con i m ha I ha e no
used plagia ism o any o m o undue use o in o ma ion o alsi ica ion o esul s along he
p ocess leading o i s elabo a ion.
I u he decla e ha I ha e ully acknowledged he Code o E hical Conduc o he Uni e si y
o Minho.
Th esholds o he Sublime: Li e, Dea h, and Na u e
in he Wo ks o Emily B on ë
Abs ac
Al hough no always duly ecognised, Emily B on ë’s in luence on he cul u al, li e a y,
and a is ic wo ld is undeniable. Mo e han 175 yea s a e he i s publica ion o he wo ks,
hund eds, i no housands, o c i ical s udies ha e sough o un a el no only he in ica e web
o he na a i e de ices, s uc u es, and cha ac e s bu also he o iginali y o he ideas and he
complexi ies o he poe ic c ea ions.
This disse a ion examines he wo ks o Emily B on ë, including bo h he poe y and
he sole no el, Wu he ing Heigh s (1847), in e wining hem wi h he ope a ional concep o
he Sublime, in i s a ious dimensions. The Sublime is conside ed ans e sal o he hema ic
ca ego ies o he wo k's poe ic and na a i e s uc u es, no only wi h ega d o he na u al
landscape—pa icula ly he moo s and he wind—bu also o he imes, cha ac e s, e en s,
and dialogues. D awing upon he heo ies o he Sublime p oposed by hinke s such as
Longinus, Edmund Bu ke, and Immanuel Kan , as well as he ensuing deba es, including Ma y
Wolls onec a ’s c i ique o Bu ke, his s udy explo es how he Sublime se es as a lens h ough
which B on ë’s w i ing nego ia es he bounda ies (o absence he eo ) o human expe ience.
Th ough a de ailed o mal and s uc u al analysis, his disse a ion ocuses on a
selec ion o i e pa adigma ic poems, b anching ou in o o he ela ed ly ic composi ions, and
also he no el Wu he ing Heigh s, hus emphasising how B on ë’s ecu ing explo a ion o
h esholds—be ween he sel , he O he , and na u e—bo h ep esen s and igge s he
Sublime. The indings e eal ha B on ë’s depic ion o he Sublime in e connec s wi h and
eme ges om he pe sis en con lic be ween li e and dea h, wi h na u al, physical,
me aphysical, and psychological h esholds ac ing as powe ul ca alys s o his dynamic. This
s udy no only illumina es he ichness and complexi y o B on ë’s wo ks bu also pa es he
way o u he explo a ion o he in e sec ions be ween he Sublime, liminali y, and eade
engagemen in o he wo ks and li e a y adi ions.
Keywo ds: Sublime, h esholds, Emily B on ë, Wu he ing Heigh s, poe y
i
Limia es do Sublime: Vida, Mo e e Na u eza
na Ob a de Emily B on ë
Resumo
Embo a nem semp e lemb ada, a in luência de Emily B on ë nas di e en es ace as do
mundo cul u al, li e á io e a ís ico é inegá el. Mais de 175 anos após a p imei a publicação
das suas ob as, cen enas, se não milha es, de publicações c í icas en a am já des enda não
só a sua eia in icada de ecu sos na a i os, es u u as e pe sonagens, mas ambém a
o iginalidade das suas ideias e as complexidades das suas c iações poé icas.
Nes a disse ação, analisamos a ob a de Emily B on ë, an o a sua poesia como o seu
único omance, Wu he ing Heigh s (1847), en elaçando-a com o concei o ope acional de
Sublime, nas suas di e sas dimensões. Conside a-se o Sublime como ans e sal às ca ego ias
emá icas an o das es u u as poé icas como na a i as da sua ob a, e não só em elação à
paisagem na u al – pa icula men e as cha necas e o en o – mas ambém ela i amen e ao
seu empo, às suas pe sonagens, e en os e diálogos. Com base nas eo ias do Sublime
pos uladas po pensado es como Longinus, Edmund Bu ke e Immanuel Kan , e nos deba es
que se segui am, incluindo a c í ica de Ma y Wolls onec a a Bu ke, es e es udo explo a as
di e sas o mas como o Sublime se e como uma len e a a és da qual a esc i a de B on ë
dialoga com os limi es da expe iência humana (ou a al a deles).
A a és de uma análise o mal e es u u al de alhada, cen a-se numa seleção de cinco
poemas pa adigmá icos, ami icando-se, depois, pa a ou as composições lí icas com eles
associadas; e ambém no seu omance, Wu he ing Heigh s, ocando-se na o ma como a sua
ei e ada explo ação de limia es – en e o eu, o Ou o e a na u eza – não só ep esen a como
desencadeia o Sublime. Es e es udo e ela que a ep esen ação do Sublime em Emily B on ë
se in e liga e emana do pe sis en e con li o en e a ida e a mo e, com os limia es na u ais,
ísicos, me a ísicos e psicológicos a a ua em como um pode oso ca alisado des a dinâmica. O
seu esul ado ilumina a iqueza e a complexidade das ob as de B on ë, ab indo ambém a
po a a no as in es igações sob e as in e secções en e o Sublime, a limina idade e o
en ol imen o do lei o nou as ob as e adições li e á ias.
Pala as-cha e: Sublime, limia es, Emily B on ë, Wu he ing Heigh s, poesia
ii
Con en s
Di ei os de au o e condições de u ilização do abalho po e cei os ........................................... ii
Acknowledgemen s ................................................................................................................. iii
S a emen o In eg i y ............................................................................................................. i
Abs ac ..................................................................................................................................
Resumo .................................................................................................................................. i
In oduc ion ............................................................................................................................ 1
Chap e I An In oduc ion o Emily B on ë’s Wo k and he Times o he Sublime ......................... 10
Chap e II On he Meaning and Di e en Concep s (and Applica ions) o he Sublime .................. 50
2.1 Longinus’s Pe i Hupsos ................................................................................................... 51
2.1.1 Longinus’s Sublime and Sappho ................................................................................ 55
2.2 Edmund Bu ke’s A Philosophical Enqui y in o he O igins o Ou Ideas o he Sublime and
Beau i ul (1757) .................................................................................................................. 57
2.2.1 Edmund Bu ke and he (a)gende ed deba e on he Sublime – Ma y Wolls onec a ..... 62
2.3 Immanuel Kan ’s “Analy ic o he Sublime” (1790) ........................................................... 66
2.4 Main Echoes and Types o he Sublime in Emily B on ë’s Wo k ......................................... 72
Chap e III The Sublime in Emily B on ë’s Poe y and Wu he ing Heigh s .................................... 75
3. 1 A Compa a i e Analysis o he Sublime in Emily B on ë’s Poems and Wu he ing Heigh s .... 80
3.1.1 “High wa ing hea he ‘nea h s o my blas s bending” ................................................. 80
3.1.2 “Sleep b ings no joy o me” ...................................................................................... 87
3.1.3 “The nigh is da kening ound me” ........................................................................... 94
3.1.4 “In summe ’s mellow midnigh ” ............................................................................. 104
3.1.5 “Cold in he ea h and he deep snow piled abo e hee!” ......................................... 116
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 130
Annex I Full ex o he Poems Analysed in Chap e III o his Disse a ion ................................. 139
Re e ences ........................................................................................................................... 146
P ima y Wo ks Ci ed ......................................................................................................... 146
Seconda y Wo ks Ci ed ..................................................................................................... 146
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and d eams), me aphysical h esholds (be ween he ealms o he dead and he li ing), and
spi i ual h esholds (by expe iencing he collision be ween o ces o hea en and ea h).
The ques ion we pose he e se es o b oaden discussions o he Sublime in Emily
B on ë’s s udies. While many c i ics ha e no ed he Sublime in B on ë’s wo k, his s udy
o eg ounds h esholds as essen ial o unde s anding he pa icula ision o he Sublime. This
app oach no only en iches in e p e a ions o he poe y and Wu he ing Heigh s bu also o e s
insigh in o how liminali y unc ions as a na a i e and psychological de ice in 19 h-cen u y
li e a u e.
B on ë’s w i ings ha e been ex ensi ely analysed om di e se c i ical pe spec i es,
including s uc u alis , eminis , Ma xis , and psychoanaly ic app oaches. These s udies ha e
illumina ed ele an aspec s o Emily’s hemes, cha ac e psychology, and social con ex s,
demons a ing he complex ela ionship wi h he 19 h-cen u y’s social, poli ical, li e a y, and
cul u al landscape(s).
While e e ences o he Sublime do appea in schola ship, hey a e a ely cen al o he
analysis. Many c i ics ha e examined he no el’s complex s uc u e, i s da k and supe na u al
a mosphe e, i s depic ions o gende and powe , and i s ansg essi e lo e s o y. In hese
in e p e a ions, he Sublime is o en acknowledged – such as h ough he wild landscape o
he moo s o he haun ing in ensi y o Hea hcli and Ca he ine’s bond – bu ypically as a
seconda y aspec a he han a p ima y ocus. As such, ew s udies ea he Sublime as an
o ganising heme in B on ë’s wo k and e en ewe examine how he ea men o he Sublime
ope a es ac oss he poe y in dialogue wi h Wu he ing Heigh s o how i may in ol e speci ic
s uc u al and hema ic de ices, such as h esholds.
Ma y Visik’s The Genesis o Wu he ing Heigh s (1958) and Chi ham’s The Bi h o
Wu he ing Heigh s (1998) do in e wine speci ic poems (pa icula ly hose pe aining o he
Gondal saga) wi h na a i e poin s o Wu he ing Heigh s. And i is undeniable ha B on ë’s
poe y o en se es as a ounda ion o he hemes and image y in he no el, as Wu he ing
Heigh s ampli ies and ex ends many o he Sublime elemen s ound in Emily’s poe y. Despi e
hese e o s, c i ics ypically ocus ei he on he no el o he poe y, and ew o hese s udies
conside he Sublime as a uni ying heme ac oss bo h gen es.

7
We in end o add ess his gap by analysing how B on ë uses he Sublime consis en ly
ac oss he no el and poe y, hus illumina ing a hema ic con inui y in he wo k. A dual-gen e
app oach will illus a e he consis ency and complexi y o B on ë’s explo a ion o he Sublime
by linking i o he heme o h esholds, a guing ha B on ë uses hese liminal spaces o
in ensi y cha ac e s’ and eade s’ engagemen wi h he Sublime. The e o e, his esea ch
opens a new line o inqui y ha adds dep h o in e p e a ions o bo h he no el and poe y. I
will no only en ich he unde s anding o he li e a y ision bu also in eg a e he unique
con ibu ion in o 19 h-cen u y ep esen a ions o he Sublime.
In Chap e I, we shall con ex ualise he social and economic clima e o he i s i e
decades o he 19 h cen u y and ou line he signi icance o he F ench Re olu ion's a e ma h.
The Re olu ion, wi h i s adical o e u ning o he old o de , was i sel an e en o he Sublime.
The uphea al o he masses, he as scale o social and poli ical ans o ma ion, and he e o
ha accompanied i all esona e wi h he concep o he Sublime as a o ce ha bo h
o e whelms and challenges human unde s anding.
The G ea Re o m Ac o 1832, while less iolen han he F ench Re olu ion, can s ill
be seen as a Sublime poli ical momen . I was a massi e shi in B i ish socie y ha b oke down
some o he ba ie s o poli ical pa icipa ion, as i expanded su age o p e iously excluded
g oups and add essed some inequali ies in poli ical ep esen a ion. The ac ep esen ed he
as and o e whelming o ces o change and e o m, which, hough mo e g adual, s ill ca ied
he weigh o ans o ma ion, echoing he philosophical unde cu en s o he Sublime.
O he e en s include he I ish Ques ion, conce ning immig a ion and I eland's
na ionalis s uggle, and he Ca holic Ques ion, esol ed pa ly by he Ca holic Emancipa ion
Ac o 1829, which allowed Ca holics o hold public o ice. These a e also linked o he Sublime
by po aying human su e ing and he s uggle o eedom. The pain and esilience in ol ed
in he I ish s uggle and he Ca holic s uggle o ci il igh s in oked a mo al and emo ional
esponse ha could be conside ed Sublime.
By si ua ing hese his o ical e en s wi hin he con ex o he Sublime, we see how
h esholds—whe he poli ical, mo al, o ideological—gene a e no only ans o ma ions in
socie y bu also powe ul emo ional esponses ha a e in eg al o he human expe ience. The
h eshold is a momen whe e indi iduals and communi ies con on as , o en uncon ollable
8
o ces, leading o a Sublime encoun e ha anscends o dina y li e and eshapes he way
indi iduals pe cei e he wo ld a ound hem.
Chap e I will also co e he po en ial li e a y in luence in Emily’s wo k by w i e s such
as Pe cy Bysshe Shelley, William Wo dswo h, Lo d By on, and Samuel Taylo Cole idge, as hey
explo ed he in e play be ween humani y and na u e, he powe o he imagina ion, and he
alue o emo ional au hen ici y, hemes ha became cen al in Emily’s w i ings. I will also
include a sho sec ion on he c i ical ecep ion o he wo ks bo h in he ime and du ing he
20 h and 21s cen u ies.
In Chap e II, we shall mo e on o he de ini ion(s) o he Sublime, by analysing,
con as ing, and syn hesising he concep in ligh o he abo e-men ioned w i ings on he
subjec ; he p ecu so o he e m 'Sublime', Longinus, who de ined i as a eeling o g andeu
and awe; Edmund Bu ke, o whom he Sublime and he beau i ul we e mu ually exclusi e, hus
s a ing ha wha is "da k, unce ain, and con used" may well e oke awe and a deg ee o
ho o , he dual emo ional quali y o ea and a ac ion, which he called deligh o "nega i e
pleasu e"; and Immanuel Kan , who sees he Sublime as e oca i e o no only awe bu also a
o m o e o -inducing iolence, when aced wi h "a o mless objec " in all i s boundlessness.
Chap e III shall include a de ailed analysis o how he Sublime akes i s shape in and
applies o he wo ks o Emily B on ë. By analysing a speci ic selec ion om he as co pus
(bo h published and unpublished) she le us wi h, we shall y o depic wha lies on he
h eshold o he image y o ligh and da kness, hea en and ea h, one cha ac e and he O he .
This analysis will include a a ie y o ex ual sou ces: no only poems om Emily B on ë's
di e en s ages in li e, om he ju enilia o la e poe y, bu also composi ions w i en in he
own poe ic oice and hose po aying he imagina y wo ld o Glass own and Gondal, in which
she lends he oice o di e en cha ac e s and na a o s o such wo ld(s). O he han hei
mo i s, hemes and na a i e con en , such poems will also be analysed as o hei o m and
s yle, which also con ibu e o he desc ip ion o Emily B on ë's pa icula , almos exclusi e,
s yle. F om his poin , we shall es ablish a b idge o he no el, Wu he ing Heigh s, and,
cumula i ely, show how bo h he concep o he Sublime and Emily B on ë's poe y ind an
echo in he bu s ing lines o he na a i e in i s di e en ca ego ies: se ing, ime, cha ac e s,
ac ion, and dialogue.
9
We conduc ed a close ex ual analysis o he selec ed poems and ex ac s om
Wu he ing Heigh s, ocusing on elemen s o p osody ( hy hm, me e , s ess, and alli e a ion,
assonance, and consonance), s uc u al analysis (a angemen , leng h, hyme scheme, and
pa e n o s anzas), and he o ical analysis ( igu es o speech such as me apho s, similes,
pe soni ica ion, hype bole, and o he he o ical de ices). We examined how hese elemen s
in e ac o c ea e meaning and emo ional dep h, wi h a speci ic emphasis on iden i ying
ins ances o he Sublime. This included analysing how language and image y e oke g andeu ,
awe, o in ensi y and explo ing hema ic and s ylis ic connec ions ha esona e wi h he
concep o he Sublime.
This disse a ion makes an o iginal con ibu ion by combining insigh s om Longinus,
Bu ke, and Kan , hus c ea ing a nuanced amewo k ha cap u es he senso y, emo ional, and
philosophical dimensions o B on ë’s Sublime. This mul i- heo e ical app oach allows one o
analyse how B on ë’s language, image y, and cha ac e dynamics wo k oge he o e oke he
Sublime in di e en laye s. By in eg a ing hese heo is s, we demons a e ha B on ë’s
Sublime is bo h mul i ace ed and an icipa o y o la e li e a y and philosophical explo a ions
o human psychology and exis en ial bounda ies. This app oach no only deepens ou
unde s anding o B on ë’s aes he ic bu also o e s a aluable me hodological model o
s udying he Sublime in o he li e a y con ex s.
Ul ima ely, his esea ch posi ions Emily B on ë as a pi o al igu e in 19 h-cen u y
li e a u e, whose explo a ion o he Sublime con inues o speak o uni e sal ques ions abou
human na u e, he limi s o unde s anding, and he bounda ies o exis ence.
10
Chap e I
An In oduc ion o Emily B on ë’s Wo k and he Times o he Sublime
I was he bes o imes, i was he wo s o imes, i was he age o
wisdom, i was he age o oolishness, i was he epoch o belie , i
was he epoch o inc eduli y, i was he season o Ligh , i was he
season o Da kness, i was he sp ing o hope, i was he win e o
despai , we had e e y hing be o e us, we had no hing be o e us, we
we e all going di ec o Hea en, we we e all going di ec he o he
way—in sho , he pe iod was so a like he p esen pe iod, ha
some o i s noisies au ho i ies insis ed on i s being ecei ed, o
good o o e il, in he supe la i e deg ee o compa ison only.
Cha les Dickens, A Tale o Two Ci ies
The i s i e decades o he 19 h cen u y in England we e ma ked by signi ican social
and economic changes, d i en mainly by indus ialisa ion, u banisa ion, and poli ical e o m.
We need, howe e , o go back a leas a hund ed yea s o uly unde s and how no only he
English landscape bu he en i e Eu opean scene in luenced he a is ic and li e a y
mani es a ions o he mid-19 h cen u y, o which Emily B on ë, along wi h he sis e s Cha lo e
and Anne, we e a pa . Al hough he B on ë li e a y canon is mo e commonly associa ed wi h
he h ee B on ë sis e s, hei b o he B anwell B on ë was also a w i e and an a is and
con ibu ed la gely o hei ea ly c ea i e endea ou s. B anwell w o e poe y and p ose,
collabo a ing wi h his sis e s in hei ic ional wo lds o he Glass Town Con ede acy and, la e ,
wi h Cha lo e in hei kingdom o Ang ia. Despi e his li e a y alen , B anwell’s wo k ne e
achie ed he same acclaim and “immo ali y” as his sis e s' poe y and no els. A li e o excess,
addic ion, and poo heal h o e shadowed his po en ial and cu sho his a is ic aspi a ions.
The coun y whe e hey we e bo n and li ed mos o hei li es, Yo kshi e, home o he
B on ë amily, played a signi ican ole in he Indus ial Re olu ion du ing he 19 h cen u y,
con ibu ing o he ans o ma ion o England's economy and socie y, namely in he ex ile
indus y. Ci ies such as Leeds, B ad o d, Hudde s ield, and Hali ax, a me e 6 miles om
Tho n on, he bi hplace o he B on ë child en, and 10 miles om Hawo h, whe e he
B on ës li ed hei childhood and adul li es, became majo cen es o woollen and wo s ed
clo h p oduc ion. The mechanisa ion o ex ile manu ac u ing, including he in en ion o he
spinning jenny, pa en ed by James Ha g ea es in 1770, and he powe loom, by Edmund
11
Ca w igh in 1785, e olu ionised he p oduc ion p ocess and led o he es ablishmen o
la ge-scale ex ile mills in Yo kshi e.
The Indus ial Re olu ion also led o he apid u banisa ion in Yo kshi e, as u al
wo ke s mig a ed o indus ial owns and ci ies in sea ch o employmen in ac o ies and mills.
The la ges u ban cen es expe ienced d ama ic popula ion g ow h, leading o he expansion
and, mo e o en han no , deg ada ion o housing, sani a ion, and public se ices. In addi ion,
hese mig a ion mo emen s also b ough abou p o ound social changes o Yo kshi e’s ha sh
landscape, including he eme gence o a wo king-class popula ion, he ise o indus ial
capi alism, and he de elopmen o class consciousness among wo ke s. Indus ialisa ion also
led o signi ican en i onmen al deg ada ion, as pollu ion om ac o ies and mines
con amina ed he ai and wa e ways, wi h he exodus o u al mig an s locking o u ban a eas
in sea ch o wo k. This in lux o people esul ed in o e c owded and unsani a y li ing
condi ions in u ban slums. Ci ies like Manches e , Bi mingham, and Li e pool became cen es
o indus ial ac i i y. I is in he la e , Li e pool, ha Wu he ing Heigh s’ M Ea nshaw a els
o unspeci ied business a ai s and b ings back a oundling, Hea hcli , hus changing he
cou se o li e a u e.
As indus y eshaped he landscape, ac o ies, ailways, and u ban expansion
con on ed indi iduals wi h new o ms o o e whelming powe and as ness, bo h physically
and me apho ically. The Sublime, adi ionally associa ed wi h na u e’s g andeu —like
moun ains, s o ms, o oceans— ound a new exp ession in hese echnological and socie al
shi s. The mechanical dominance and shee scale o indus ial inno a ion inspi ed a sense o
awe a human ingenui y while simul aneously in oking eelings o insigni icance, ea , and e en
aliena ion in he ace o uns oppable p og ess. W i e s o he ime, such as Cha les Dickens
and Elizabe h Gaskell, o en g appled wi h hese duali ies, depic ing dys opian scene ies and
e lec ing he ensions be ween echnological ad ancemen and he indi idual’s emo ional
and psychological esponse o he colossal o ces o indus ialisa ion. Thus, he Indus ial
Re olu ion, much like na u e i sel , became a powe ul symbol o he Sublime in 19 h-cen u y
li e a u e. Cha les Dickens’s Ha d Times (1854) c i iques he dehumanising e ec s o
indus ialisa ion on socie y. Desc ibing on he ic ional own o Coke own (a s and-in o
indus ial ci ies like Manches e o Bi mingham), he au ho highligh s he pollu ion and
en i onmen al deg ada ion and depic s he mono onous, bleak li es o ac o y wo ke s unde

12
he opp essi e powe o ac o y owne s, e ealing he c ushing social inequali ies a ising om
indus ial capi alism:
I was a own o ed b ick, o o b ick ha would ha e been ed i he smoke and ashes
had allowed i ; bu as ma e s s ood, i was a own o unna u al ed and black like he pain ed
ace o a sa age. I was a own o machine y and all chimneys, ou o which in e minable
se pen s o smoke ailed hemsel es o e e and e e , and ne e go uncoiled. I had a black
canal in i , and a i e ha an pu ple wi h ill-smelling dye, and as piles o building ull o
windows whe e he e was a a ling and a embling all day long, and whe e he pis on o he
s eam-engine wo ked mono onously up and down, like he head o an elephan in a s a e o
melancholy madness. I con ained se e al la ge s ee s all e y like one ano he , and many
small s ee s s ill mo e like one ano he , inhabi ed by people equally like one ano he , who all
wen in and ou a he same hou s, wi h he same sound upon he same pa emen s, o do he
same wo k, and o whom e e y day was he same as yes e day and o-mo ow, and e e y yea
he coun e pa o he las and he nex .
4
(p.32)
Likewise, Elizabe h Gaskell, in Ma y Ba on (1848), explo es he ha sh condi ions and
class di ides c ea ed by he Indus ial Re olu ion. Gaskell, a Mancunian he sel , po ayed bo h
he g im eali ies o ac o y li e and he s uggles be ween wo ke s and indus ialis s. The
condi ions o he poo people o Manches e a e abjec , and men like John Ba on con as
hese condi ions wi h he li es yles o he ich ac o y owne s o whom ime o wo k means
a holiday a he han dea h and su e ing.
She ook he b ead, when i was pu in o he hand, and b oke a bi , bu could no
ea . She was pas hunge . She ell down on he loo wi h a hea y un esis ing bang. The men
looked puzzled. ‘She's well-nigh clemmed,’ said Ba on. ‘Folk do say one mus n' gi e clemmed
people much o ea ; bu , bless us, she'll ea nough .’ (p. 90).
The li ing condi ions o he poo ex end beyond hunge and pain. They ha e so li le
ha hey canno e en b ing hemsel es o ea when hey a e o e ed ood. The woman is
desc ibed as being "pas hunge ." The condi ions o he people ha e ex ended beyond he
uncom o able and beyond he pain ul. E en sus enance can no longe help he because she
is so a beyond hung y ha she ba ely e en ecognises he sensa ion.
E en hough Bu ke's heo y o he Sublime, as ou lined in his A Philosophical Enqui y
in o he O igin o Ou Ideas o he Sublime and Beau i ul (1757), p ima ily ocused on na u e's
powe o e oke awe and e o , his ideas can be p ojec ed o unde s and he u ban and
4
Ou i alics.
13
indus ial sublime ha eme ged du ing he Indus ial Re olu ion. Bu ke a gued ha he
Sublime a ises om expe iences ha o e whelm he senses, con on ing indi iduals wi h
as ness, powe , o dange ha exceed hei capaci y o comp ehend, p o oking a mix u e o
admi a ion and ea . This p o ides a use ul amewo k o in e p e ing he “u ban Sublime”
ha eme ged as indus ial ci ies expanded and echnological ad ances ans o med he
landscape. The as ac o ies, owe ing chimneys, and elen less pace o indus ialisa ion
pa alleled he na u al phenomena Bu ke associa ed wi h he Sublime. The scale and in ensi y
o hese man-made en i onmen s, illed wi h noise, pollu ion, and o e c owding, would
o e whelm indi iduals in he same way ha Bu ke desc ibed na u e's Sublime e ec s. The
expe ience o wi nessing he seemingly boundless po en ial o indus ialisa ion and i s
capaci y o des uc ion and dehumanisa ion mi o ed he emo ional cha ge Bu ke conside ed
akin o he Sublime: a mix u e o ascina ion and d ead.
Amids he in e play be ween he Sublime's na u al and now u ban ins ances, bo h
cap i a ing and o e whelming in hei g andeu , Emily B on ë’s sensi i i y o such expe iences
was e iden om he ea lies yea s. Bo n in Tho n on, Yo kshi e, on July 30 h, 1818, he
childhood was shaped by momen s ha echoed hese sublime o ces, o ins ance, when she
wi nessed he g ea C ow Hill bog e up ion on Sep embe 2nd, 1824. A e endu ing he ypical
child illnesses o he ime (whooping cough, chickenpox and measles, which s uck all six
B on ë child en), Pa ick B on ë delayed Emily’s en y in o Cowan B idge. Tha Sep embe
a e noon, she was ou on he moo s wi h B anwell, Ann and Tabby (house se an s) when a
massi e s o m b oke ou . Talking shel e om he hea y ain in an abandoned s one
a mhouse, hey wa ched in awe and exhila a ion as he day u ned pi ch black and he aging
s o m swep o e he hills in a whi lwind o ain and loose b anches. The e was a small and
sho ea hquake, and he C ow Hill bog exploded be o e hei eyes in an e up ion o pea , soil
and boulde s up in he ai and hen unning down he hills. Emily was six yea s old. Fo he ,
his was, in F ank’s (1990, p.49) wo ds, he e y i s “wu he ing heigh s”, and doub lessly his
episode would always be in he back o he mind as he momen she connec ed almos a a
spi i ual le el o he ha sh, c aggy landscape su ounding he amily home: “In ime, i became
mo e o a home o he han he pa sonage, pe mea ing nea ly e e y hing she e e w o e. The
na u al wo ld o Emily was a ealm o unp edic able, supe human o ces compounded o
equal pa s o beau y and iolence.” (49).
14
No e en a yea la e , he wo eldes B on ë gi ls, Ma ia and Elizabe h, would be dead.
The subhuman condi ions he gi ls we e subjec ed o a Cowan B idge, whe e he nigh s we e
cold and ood sca ce, which le hei bodies eeble and p one o illness, oge he wi h an
epidemic o yphoid e e , p o ed a al o he wo sis e s. Ma ia was he i s o succumb,
aged 11, in May 1825; Elizabe h ollowed soon a e , aged 10, in June. A e he auma ic dea h
o hei mo he , he dea h o he li le mo he (Ma ia) and hei sis e , Elizabe h, had a massi e
impac on he young siblings. In ac , Hawo h was a place whe e dea h and loss we e
pe manen ly lu king as i aced a se e e sani a ion and wa e supply issue. The sewage sys em
was ba ely exis en , and he cesspools o s agna ed wa e we e he ideal ecosys em o he
p ospe i y o all so s o diseases: dysen e y, yphoid, chole a. Toile s and o he acili ies we e
sha ed by up o a dozen amilies, a ely sani ised o disin ec ed, and he wa e supply was
minimal and sep ic, especially in he summe . To make ma e s wo se, he chu ch g a eya d,
dange ously o e c owded, was loca ed a he op o a slope. Rainwa e would un down he
slope, h ough he co pses, and deposi on he own’s supply sys em. This hygiene nigh ma e
was one o he main causes o he ca as ophic mo ali y a e: hal o he child en bo n in he
illage would no li e beyond he age o six, and he a e age li e expec ancy was only abou
hi y yea s old. I was a own o poo ly educa ed and humble wea e s and labou e s, and M s
Gaskell (p.15) s a ed he Hawo hians’ “accos was cu , hei accen and one o speech blun
and ha sh”.
5
They we e ee ie o newcome s, pa icula ly hose wi h highe social and poli ical
s a us om places beyond he Yo kshi e egion, as i was he case o he B on ës (and
Lockwood, in Wu he ing Heigh s).
One may say, e en hough hei imagina ion had led hem o es ablish hei plays while
lying in hei sha ed beds, he B on ës' li e a y ca ee began in he e ening o June 5 h, 1826,
when Pa ick B on ë a i ed home om Leeds wi h a w apped box o B anwell. Inside we e
wel e oy soldie s, which we e quickly adop ed by each o he child en and gi en names:
Cha lo e’s was he Duke o Welling on (and, la e on, his imagina y amily, which consis ed o
5
One canno a oid hinking o he se an Joseph in Wu he ing Heigh s, wi h his hick Yo kshi e dialec , which Emily B on ë
me iculously cap u es in i s speech pa e ns, almos phone ic spelling and non-s anda d g amma . Unde s anding his dialec
poses a high challenge o Lockwood, hus e lec ing he isola ion o he u al se ing and c ea ing an added sense o uneasiness
bo h in he cha ac e and he eade s who need o un angle he ansc ip ion o his lines o dialogue. William M. Sale, in he
“Tex ual Commen a y” o he Thi d Edi ion o Wu he ing Heigh s ( he one adop ed in his wo k), s a es ha , wo yea s a e
he dea h o Emily, when Cha lo e B on ë was p epa ing he second and e ised edi ion o he no el, she w o e o he
publishe saying: “I seems o me ad isable o modi y he o hog aphy o he old se an ’s Joseph; o hough as i s ands, i
exac ly ende s he Yo kshi e dialec o a Yo kshi e ea , ye I am su e Sou he ns mus ind i unin elligible; and hus one o he
mos g aphic cha ac e s in he book is los on hem” (p. 262)
15
wo sons, one o hem he wicked Duke o Zamo na), B anwell’s Napoleon (be o e c ea ing his
he o Alexande Pe cy, he Rogue, Lo d Ell ing on and he Duke o No hange land), which
p o ides u he e idence ha poli ics and wa a e we e common hemes in he B on ë
household. Emily and Anne se poli ics aside and chose he wo A c ic explo e s, Cap ain
Edwa d Pa y and Cap ain John Ross, espec i ely. The wo younges B on ë sis e s seemed o
admi e he da ingness and cou age o he explo e mo e han he cunningness o he poli ician
o he agg essi eness o he soldie . A e emba king he ou he oes on a long jou ney down
he Wes Coas o A ica, whe e hey conque ed and colonised he e i o y, i was hen di ided
in o ou kingdoms, he G ea Glass Town Con ede acy, whe e i s capi al Glass own (la e
Ve dopolis) was ounded.
The B on ë child en had begun building hei li e a y empi e. Wha ollowed was
hund eds o his o ical eco ds, maps, lis s, poems, snippe s o ales, accoun s o y annical
powe , con lic and bloodshed, and deep emo ional bonds, all e e nalised in iny bookle s only
o be gazed upon by he eyes o he child en and whose pages could be u ned by hei own
small hands alone.
A e he Cowan B idge agedy in he 1820s, in 1835, Emily, now 17, is a s uden a
Roe Head. Again, she does no adjus o he daily ou ine o he boa ding school. Ex emely
homesick, she became silen and wi hd awn, ba ely a e and g ew hinne , languid, and
un esponsi e. Fea ing o he li e, he a he sen o he o e u n. Emily e u ned home and
Anne ook he place. Cha lo e (Gaskell, 2009, p. 141) w o e la e :
Libe y was he b ea h o Emily's nos ils; wi hou i , she pe ished. The change om he own
home o a school and om he own e y noiseless, e y secluded bu un es ic ed and
una i icial mode o li e, o one o disciplined ou ine ( hough unde he kindes auspices), was
wha she ailed in endu ing. He na u e p o ed he e oo s ong o he o i ude. E e y
mo ning, when she woke, he ision o home and he moo s ushed on he , and da kened and
saddened he day ha lay be o e he . Nobody knew wha ailed he bu me. I knew only oo
well. In his s uggle he heal h was quickly b oken: he whi e ace, a enua ed o m, and ailing
s eng h, h ea ened apid decline. I el in my hea she would die, i she did no go home, and
wi h his con ic ion ob ained he ecall. She had only been h ee mon hs a school; and i was
some yea s be o e he expe imen o sending he om home was again en u ed on.
Fo Emily, as ing became bo h a manne o pe sonal exp ession and a weapon: o ge
he way, Emily would s op ea ing. The e we e many ins ances in he adul li e, namely in he
22
and wild wi h joy. He wan ed all o lie in an ecs asy o peace; I wan ed all o spa kle and dance
in a glo ious jubilee. (p. 188)
In ac , eligion does no a e well a all in Wu he ing Heigh s. The old se an Joseph
is a epulsi e ca ica u e o he uneduca ed eligious zealo , and Re e end B ande ham, in
Lockwood’s d eam, is idiculed o his se mon. A he closing o he no el, e en he chu ch o
Gimme on is in uins, and no one seems bo he ed enough o ehabili a e i . On ano he le el,
while no explici ly abou Ca holicism, he heme o exclusion and ma ginalisa ion in
Wu he ing Heigh s esona es wi h hese s uggles aced by Ca holics in ea ly 19 h-cen u y
B i ain. Hea hcli ’s ea men and he disc imina ion he aces e lec he socie al p ejudices o
he ime.
The image y o he eligious building in uins is also equen in Emily’s poe y, bo h in
he own oice and wi hin he Gondal saga.
13
In he composi ion “The old chu ch owe and
ga den wall” (Oc obe 1837), he poe con empla es he decline o a amilia landscape,
depic ing no jus he decay o he buil and na u al en i onmen bu also how i con eys hei
own in e nal melancholy, by highligh ing he g adual passage om ligh and joy o da kness
and desola ion ( he "glad and glo ious day" is o e aken by e ening, and "a deepe gloom").
The chu ch is “old”, and he “ga den wall" is desc ibed as "black wi h au umn ain," a d ama ic
image symbolising he de e io a ion and ageing o once sac ed o beau i ul s uc u es.
Au umn, o en associa ed wi h he decline o li e and he app oach o win e , se s he scene
o his decay, as he elemen s, such as ain and he "d ea y winds," wea away a he physical
wo ld. Ano he example o his decay in eligious buildings may be ound in “A sudden chasm
o ghas ly ligh ”, whe e he speake , hough by Guima ães (2002, p. 415) o be he ic o ious
Julius B enzaida, desc ibes he de as a ion he wa b ough no only in e ms o casual ies bu
o buildings eligious o o he wise: while line 13 eads “In plunde ed chu ches piled wi h he
13
Gondal is Emily’s and Anne’s island-kingdom in he No h Paci ic, a e seceding om Glass own in 1835. I had he same
clima e and landscape as Yo kshi e: ex emely cold and windy win e s, mild sp ings and blue-skied summe s. Gondal was a
emale-domina ed oyalis wo ld, and s ong-willed woman so e eigns uled y annically in Gondal. They would ake and
dispose o lo e s and ine i ably died iolen ly a he hands o me cena ies in he desola e landscape o moo s, co e ed in
hea h and bluebells. I s head o s a e, a beau i ul, u hless Queen named Augus a Ge aldine Almeda (A.G.A.) may ha e been
inspi ed by P incess Vic o ia, who was less han a yea younge han Emily and des ined soon o be Queen. Indeed, Augus a
was one o he names pu o wa d o ch is en he child bu was d opped on he ins uc ions o he P ince Regen . The P incess
ended up ecei ing he name o Alexand ina Vic o ia.

23
dead”, line 25 ells o a “ uined Hall”, and he poem concludes wi h a “g ea ca hed al
disc owned.
14
The B on ë household shook again a couple o yea s la e wi h he passing o he
Re o m Bill o 1831, also known as he G ea Re o m Ac . This piece o legisla ion aimed o
add ess widesp ead demands o poli ical e o m, as i sough o co ec he unequal
ep esen a ion in Pa liamen by edis ibu ing sea s om " o en bo oughs" (a eas wi h e y
ew o e s, p one o a eudalis ic mindse , aud and b ibe y) o mo e populous indus ial
owns and ci ies. I also expanded he elec o a e by lowe ing p ope y equi emen s o o ing,
allowing a la ge po ion o he middle class, especially he ich bou geoisie wi h no i le
(bes owed o pu chased), o pa icipa e in elec ions. Though i did no g an uni e sal su age,
he Re o m Bill was de ini ely a s ep owa ds a mo e democ a ic exp ession and ep esen a ion
in he Pa liamen . F ank (1990, p. 77) desc ibes how his clash o o ces was expe ienced in
he pa sonage:
Pa ick B on ë suppo ed he e o m bill bu o p agma ic easons: e o m had been long ime
b ewing and had o be con ained and cu bed since i was clea i could no be supp essed
al oge he . He endo sed he bill as a mode a e concession o he public clamou o poli ical
change because he hough i would o es all mo e ex eme measu es and a e e olu ion.
The F ench Re olu ion, he esul ing yea s o e o , and he a e ma h o he
Napoleonic wa s we e s ill e y p esen in e e yone’s minds. The child en, in hei eens a he
ime, ook sides and e en in e wined eal-li e e en s wi h hei poe ic c ea ions. E en hough
bo h Cha lo e and Emily sha ed a conse a i e upb inging, he la e was somewha mo e
p og essi e. Emily sympa hised wi h he opp essed and o en placed hem a he o e on o
he wo k. While Cha lo e opposed he e o m, Emily suppo ed i , which aligns wi h he poe 's
14
The “disc owning” o he ca hed al is signi ican o he Gondal na a i e as i dialogues wi h ano he poem “The wide
ca hed al Aisles a e lone” (Ma ch 1838), which eads “The wide ca hed al Isles a e lone, / The as c owds anished e e y
one; / The e can be naugh benea h ha dome / Bu he cold enan s o he omb.” This piece desc ibes how Julius B enzaida
en e s in o a eache ous pac wi h his ellow kinsman, Ge ald Exina ( he de ac o king o Gondal), o become co- ule s
(“Gondal’s mona chs”). This ce emony akes place a he al a o he ca hed al and is wi nessed by a la ge, silen c owd.
Howe e , his e en is ain ed by he pe idious na u e o B enzaida, as he plans o usu p he c own o himsel alone: “Take in
hea ens sigh hei aw ul ow / And ne e dying Union swea / King Julius li s his impious eye / F om he da k ma ble o he
sky / Blas s wi h ha Oa h his pe ju ed soul” (lines 13-17). The poem “A sudden chasm o ghas ly ligh ” desc ibes he
a e ma h o he esul ing ci il wa be ween he wo ac ions and he “disc owned ca hed al” is a me apho o he disc owned
Exina. Emily seems o keep he spi i uali y and ai h, ye akes a e y dim iew o he human elemen wi hin he chu ch: while,
in he i s poem, he chu ch and owe decay wi h he passage o ime and neglec o he pa ishione s, in he Gondal poems,
he Ca hed al is des oyed h ough human ac ion: i s , concep ually, by he pe ju y o men, hen la e , physically, h ough he
wa waged o land and powe .
24
endency o a ou e olu iona ies, ou side s, and he ma ginalised—a bias ha is e iden
h oughou he w i ing. An example o such a ou i ism is he p eeminence gi en o he
cha ac e o Augus a Ge aldine Almeda, a ie cely independen woman ule who sub e s
con en ional expec a ions o eminini y.
Though Ini ially p esen ed as he a che ypal he oine, she embodies he hemes o lo e
and mou ning o Alexande E., Lo d o Elbë, he i s lo e and husband, by enaciously holding
on o his soul so ha i does no escape his ea hly body and ly in o a spi i ual plane. Augus a
speaks o him encou agingly in “A Dea h-Scene ‘O day! he canno die’” (1844): “I is no Dea h,
bu pain / Tha s uggles in hy b eas ; / Nay, ally, Elbë, ouse again, / I canno le hee es !”
(l.25-28). He macab e exclama ion esona es closely wi h Hea hcli ’s in en ional desec a ion
o Ca he ine’s g a e. In Chap e XXIX, he con esses o ha ing unea hed Ca he ine’s co in
wice: he i s ime, on he nigh o he bu ial (“Being alone, and conscious wo ya ds o loose
ea h was he sole ba ie be ween us, I said o mysel - 'I'll ha e he in my a ms again! I she
be cold, I'll hink i is his no h wind ha chills ME; and i she be mo ionless, i is sleep. I go a
spade om he ool-house, and began o del e wi h all my migh - i sc aped he co in."
(p.219), and, a second ime, when he ook he oppo uni y o open he co in a e Edga ’s
une al (“I go he sex on, who was digging Lin on's g a e, o emo e he ea h o he co in
lid, and I opened i . I hough , once, I would ha e s ayed he e: when I saw he ace again - i
is he s ye !” (p. 218). In he poem “The e shines he moon, a noon o nigh ” (1837), ecoun ing
yea s la e Alexande ’s dea h, Augus a desc ibes his end by Lake Elno in pu e Go hic e ms:
“His ed blood dyed a deepe hue, / Shudde ing o eel he ghos ly gloom / Tha coming Dea h
a ound him h ew— / Sickening o hink one hou would se e / The swee , swee wo ld and
him o e e ” (l.30-34). The one is bo h melancholic and g im, wi h he chilling image y o he
s eam o blood and imminen Dea h, who is he e pe soni ied as a da k igu e ha h ows a
cloak o “ghos ly gloom” o e he soon- o-be co pse.
Howe e , he cha ac e anscends he a che ypal ai s, e ol ing in o a mo e complex
ep esen a ion o emale powe and emo ional dep h, cha ac e is ic o he Sublime. In “He e
wi h my knee upon hy s one” (1838), Augus a decides no o be bu ied ali e in he g ie now
ha Alexande is long gone. The poem, a qua ain, eads: “He e, wi h my knee upon hy s one,
/ I bid adieu o eelings gone; / I lea e wi h hee my ea s and pain, / And ush in o he wo ld
again”. Acco ding o Till (1989, p.133), “Augus a is a ib an ly ac i e cha ac e exis ing wi hin
25
he amewo k o Go hic a mosphe e bu ou side o he passi ely ecep i e cha ac e isa ion
o he s e eo ypical he oine.”. A.G.A. is cas in a a ou able ligh as a leade and queen,
unbound by socie al cons ain s, ha ing lo e s and child en ou o wedlock, and e en d i ing
men o suicide. He umul uous li e culmina es in a iolen and shocking dea h a he hands o
Douglas, who conspi ed agains he wi h he bes iend, Angelica, hus emphasising bo h he
be ayal she su e ed and he agic consequences o he de iance and s eng h. A.G.A is
po ayed as a esolu ely independen emale ule who challenges adi ional expec a ions o
eminini y, he eby o e ing he sel as a compelling ea ly example o he " eminine sublime".
In Wu he ing Heigh s, Hea hcli is a om he mous ache- wi ling, degene a e illain
o he go hic no el. Despi e his c uel y and enge ulness, he is po ayed somewha
sympa he ically in he no el, mos ly by o se ing his illainous ac s wi h momen s o high
ulne abili y and emo ional su e ing, much in he guise o a agic he o, whose ha shness is
o en unde s ood in he con ex o he deep oid he expe iences, making him a igu e o bo h
ea and pi y. Ellen Dean does no shy away om na a ing Lockwood Hea hcli ’s ea ly li e o
ejec ion, abuse, and ma ginalisa ion. While she is c i ical o his ac ions, she also shows
momen s o compassion and unde s anding, especially in ecoun ing his ea ly yea s. Hindley
Ea nshaw, in pa icula , dehumanises and b u alises Hea hcli , ea ing him as a se an and
logging him on occasion, in addi ion o psychologically o u ing him wi h dea h h ea s. This
abuse elici s sympa hy o Hea hcli and explains (bu does no jus i y) his la e enge ul
beha iou . His all-consuming lo e o Ca he ine is cons ued as deeply agic. Ca he ine
chooses o ma y Edga Lin on, no because she lo es him mo e han Hea hcli , bu because
she wan s o ele a e he social s anding. This ejec ion and isola ion a e a con inual eminde
o his s a us as an ou cas .
E en hough 19 h-cen u y Yo kshi e was geog aphically and abou 40 yea s
ch onologically dis an om he F ench Re olu ion, mos o he na a i e in he i s pa o
Wu he ing Heigh s p eda es and o e laps no only he Re olu ion bu also he Ame ican
Decla a ion o Independence (despi e he i s ch onological e e ence being 1801, he
na a i e is old in analepsis o he yea 1771 when M Ea nshaw e u ns om Li e pool wi h
Hea hcli ). The epe cussions o bo h e en s we e s ill el ac oss England, whe e he echoes
o he Re olu ion and he ongoing Napoleonic Wa s uelled ea s o social un es , ebellion,
and collapse. The e olu ionis s' ideas and p inciples, such as libe y, equali y, and a e ni y,
26
esona ed wi h e o m-minded indi iduals and g oups in he shi e. The e olu ion inspi ed
poli ical adicals and e o me s who sough o challenge he exis ing social and poli ical o de
in English e i o y and ad oca e o impac ul e o ms, including uni e sal su age and
pa liamen a y es uc u ing.
A eas like Hudde s ield and B ad o d became ho spo s o adicalism and poli ical
dissen and b eeding g ounds o g oups such as he Luddi es, Cha is s, and o he e o m
mo emen s. These mo emen s ad oca ed o wo ke s' igh s, poli ical e o m, and social
jus ice, and o en o ganised p o es s, s ikes, and demons a ions o ad ance hei causes, hus
aising he public’s awa eness owa ds ma e s such as po e y, inequali y, li ing and wo king
condi ions, educa ion, sani a ion, and heal hca e. Howe e , au ho i ies in Yo kshi e o en
esponded o p o es s and demons a ions wi h o ce, leading o iolen con on a ions,
a es s, and subsequen ials and con ic ions. The Pe e loo Massac e o 1819, a yea a e
Emily was bo n no ha a away, in which p o es o s, who sough o add ess he lack o
poli ical ep esen a ion and economic ha dships aced by he wo king class, we e me wi h a
iolen cha ge by go e nmen o ces in S . Pe e 's Field, Manches e , was seen as an example
o his ep ession.
The F ench Re olu ion, and he u bulen beginnings o he 19 h cen u y, also had a
cul u al and li e a y impac on a is s and o he in ellec uals; namely, wi h he de elopmen
o aes he ic heo ies such as he concep o he Sublime, heo ised a he ime by Edmund
Bu ke (d awing om Longinus’s ea y) and Immanuel Kan , which will be he objec o Chap e
II o his wo k. The chaos and iolence o he Re olu ion, especially he Reign o Te o , e oked
a sense o he Sublime. The eno mi y o social change, he collapse o cen u ies-old
ins i u ions, and he shee unp edic abili y o e en s c ea ed a eeling ha anscended human
unde s anding and h ea ened one’s sense o sa e y. Also, he iconic and w i en language o
he Sublime became a powe ul he o ical ool o mobilising suppo o he e olu ion and
inspi ing collec i e ac ion. Many o he aes he ic concep s also ound some o hei
undamen als in he Sublime.
The G o esque, o ins ance, is an aes he ic concep closely associa ed wi h he
Sublime. Howe e , he g o esque blends he d ama ic and he ho i ying, o en in ol ing
dis o ions o eali y ha e oke bo h disgus and ascina ion. The e olu ion’s iolence,
27
pa icula ly he public execu ions and mob jus ice, p o ided e ile g ound o g o esque
image y. In Ma y Shelley's
15
wo k F ankens ein (1818), he no el's cen al igu e, he nameless
c ea u e, is an iconic example o he g o esque, as i is g o esque no only in i s physical
appea ance—desc ibed as a pa chwo k o human body pa s wi h a hideous, unna u al o m—
bu also in he way i embodies bo h humani y and mons osi y. Despi e being in elligen and
capable o emo ion, he c ea u e is ejec ed and ea ed by socie y due o i s appea ance, which
leads o i s g owing esen men and iolen ac ions. This duali y e lec s he g o esque's abili y
o me ge he e i ying wi h he agic, e oking bo h ho o and sympa hy om he eade . I
uses he g o esque o explo e hemes o c ea ion, aliena ion, and he dange s o unchecked
ambi ion by combining hope and e o , eedom and iolence, which we e also he
con adic o y p inciples o he Re olu ion.
One may ind hin s o he g o esque in Wu he ing Heigh s, qui e ex ually in he
beginning o he no el, when Lockwood desc ibes he on ispiece o he house:
Be o e passing he h eshold, I paused o admi e a quan i y o g o esque ca ing la ished o e
he on , and especially abou he p incipal doo ; abo e which, among a wilde ness o
c umbling g i ins and shameless li le boys, I de ec ed he da e '1500,' and he name 'Ha e on
Ea nshaw’. I would ha e made a ew commen s, and eques ed a sho his o y o he place
om he su ly owne ; bu his a i ude a he doo appea ed o demand my speedy en ance,
o comple e depa u e, and I had no desi e o agg a a e his impa ience p e ious o inspec ing
he pene alium. (p. 4)
This passage alone gi es us a lo abou he his o ical and cul u al landscape o he ime.
Lockwood akes a momen o inspec he ca ed igu es abo e he h eshold, who appea in
he shape o decaying ga goyles and lewd human igu es. G i ins a e, in G eek my hology,
hyb id c ea u es, o en depic ed wi h he body o a lion and he head and wings o an eagle,
p ima ily ep esen ing he combina ion o he s eng h and cou age o he lion wi h he
swi ness and ision o he eagle
16
, hus making hem symbols o duali y and powe . In addi ion
o being igu es o gua dianship and p o ec ion, bo h physically and symbolically, hey a e also
seen as elemen s o duali y and balance, as hey syn hesise he union o he ea h ( he lion)
15
Ma y Shelley’s pa en s, Ma y Wolls onec a and William Godwin, we e also p ominen igu es in he a is ic and li e a y
landscape and head igu es in he adical w i ings o he ime. Wi h wo ks such as A Vindica ion o he Righ s o Woman (1792)
and Enqui y Conce ning Poli ical Jus ice (1793), which highligh ed he u gency o social e o m, democ acy, gende equali y
and human igh s, hei discou se was mainly ocused on he ac i e esis ance o opp ession and y anny.
16
Cu iously, he lion has been seen as he symbol o England and he eagle as he symbol o F ance, wo coun ies ha clashed
in he Napoleonic Wa s (1803–1815).

28
and sky (eagle), and, me apho ically, body and spi i , o s eng h and wisdom. In his sense,
g i ins, as symbols o he soul’s jou ney o a highe s a e, can be seen as media o s be ween
wo ealms, embodying he duali y o he human condi ion o he union o physical and
spi i ual quali ies.
As we will see in Emily B on ë’s poe y and no el, he Sublime h esholds a e also
loca ed in he ine line which di ides ea h and hea en, highligh ing he duali y o he house
i sel : i s ands as a massi e omb bu wi h li ing people in i . I is also he op imum spo o
encoun e s wi h he supe na u al, as in Lockwood’s d eam and Hea hcli ’s hallucina ions
owa ds he end o he no el. The c ossing o he h eshold a he en ance o Wu he ing
Heigh s can be in e p e ed, wi hin he con ex o he g o esque, as a wo-way ansg ession:
Lockwood insis s on en e ing an en i ely new eali y (“I will ge in”), which does no abide by
con en ional social no ms, despi e being wa ned by he ca ings. Lockwood, howe e , pays no
heed o hese wa nings. E en he da e, 1500, he u n o he cen u y, conside ed by his o ians
o be he yea ha ma ks he end o medie al imes, 300 yea s be o e he la e e en s o he
no el, e okes he a empo ali y and displacemen o his mic ocosmos in ela ion o
Lockwood’s eali y. The ac ha he name Ha e on Ea nshaw is w i en nex o he da e, makes
i qui e simila o Hea hcli ’s g a e (which only bea s he name and he da e o his dea h). One
is le wonde ing whe he 1500 was he da e o Ha e on’s bi h, dea h o he cons uc ion o
he house- omb. In ac , om his pe spec i e, he en i e açade o Wu he ing Heigh s can be
seen as a massi e ombs one o a dismembe ed, ha e ul and chao ic amily a cons an wa
wi h each o he .
The choice o he yea 1500 is also no ewo hy, as i is gene ally conside ed a pi o al
momen o cul u al, poli ical, and in ellec ual ans o ma ion, i.e., i also s ands o a
e olu ion. I is o en conside ed a signi ican u ning poin in his o y due o se e al key e en s
and de elopmen s ha ma ked he ansi ion om he Middle Ages o he ea ly mode n
pe iod. Fo example, as pe haps qui e meaning ul o he unde s anding o he B on ës’ wo ks,
he la e 15 h cen u y saw majo explo a ions ha eshaped global ade and in e ac ions.
17
England’s ea ly claims o No h Ame ican e i o ies pa ed he way o la e English explo a ion
17
Ch is ophe Columbus had al eady eached he Ame icas (1492), and, by 1500, he e a o Eu opean explo a ion was in ull
swing, wi h igu es like Vasco da Gama eaching India in 1498 and John Cabo (Gio anni Cabo o), he I alian explo e sailing
unde he English lag o King Hen y VII, who made he i s eco ded English-commissioned oyage o No h Ame ica. He
landed on he coas o wha is belie ed o be New oundland, in 1497, claiming i o England.
29
and colonisa ion, such as Sain Ki s, England’s i s colony in he Ca ibbean and Jamaica, seized
om he Spanish in 1655, u ning i in o he la ges suga -p oducing colony and uelling B i ish
in ol emen in he ansa lan ic sla e ade.
The hemes o expansion and colonisa ion would echo in he lines o bo h Cha lo e’s
and Emily’s ju enilia and no els, mainly in he cha ac e s o Be ha Mason, Roches e ’s i s
wi e, locked in he a ic o Tho n ield Hall due o he men al illness. She is desc ibed as being
o C eole descen , bo n in Jamaica o a weal hy amily, which ies he o igins o he B i ish
Wes Indies; and Hea hcli , whose o igin is unknown bu is desc ibed as a da k skin and gipsy-
like boy. Ellen, in Chap e VII, while ying o g oom him in on o a mi o , men ions ha he
was
… i o a p ince in disguise. Who knows bu you a he was Empe o o China, and you
mo he an Indian queen, each o hem able o buy up, wi h one week's income, Wu he ing
Heigh s and Th ushc oss G ange oge he ? And you we e kidnapped by wicked sailo s and
b ough o England. We e I in you place, I would ame high no ions o my bi h; and he
hough s o wha I was should gi e me cou age and digni y o suppo he opp essions o a
li le a me ! (p. 44)
Many s udies ha e been published ying o de e mine he ue e hnici y o
Hea hcli ,
18
none heless, as Emily B on ë did no lea e any indica ion o his o igin, he mys e y
emains. Wha could be said owa ds his discussion is ha he au ho may ha e d awn
Hea hcli ’s desc ip ion s o y, no only om an amalgama ion o he physical ai s o he
peoples om hese newly ound and eached lands bu also om he amily my hology, as he
g ea -g and a he , Welsh B un y’s o igin was also enw apped in a eil o mys e y and sec ecy.
The ale o a man called Welsh B un y and he s o y o how he came o he B un y amily is
old o us by Pinion (1975, p. 383):
Hugh's g and a he [Emily’s g ea -g ea -g and a he ] had a a m nea he banks o he Boyne.
He was a ca le-deale and o en c osses he I ish Sea om D ogheda o sell ca le in Li e pool.
On one o his e u n oyages, a s ange child was ound in he hold. I p o ed o be a e y young
boy – da k, di y and almos naked. The e was no doc o on he essel, and only one woman,
M s B un y. As nobody would ake ca e o him, and he e was no oundling hospi al nea e
han Dublin, she decided o adop him. F om his gypsyish complexion, he boy was hough o
18
Some c i ics in hei eading belie e Hea hcli o be he lo e child o M Ea nshaw and an unknown woman in Li e pool,
bu he e idence o suppo his claim seems o be hin and misplaced wi hin he imeline. E en i i we e con i med o be
ue, ha would make Hea hcli a mixed- ace illegi ima e child, which does no imp o e his si ua ion in any way. As Emily
B on ë did no p o ide u he in o ma ion on he ma e ei he wi hin he ex o in any o he no es, hus lea ing Hea hcli ’s
o igins unknown, his condi ion as a oundling s ands.
30
be Welsh, and called 'Welsh' by he B un ys. He g ew up o be sullen, en ious, and cunning,
and a ached himsel o M B un y who ook him, ins ead o his own sons, o ai s and ma ke s
o lis en o a me s' con e sa ions and gain he in o ma ion needed o d i e ha d ba gains.
Welsh, much like Hea hcli , was ound in Li e pool abandoned, malnou ished, and is
desc ibed as ha ing a da k complexion. I is also in e es ing ha nobody would ouch he
s owaway, pe haps a aid he may ha e come om he de il. Likewise, in Chap e IV, M
Ea nshaw, a e e ealing Hea hcli o he o he membe s o he household s a es: “See he e,
wi e! I was ne e so bea en wi h any hing in my li e: bu you mus e'en ake i as a gi o God;
hough i 's as da k almos as i i came om he de il.” (p. 28) I was h ough he in e en ion
o a pa on, M s B un y / M Ea nshaw, who pi ied him, ha he was allowed o li e a ull li e.
They ga e him he name “Welsh” due o his da k complexion, a e y common s e eo ype
among B i ish sailo s and me chan s who would b and anyone wi h a di e en , da ke
complexion as “I ish” and “Welsh”, o “Gipsy”, any o he pe son whose physiognomy was
somewha di e en om hei s. I also lends some c edi o Ellen’s desc ip ion o Hea hcli as
a po en ial descendan o he Empe o o China o an Indian queen.
Simila ly o Hea hcli , who is o en desc ibed as a cuckoo and a usu pe ,
19
Welsh was
also seen by M B un y’s o he child en as an “in e lope ”, as he was hei a he ’s a ou i e
and ha ing gained almos comple e managemen in business ma e s. He is also epo ed o
ha e de eloped a a he uncon en ional ela ionship wi h his adop ed sis e , Ma y, owing o
ma y he one way o ano he a e being summa ily ejec ed, which he did a e a scandalous
encoun e . A e seeing a la ge pa o his o une consumed by lames, he childless Welsh
o e s o adop one his many nephews. He hen akes he young Hugh om his o iginal amily,
whom he ea s ha shly and o ces o wo k in he ields. In his, we can see a clea p ecu so
o he mys e ious oundling Hea hcli and his ea men o his “adop i e” Ha e on. Also, in
Emily B on ë’s poe y, we can see he igu e o he usu pe
20
in Julius B enzaida, who seized
19
Hea hcli is po ayed as a cuckoo and a usu pe o bo h a ec ions and p ope y. Hindley conside s him a usu pe o his
a he 's a ec ions: “ he young mas e had lea ned o ega d his a he as an opp esso a he han a iend, and Hea hcli as
a usu pe o his pa en 's a ec ions and his p i ileges” (p. 30); and Ellen and Joseph clea ly s a e wha Hea hcli s ole he
Ea nshaw p ope y: “so a p esen he laid he whole bu den o Ha e on's aul s on he shoulde s o he usu pe o his
p ope y”. (p. 151)
20
The igu e o he usu pe is one o he Go hic a che ypes o ansg ession, as he ul ima e dis up o o he social, economic
and poli ical o de . Some examples include Man ed, in The Cas le o O an o (1764), who, being he g andson o he man
who usu ped O an o om i s igh ul ule s, goes on a ampage o iolence and decei o legi imise his posi ion; and Mon oni,
in The Mys e ies o Udolpho (1794), who seeks o con ol and manipula e i s his wi e, Madame Che on, and hen he
p o agonis , Emily S . Aube . He o cibly seizes he amily’s p ope y and a emp s o compel he in o ma iage o inancial
gain, hus embodying he Go hic ope o he illainous, powe -hung y nobleman.
31
he h one o Gondal a e a alse and eache ous alliance wi h Ge ald Exina. The y an ends
up being assassina ed by A hu Gleneden, who, in “Gleneden’s D eam” (1838, also known o
i s i s line “Tell me, whache , is i win e ?”) desc ibes how his belo ed Gondal su e ed in he
hands o B enzaida: “I saw my coun y bleeding, / Dying o a Ty an ’s will” (lines 35-36) and
jus i ies he killing o he usu pe as he libe a ion o Gondal. In his wo ds, he is “a glad A enge
/ Thy e e nal Jus ice ound!” (lines 51-52).
The yea 1500 holds signi icance o 19 h-cen u y a is s, w i e s, and poe s due o wo
majo his o ical de elopmen s. Fi s , he in en ion o he p in ing p ess by Johannes
Gu enbe g in he mid-15 h cen u y e olu ionised communica ion, making books widely
a ailable and os e ing li e acy. By 1500, p in ed ma e ials enabled apid knowledge
dissemina ion, p o iding b oade access o ideas. The yea 1500 also symbolised he onse o
he Renaissance, a pe iod o classical e i al ha emphasised beau y, na u e, and human
emo ion. The Renaissance inspi ed Roman ic ideals o pe sonal exp ession and c ea i i y, wi h
igu es like Dan e and Shakespea e celeb a ed as g oundb eaking geniuses who pushed a is ic
bounda ies. The P e-Raphaeli es, o ins ance, admi ed his pe iod’s a is ic and mo al alues,
iewing i as an e a o c a smanship and ha mony wi h na u e, con as ing wi h hei own
indus ialised socie y.
Addi ionally, he ea ly 16 h cen u y ma ked a eligious shi , o eshadowing he
P o es an Re o ma ion. In 1517, Ma in Lu he ’s Nine y-Fi e Theses challenged he Ca holic
Chu ch, leading o majo con lic s like he Thi y Yea s' Wa . England saw i s own uphea al
du ing he English Ci il Wa , whe e oyalis and pa liamen a y o ces clashed, ul ima ely
esul ing in King Cha les I's execu ion and he empo a y es ablishmen o a epublic unde
Oli e C omwell
21
. The Re o ma ion o he Chu ch would appeal o 19 h-cen u y in ellec uals
as i laid he g oundwo k o la e mo emen s ad oca ing eligious eedom and indi idual
igh s. Mo eo e , i os e ed he ise o na ionalism, as many p inces and s a es adop ed
P o es an ism o poli ical gain o o asse independence om he Ca holic Chu ch.
The end o he 18 h cen u y also ma ked he incep ion o new li e a y mo emen s. One
such mo emen became known as Roman icism. The ideals o libe y, equali y, and a e ni y
21
The English Ci il Wa (1642 o 1651) migh ha e been one o he sou ces o inspi a ion o Emily B on ë's Gondal la e
con lic s, which opposed ac ions such as he “Royalis s” and he “Republicans”, headed by he Gleneden amily.
38
Lines 59-62 o The Rime o he Ancien Ma ine ead: “The ice was he e, he ice was he e, /
The ice was all a ound: / I c acked and g owled, and oa ed and howled, / Like noises in a
swound!" (Pa I). This i id desc ip ion o a wild, hos ile na u al en i onmen mi o s he
un amed a mosphe e o he moo s in Wu he ing Heigh s:
Abou midnigh , while we s ill sa up, he s o m came a ling o e he Heigh s in ull u y. The e
was a iolen wind, as well as hunde , and ei he one o he o he spli a ee o a he co ne
o he building. (p. 66).
He e, he iolen s o m ou side he house mi o s he empes uous emo ions inside,
pa icula ly Hea hcli 's passiona e, un amed na u e and his de as a ing decision o lea e he
Heigh s. Much like in Cole idge’s poem, he na u al wo ld in B on ë's no el is an ac i e, almos
me aphysical o ce.
Ano he in luence on Emily B on ë, bo h hema ically and in cha ac e building, is he
a che ype o he By onic he o. This igu e is ypically po ayed as a da k, b ooding, and
ebellious indi idual, o en in con lic wi h socie al no ms o au ho i y. He is in ospec i e and
ha bou s a sense o inne o men o guil s emming om a mys e ious o agic pas . This
cha ac e is equen ly ma ked by a combina ion o a ogance, in elligence, and emo ional
dep h, which se s hem apa om o he s and makes hem bo h allu ing and dange ous. The
By onic he o o en emains isola ed, unable o ully in eg a e in o socie y due o hei de iance
o con en ions and hei disillusionmen wi h he wo ld.
Man ed (1817) is one o Lo d By on’s mos no able wo ks and depic s he By onic he o
h ough he cha ac e o i s eponymous p o agonis . In his h ee-ac d ama ic poem, Man ed
is a o men ed nobleman who seeks escape om his guil and su e ing h ough supe na u al
means. The poem begins wi h Man ed summoning supe na u al spi i s o e ase he memo y
o his pas , pa icula ly he guil o e he dea h o a mys e ious woman, As a e, who may ha e
been his lo e o sis e . Howe e , he spi i s a e unable o g an him his wish, and Man ed
ejec s hei o e s o powe o solace. Th oughou he poem, Man ed oams he Alps,
e lec ing on li e, dea h, and his sense o isola ion. He encoun e s a ious supe na u al beings,
including a wi ch and he spi i s o he dead, bu he e uses o submi o any highe powe s,
main aining his independence e en in he ace o dea h. In he end, as dea h app oaches, he
con on s his a e on his own e ms, e using sal a ion o damna ion, and dies un epen an ,

39
asse ing his de iance o he e y end. The wo k is a medi a ion on guil , ee will, and he
limi s o human powe .
Hea hcli and Man ed sha e se e al key ai s, hus allowing o an echo o By on’s
wo k in Emily B on ë’s na a i e. Bo h a e o men ed by pas guil and a e haun ed by hei
pas s. Man ed is consumed by emo se o e As a e's dea h, while Hea hcli ’s o men s ems
om his obsessi e lo e o Ca he ine and he pain o he ejec ion and subsequen dea h. They
a e d i en by inne u moil and seem incapable o inding peace o edemp ion. The wo
cha ac e s a e also connec ed by hei inclina ion o isola ion and de iance o socie al no ms
and au ho i y. Man ed e uses o bow o supe na u al powe s o seek absolu ion, e en as he
con on s dea h. Simila ly, Hea hcli s ands ou side con en ional mo ali y and social
s uc u es, ac ing on his own desi es and engaging in enge ul beha iou wi hou ega d o
socie al o mo al cons ain s.
Like Hea hcli a he conclusion o his enge ul annihila ion, Man ed appea s o be in
a posi ion o appa en dominance o e e e y hing. He summons spi i s ("By he s ong cu se
which is upon my soul, / The hough which is wi hin me and a ound me, / I do compel ye o
my will. Appea !” (I.i 49-50), bu he only ou come he desi es is dea h on his own e ms,
un epen an and ee, jus as Hea hcli ha bou s no hope o a peace ul dea h: "I ha e nei he
a ea , no a p esen imen , no a hope o dea h" (p. 246). Man ed’s desi e o dea h is
obscu ely and ine i ably linked o his con ac wi h As a e, jus as Hea hcli ’s men al o men
is in e wined wi h his u ge o con ac wi h Ca he ine a e he dea h. Man ed eels ha i
he ouches he , he will a ain happiness, much like Hea hcli a emp s o g asp Ca he ine's
spi i when he exhumes he body. His deli iums condemn him o be his own Hell:
Come and si by me!
My soli ude is soli ude no mo e,
Bu peopled wi h he Fu ies;—I ha e gnashed
My ee h in da kness ill e u ning mo n,
Then cu sed mysel ill sunse ;—I ha e p ayed
Fo madness as a blessing. (II.ii 138-143).
This pa allels Hea hcli 's beha iou by Ca he ine’s dea hbed: "'Don’ o u e me ill I’m
as mad as you sel ,’ c ied he, w enching his head ee, and g inding his ee h" (p. 123).
40
In bo h s o ylines, we ind a o bidden and despe a e lo e ma ked by a a al sin ("To
o u e hus each o he , hough i we e / The deadlies sin o lo e as we ha e lo ed.” II.i 141-
142), hin ing a inces —a heme also aised in he ela ionship be ween he wo p o agonis s
o Wu he ing Heigh s. As a e was, o Man ed, his only companion in his wande ings ("The
sole companion o his wande ings / And wa chings—he , whom o all ea hly hings / Tha
li ed, he only hing he seemed o lo e.” III.iii 51-53) and he begs he Wi ch o wake he dead
o make him one o hem: "Mus wake he dead, o lay me low wi h hem. / Do so—in any
shape—in any hou — / Wi h any o u e—so i be he las .” (II.ii 153-155). Simila ly, Hea hcli
implo es Ca he ine o haun him: "Be wi h me always - ake any o m - d i e me mad! only DO
no lea e me in his abyss, whe e I canno ind you!” (p. 129). Be o e he dies, Hea hcli makes
a ghoulish a angemen wi h he sex on o lea e he adjoining sides o his and Ca he ine’s
co ins open so ha in dea h hey may inally achie e he consumma ion o hei lo e - a
pe ec and i e ocable union, which had o men ed and eluded hem while hey we e ali e.
Man ed’s p oclama ion o guil , blaming himsel o As a e’s dea h, saying he b oke
he hea ("He aul s we e mine—he i ues we e he own— / I lo ed he , and des oyed
he !” (II.ii 123-124)), esona es wi h Ca he ine’s wo ds on he dea hbed: "You and Edga ha e
b oken my hea " (134). Bo h Man ed and Hea hcli choose a place o e ea : Man ed’s
owe , whe e he keeps his lonely igils, and Hea hcli ’s panelled oom, whe e he o en sough
e uge wi h Ca he ine. Jus as Man ed mee s his end in his owe , Hea hcli is ound dead in
he oom, wi h he window wide open: "Ha ing succeeded in ob aining en ance wi h ano he
key, I an o unclose he panels, o he chambe was acan ; quickly pushing hem aside, I
peeped in. M . Hea hcli was he e—laid on his back" (p. 254).
The a e ma h o he F ench Re olu ion also saw he ise o Go hic Li e a u e, in i s
g o esque, mys e ious, and supe na u al e en s, which e lec ed he chaos and e o o he
e olu iona y pe iod. Wi h i s iolence and ins abili y, i was a sou ce o ho o ha ound
exp ession in Go hic no els such as hose by Ho ace Walpole (The Cas le o O an o, 1764),
Ann Radcli e (The Mys e ies o Udolpho, 1794), and Ma hew Lewis (The Monk, 1796), which
inco po a ed exis en ial and e olu iona y anxie ies in o hei wo k. The Go hic a mosphe e is
equen ly ansmi ed h ough he se ing o an “an iqua ed o seemingly an iqua ed space,”
such as cas les o mansions in a away coun ies, and h ough “ aging s o ms, da k nigh s,
y anny, inca ce a ion, and o u e” (Mo is, p 301).
41
Emily B on ë’s Wu he ing Heigh s is densely popula ed wi h elemen s o he Go hic.
F om he incep ion o he na a i e, he eade is d awn in o he da k, hos ile, and isola ed
wo ld o he Yo kshi e moo s by he i s na a o , M Lockwood, h ough whom he sublime
a mosphe e o he Go hic is i s ly con eyed. Th ough his eyes, he eade will wi ness he
epugnance and b u ali y o he inhabi an s o Wu he ing Heigh s and eel he e o in his
encoun e wi h he supe na u al, when he ghos ly, bloody appa i ion o Ca he ine appea s a
his window. Hea hcli , he agic cen al cha ac e o he no el, is in many ways an a che ypal
Go hic cha ac e . He is shown as a mys e ious, da k and exceedingly dange ous cha ac e . He
is wholly ben on e enge o pe cei ed pas w ongs and his passion is all-consuming.
Hea hcli ’s lo e and u y leads him o des oy he woman he desi es by playing a pa in he
men al and physical o u e. He also shows no me cy in des oying people o whom he does
no ca e, howe e undese ing. Isabella Lin on alls in lo e wi h Hea hcli and is abused so
iciously ha she is o ced o lea e him, a social aboo o he pe iod. He shows no emo se
and does no hing o make he e u n. Thei son Lin on is denied medical ca e as he has ul illed
his pu pose in usu ping Th ushc oss G ange o Hea hcli . Hea hcli ’s ac s o iolence agains
de enceless ic ims show his u e dis ega d o human su e ing and i mani es s i sel in his
use o o u e and imp isonmen . When he imp isons young Ca hy a Wu he ing Heigh s he
does so o emo ionally o u e Edga Lin on, he man who ook Ca he ine om him, bu i is
equally o uous o poo Ca hy. Hea hcli ’s use o cold-blooded emo ional and psychological
o u e ele a es him beyond he me e sco ned man o passion o he dis u bed and c uel
mons e ha he becomes. Ul ima ely, he e is also he hin o nec ophilia in Hea hcli 's
iewings o Ca he ine's co pse and his plans o be bu ied nex o he .
Rega ding he poe y, Emily’s “On he Fall o Zalona” (Feb ua y 1843), which desc ibes
he des uc ion o he ci y o Zalona a he hands o Julius B enzaida, p o ides us wi h Go hic
image y: “And hung y dogs wi h wol like c y / Unbu ied co pses ea , / While hei gaun
mas e s gaze and sigh / And sca ce he eas o bea .” (l.37-40). In hese e ses, he image y is
s a k and b u al, in oking he isce al ho o s o en associa ed wi h Go hic li e a u e. The
"hung y dogs wi h wol like c y" e oke wild, p eda o y c ea u es, emphasising he b eakdown
o he na u al o de , whe e domes ica ed animals u n e al and e en nec ophiliac unde he
s ain o hunge . The ea ing o "unbu ied co pses" in oduces a macab e elemen , blending
he image y o dea h and decay wi h g o esque eeding—a key Go hic heme ha blu s he
42
line be ween li e and dea h, in his case, he ac ual consump ion o he dead. The "gaun
mas e s" who "gaze and sigh" embody a psychological o men , haun ed by bo h he physical
de as a ion a ound hem and hei inne s uggle o esis hei own mons osi y.
The Re olu ion also inspi ed a su ge in his o ical ic ion, wi h w i e s e isi ing he
e olu ion and o he his o ical e en s o explo e he human consequences o poli ical
uphea al. Si Wal e Sco is c edi ed wi h popula ising he his o ical no el wi h wo ks like
Wa e ley (1814). La e , Cha les Dickens' A Tale o Two Ci ies (1859) po ays he e olu ion’s
impac on indi iduals by blending ic ional cha ac e s wi h eal his o ical e en s. As o non-
ic ional/commen a y wo ks, one could highligh Edmund Bu ke’s Re lec ions on he Re olu ion
in F ance (1790) whe e, om a clea conse a i e s andpoin , he condemns he excessi e
iolence and chaos b ough abou by he e olu iona ies.
The manne in which he e en s in he la e 18 h cen u y-ea ly 19 h cen u y di ec ly
and/o indi ec ly impac ed he B on ës may be analysed om di e en pe spec i es. E en
hough none o he ou siblings had e en been bo n ye (o he ou , Cha lo e is he oldes ,
being bo n in 1816) and hei a he was a een a he ime o he Reign o Te o , i s ideology,
p inciples and ac ions made hei way indi ec ly in o he B on ë household. His o ically
speaking, Pa ick B on ë, who was 12 yea s old in 1789, may no ha e seen he F ench
Re olu ion. Wha he may ha e wi nessed o a leas been di ec ly impac ed by was he I ish
Rebellion o 1798 ( he yea ha , aged 21, Pa ick, a e wo king menial jobs, ook on a eaching
posi ion), which, albei a a smalle scale, esembled wha had occu ed in F ance.
The 1798 Rebellion was a majo up ising agains B i ish ule in I eland. The main
o ganising o ce was he Socie y o Uni ed I ishmen, a epublican e olu iona y g oup
in luenced by he ideas o he Ame ican and F ench e olu ions: o iginally o med by
P esby e ian adicals ang y a being shu ou o powe by he Anglican es ablishmen , hey
we e joined by many om he majo i y Ca holic popula ion. The ebellion aimed o es ablish
an independen I ish epublic and uni e I ish Ca holics and P o es an s in he igh agains
B i ish con ol. I began in May 1798 and was ma ked by se e al iolen clashes be ween
poo ly a med I ish ebels and B i ish o ces. Al hough he ebels achie ed ela i e successes
in some egions, hey we e ul ima ely c ushed by he well-p epa ed and well-ga nished B i ish
mili a y, aided by loyalis mili ias. This de ea had long-las ing consequences, leading o he
43
1801 Ac o Union, which me ged I eland wi h G ea B i ain, e ec i ely ending I eland's
legisla i e independence. In he a e ma h, Pa ick B on ë, s ill “B un y”, mo ed o England in
1802, ha ing ea ned a schola ship o s udy heology a Camb idge, changing his name o
B on ë and ne e o see I eland again.
The p inciples o he F ench Re olu ion, pe haps in hei mos abs ac o m, eached
he B on ë siblings om a e y ea ly age. The ideals o libe y, equali y, and a e ni y
esona ed no only wi h he B on ë pa ia ch, Pa ick, bu also wi h he child en. By 1829, he
B on ës we e al eady well es ablished in Hawo h, in a household which also included hei
Aun Elizabe h B anwell. The e was an undeniable in ellec ual en i onmen a home, whe e
he pa ia ch o he amily os e ed an eclec ic educa ional cu iculum, which included
g amma , ma hema ics, philosophy, a and li e a u e. The e was also a passion o o eign
languages: B anwell lea n G eek, Cha lo e was luen in F ench, and Emily was keen on
Ge man.
One o he mos s iking e lexes o hese ideals may be ound in he challenge posed
o adi ional social hie a chies and gende oles. Despi e coming om a a he conse a i e
household, none o he B on ë sis e s se ma iage o child- ea ing as hei p ima y goal. They
also own upon class dis inc ion, and Tabi ha, he house cook, was always seen mo e o a
amily membe han a se an . This as e o he uncon en ional was ine i ably e lec ed in
he sis e ’s no els, namely in Cha lo e B on ë’s Jane Ey e and Emily B on ë's Wu he ing
Heigh s and Anne’s The Tennan o The Tenan o Wild ell Hall, which depic cha ac e s who
ebel agains socie al no ms and challenge he au ho i y o he landed gen y, he h ee o
hem women (Jane Ey e, Ca he ine Ea nshaw, and Helen G aham, espec i ely), which in i sel ,
can be conside ed sub e si e.
On he one hand, Jane Ey e's ques o independence and sel -de e mina ion can be
iewed as a e lec ion o he e olu iona y spi i o he ime, which challenged adi ional
hie a chies and ad oca ed o indi idual igh s and eedoms: "I am no bi d; and no ne
ensna es me: I am a ee human being wi h an independen will." (B on ë, 2015, p. 372). By
eleasing he sel om Roches e ’s emb ace, Jane ejec s he idea o being passi e o
submissi e in any kind o ela ionship, ei he pe sonal o p o essional, decla ing he sel o be
a ee indi idual wi h agency and eedom o choice. On he o he hand, Ca he ine Ea nshaw’s

44
cha ac e embodies pe sonal de iance agains social no ms and expec a ions. He passiona e
na u e and ela ionships wi h Hea hcli and Edga Lin on e lec he s uggle o indi idual
au onomy wi hin he cons ain s o socie al expec a ions. In he mos acknowledged
p oclama ion (and e en celeb a ed as he epi ome o oman ic lo e), she decla es: "I am
Hea hcli ! He's always, always in my mind: no as a pleasu e, any mo e han I am always a
pleasu e o mysel , bu as my own being." (p. 64). The physical anscendence o he
connec ion wi h Hea hcli con lic s wi h con en ional socie al expec a ions and no ms, as
Ca he ine e uses o supp ess he eelings, boldly asse ing he iden i y in he being o a man
who is no he husband- o-be and inding i absu d and imp ac icable o be sepa a ed om
Hea hcli despi e ma ying Edga .
In ac , much like eligion and o he 19 h-cen u y socie al ins i u ions, ma iage does
no h i e in Emily’s wo ks: bo h in he poe y and in Wu he ing Heigh s, lo e is dissocia ed
om ma iage. The cha ac e s a e o men ed, iolen lo e s, and a ely do we hea wedding
bells a he end. Ca he ine and Hea hcli bo h ma y o he people, bu hei connec ion
emains unchanged. Ca he ine Ea nshaw’s cha ac e challenges adi ional gende oles, as
he s ong will and emo ional independence de y he expec a ions placed on women in
Vic o ian socie y. Addi ionally, by con as ing Ca he ine and he sis e -in-law, Isabella Lin on,
one can also pe cei e he sub e sion o he opes associa ed wi h a woman’s ole a he ime:
while on he su ace he e’s a play wi h he concep s o he allen/ i uous woman, Ca he ine
aking on he ole o he amo al woman and Isabella as he naï e oman ic damsel, easy p ey
o Hea hcli ’s decei ul machina ions, nei he a e bi-dimensional. The e is an undeniable
innocence in Ca he ine’s eelings and easoning (she is con inced ha ma ying Edga would
somehow ake Hea hcli ou o his se i ude and ha bo h sui o s would peace ully accep
he a angemen ) and Isabella, despi e he ma iage and ea ly p egnancy, abandons he
ma i al home and escapes o London. Simila ly, Helen G aham, in The Tenan o Wild ell
Hall, challenges he es ic i e Vic o ian social con en ions when she lea es he abusi e
husband and de o es he sel o he a . A a ime when di o ce was ex emely di icul and
ca ied g ea social s igma, pa icula ly o women, Helen's depa u e om he alcoholic
husband was seen as sub e si e. The ejec ion o pa ia chal con ol was g oundb eaking o
emale cha ac e s in li e a u e:
45
Decembe 20 h, 1826.—The i h anni e sa y o my wedding day, and I us , he las I shall
spend unde his oo . My esolu ion is o med, my plan concoc ed, and al eady pa ly pu in
execu ion. My conscience does no blame me, bu while he pu pose ipens, le me beguile a
ew o hese long win e e enings in s a ing he case o my own sa is ac ion—d ea y
amusemen enough, bu ha ing he ai o a use ul occupa ion, and being pu sued as a ask, i
will sui me be e han a ligh e one. (B on ë, 2008, p. 410)
These sub e si e elemen s in he no els o he B on ës, pa icula ly hei challenges o
social con en ions and igid gende oles, did no go unno iced by ea ly c i ics. Thei a ied
and o en pola ised esponses e lec he con o e sial na u e o he sis e s’ wo ks o hei
con empo a ies, which p o oked a wide ange o c i ical in e p e a ions.
Emily B on ë’s poe y, published unde he pseudonym Ellis Bell in 1846, in an
an hology oge he wi h he sis e s Cha lo e (Cu e ) and Anne (Ac on), ecei ed quie bu
a he posi i e eac ions. Alexande ’s The Ox o d Companion o he B on ës (2006) lis s some
o hese e iews:
On 4 July 1846 he C i ic welcomed he olume's uncon en ional, ‘genuine poe y’ as a ay o
sunshine in ‘ his u ili a ian age’, and he A henaeum ecognized he ‘ins inc o song’ in ‘ he
h ee b o he s’ hough ‘in e y unequal p opo ions’: Ac on's poems equi ed ‘ he indulgences
o a ec ion’, bu Ellis had ‘a ine quain spi i ’ and ‘an e iden powe o wing ha may each
heigh s no he e a emp ed’.
An anonymous e iewe in The A henaeum (1846) p aised he “s ong o iginal mind,
ull o poe y and passion,” no ing he po en ial o e en g ea e achie emen s. Howe e , he
poe ic oice was o en con used and some imes o e shadowed by he siblings a he ime o
publica ion. Many hough he h ee sis e s we e he same pe son, and i so, he e we e
no o ious disa angemen s and inconsis encies in he poe y. The i s edi ion o he collec ion
sold only wo copies. In la e yea s, Emily's poe y gained g ea e ecogni ion. Cha lo e B on ë
(1995a, p. 742) he sel , in he 1850 p e ace o Wu he ing Heigh s, de ended he sis e ’s in ense
and in ospec i e na u e, desc ibing he as possessing a “peculia music – wild, melancholy
and ele a ing.” Emily’s poems “a e sho , bu hey a e e y genuine: hey s i ed my hea like
a umpe , when I ead hem alone and in sec e ” (p. 119).
While Wu he ing Heigh s may cu en ly be conside ed a classic o English li e a u e, a
he ime o i s elease, he no el was no accep ed as a espec able wo k. The no el was seen
as o ensi e o he public as i challenged s ic Vic o ian ideals in ol ing eligious hypoc isy,
46
mo ali y, social class, and gende inequali y. Ea ly e iews o Wu he ing Heigh s we e
pa icula ly c i ical o i s aw emo ional powe and uno hodox na a i e s yle. Fo ins ance,
an anonymous e iewe o The Examine in 1848 ha shly decla ed, "This is a s ange book. I
is no wi hou e idences o conside able powe : bu , as a whole, i is wild, con used, disjoin ed,
and imp obable; and he people who make up he d ama a e sa ages.” (B on ë, 1990, p. 302).
The no el’s pe cei ed ex emi y and mo al ambigui y led many Vic o ian e iewe s, such as
The Qua e ly Re iew (Wa son, 1949, p. 245) o label i as mo ally suspec , as “ oo odiously
and abominably pagan o be pala able e en o he mos i ia ed class o English eade ". An
anonymous A las e iew, da ed Janua y 1848, conside ed he no el o all sho o i s po en ial,
despi e ecognising he spa k o alen and being in igued by he au ho o he no el:
“Wu he ing Heigh s is a s ange, ina is ic s o y. The e is e idence in e e y chap e o a so o
ugged powe – an unconscious s eng h – which he possesso seems ne e o hink o u ning
o he bes ad an age. The gene al e ec is inexp essibly pain ul. (…) The wo k o Cu e Bell
is a g ea pe o mance; ha o Ellis Bell is only a p omise, bu is a colossal one.” (p. 300).
Despi e hese nega i e e iews, some c i ics acknowledged he no el's impac , and,
while ini ial eac ions o Emily B on ë's wo k we e equen ly nega i e, ocused on i s
ha shness and emo ional awness, la e c i ics began o ecognise he poe ic dep h and
passiona e ision, cemen ing he s a us as a leas a unique oice wi hin he li e a y scena io
o he ime. Da id Cecil's commen s on Wu he ing Heigh s make one o he ea ly examples o
an academic ecognising he no el's wo h. Acco ding o Cecil (1934, p. 148), Wu he ing
Heigh s had no been app ecia ed as i dese ed because i had been judged as a Vic o ian
no el and compa ed o Dickens o Thacke ay. Cecil a gues ha B on ë ne e mean i o be
any hing like hem, hus pu ing o wa d he no el's “a empo ali y”: “She w i es abou
di e en subjec s in a di e en manne and om a di e en poin o iew. She s ands ou side
he main cu en o nine een h-cen u y ic ion as ma kedly as Blake s ands ou side he main
cu en o eigh een h-cen u y poe y.”.
As he ield o li e a y c i icism expanded, new pe spec i es eme ged. Ma xis
in e p e a ions, no ably hose o c i ic Te y Eagle on, examine class s uggle and social
dynamics wi hin B on ë's na a i es, e ealing he economic unde cu en s ha in luence
cha ac e mo i a ions and ela ionships. These analyses unde sco e he ways in which B on ë's
explo a ion o he li es o he cha ac e s e lec s he b oade socio-economic con ex o he
47
ime. Eagle on (2005, p. 100) begins by saying ha Wu he ing Heigh s di e s om Cha lo e
B on e's no els, which seek o econcile con lic s:
Wu he ing Heigh s, on he o he hand, con on s he agic u h ha he passion and socie y
i p esen s a e no undamen ally econcilable - ha he e emains a he deepes le el an
ine adicable con adic ion be ween hem which e uses o be unlocked, which ob udes i sel
as he e y s u and sec e o expe ience.
He hen highligh s ha he choice be ween Hea hcli and Edga is he linchpin e en
o he no el, which is decisi e in b inging abou he agedy: “In a c ucial ac o sel -be ayal
and bad ai h, Ca he ine ejec s Hea hcli as a sui o because he is socially in e io o Lin on;
and i is om his ha he chain o des uc ion ollows.” (p. 101). Eagle on hen ocuses on
Hea hcli 's lack o a de ined place wi hin he social and economic s uc u e o Wu he ing
Heigh s, which makes him Ca he ine's na u al companion since she, as he daugh e , is no
expec ed o inhe i and is he leas economically in eg al pe son in he amily. A e his 3-yea
absence, Hea hcli possesses “gen ili y” o u n he capi alis s' weapons agains hemsel es
and domina e hem by hei own means. Howe e , he powe he hus gains is ul ima ely sel -
de ea ing, as his sys ema ic e enge s eadily “d ains him o blood, impels and possesses him
as an ex e nal o ce” (2005, 105). Eagle on implies ha socie y's domina ing weapons des oy
Hea hcli , whe he he is hei ic im o wields hem, and his accoun s o his sel -des uc i e
decline a he end o he no el.
Feminis c i icism has u he en iched he unde s anding o B on ë's wo ks, wi h
in luen ial schola s such as Gilbe and Guba , who a gue in The Madwoman in he A ic: The
Woman W i e and he Nine een h-Cen u y Li e a y Imagina ion (1979) ha B on ë’s po ayal
o s ong emale cha ac e s, like Ca he ine Ea nshaw and Nelly Dean, challenges he no ms o
he ime. This pe spec i e emphasises B on ë's explo a ion o emale au onomy, gende oles,
and he limi a ions imposed by a pa ia chal socie y, o e ing a nuanced insigh in o women's
inne li es and desi es. Gilbe a gues ha he no el possesses a “ isiona y” quali y. In he
discussion o he no el's “ isiona y” elemen , she complains ha mos c i ics looking a
Ca he ine's complain o he 'sha e ed p ison' and he 'wea ying o escape in o ha glo ious
54
appealing o a le el o comp ehension ha si s beyond i sel , beyond Cice o’s Doce e,
Delec a e, Mo e e (“To Teach, To Deligh , To Mo e”), as hese a e all in he domain o a i ice
and a ional hough . He e, he goal o he w i e is o igge a sense o eks asis, which,
ansla ed di ec ly om he G eek, means “ o s and ou side o ” o “ o anscend [onesel ]”.
When Longinus discusses he Sublime, he o en compa es i o a ligh ning bol in o de
o s ess he uniqueness o he expe ience. I is a momen whe e an ex ao dina y piece o
w i ing hi s bo h he speake and he eade , e oking a deeply passiona e emo ion ha
uncon ollably mani es s, akin o being s uck by a ligh ning bol . In Longinus’s wo ds,
[T]he Sublime, ac ing wi h an impe ious and i esis ible o ce, sways e e y eade whe he he
will o no. Skill in in en ion, lucid a angemen and disposi ion o ac s, a e app ecia ed no by
one passage, o by wo, bu g adually mani es hemsel es in he gene al s uc u e o a wo k;
bu a sublime hough , i happily imed, illumines an en i e subjec wi h he i idness o a
ligh ning- lash, and exhibi s he whole powe o he o a o in a momen o ime. (p. 23)
The e o e, he success ul in usion o he sublime in language, hough , and li e a u e
endows ex s wi h “an impe ious and i esis ible o ce" ha “sways e e y eade ” (p. 23), hus
shi ing lis ene s om hei indi idual eelings o a collec i e and sha ed awe o he li e a y
wo k being assimila ed. The Sublime is, hen, supposed o be so powe ul in i s hough s,
passion, and p oduc o a , ha i anscends a ionali y, ele a es he audience o ano he
le el, and lea es hem o e whelmed and in awe o a li e a y expe ience ha alls ou side he
ealm o desc ip ion.
Longinus o en desc ibes he Sublime as opposed o he o ic, as in he a o speaking
and w i ing eloquen ly and pe suasi ely. E en hough he languages o he o ic and he
sublime o en o e lap, by using he same a is ic s yles, echniques, and poe ic igu es, hey
di e because, i s o all, he o ic is o en p emedi a ed. The e is an unde lying plan and
in en ion o pe suade somebody, and, as a esul , i lacks spon anei y: i g adually builds up as
a slow c escendo, and Longinus compa es his o a slow-mo ing and p edic able i e when
compa ing he wo ks o Demos henes, whom he conside s Sublime, o Cice o’s:
Demos henes is ehemen , apid, igo ous, e ible; he bu ns and sweeps away all be o e him;
and hence we may liken him o a whi lwind o a hunde bol : Cice o is like a widesp ead
con lag a ion, which olls o e and eeds on all a ound i , whose i e is ex ensi e and bu ns
long, b eaking ou successi ely in di e en places, and inding i s uel now he e, now he e. (p.
46)

55
Ano he c i ical aspec o Longinus’ de ini ion o he Sublime is i s compa ibili y wi h he
concep o Beau y. As only he mos gi ed and ingenious a is s and hinke s we e able o
p oduce sublime a , hei wo ks would be simul aneously conside ed beau i ul. The Sublime
and he Beau i ul, hen, walk hand in hand, almos in e changeably, wi h he expe ience o he
Sublime being, a he same ime, an expe ience o he Beau i ul, which exceeds he a ional
limi a ions o easoning and emo ion. Such compa ibili y akes us o he wo ks de eloped by
Edmund Bu ke in he 18 h cen u y, which bo h expand on Longinus’s wo k and b eak down
some o his concep ual amewo k.
2.1.1 Longinus’s Sublime and Sappho
Longinus, despi e no del ing on ma e s o sex o gende , men ions Sappho
26
as a
w i e o he Sublime, unde he heading “Fi e Sou ces o he Sublime (how Sublimi y is ela ed
o Passion): (i.) G andeu o Though ”, subsec ion “b. Choice o he mos s iking
ci cums ances. Sappho’s Ode”, by s a ing ha Sappho’s Sublime esides in he obse a ion o
impac ul ins ances o human emo ion and expe ience and hen how she mas e ully blends
hem in o a uni ied whole which esul s in a mani es a ion o he Sublime. Longinus poin s ou
ha Sappho’s “peculia excellence lies in he elici y wi h which she chooses and uni es
oge he he mos s iking and powe ul ea u es.” (p. 41).
Longinus also highligh s how Sappho, in “Ode o Anac o ia” (F agmen 31), makes use
o image y and igu es o speech such as he me apho , he synaes hesia and he hype bole,
especially along hese lines:
Vain my s icken ongue would a whispe ashion,
Sub ly unde my skin uns i e ecs a ic;
S aigh way mis s su ge dim o my eyes and lea e hem
Re o hei ision;
Echoes ing in my ea s; a embling seizes
All my body ba hed in so pe spi a ion;
Pale as g ass I g ow in my passion’s madness,
Like one insensa e;
27
26
Sappho was an ancien G eek poe om he island o Lesbos, bo n a ound 630 BCE. The hemes in Sappho's poems we e
mos ly abou un equi ed lo e, un ul illed desi e, and pe sonal connec ions, as is he case abo e, and hey mean o be sung
wi h a ly e. Al hough much o he wo k has been los , su i ing agmen s show a clea and emo ionally in ense s yle. Longinus
places Sappho a he le el o Home in poe ic mas e y and depic ion o he Sublime.
27
“Ode o Anac o ia”, 1910 ansla ion by he Ame ican poe John Mye s O’Ha a (Sappho, 2013)
56
In addi ion o he me apho in “Vain my s icken ongue would a whispe ashion”,
Longinus poin s ou he di e en emo ions con eyed by he synes he ic image y o audi o y
and ac ile sensa ions wi h he i e on he skin, he echoes in he ea s, and he shi e ing body,
which con e ge in passiona e madness akin o s anding on a h eshold be ween li e and dea h
(“Like one insensa e”). Longinus highligh s he signi icance o he an i hesis by p omp ing he
eade o “Obse e oo how he sensa ions con adic one ano he —she eezes, she bu ns,
she a es, she easons, and all a he same ins an . And his desc ip ion is designed o show
ha she is assailed, no by any pa icula emo ion, bu by a umul o di e en emo ions.” (p.
43) I is in he syn hesis o hese di e en emo ions c ys allised in a momen in ime ha , o
Longinus, esides he Sublime.
Unde he p emise o his wo k, compa ing Sappho and Emily B on ë would be a
compelling exe cise, as bo h, despi e coming om as ly di e en imes, cul u es, and poe ic
adi ions, a e admi ed o hei emo ionally in ense and deeply pe sonal, o en agmen a y,
w i ings. As Sappho’s poems a e imbued wi h passiona e, ampan emo ions, o en ocusing
on lo e and longing expe ienced in soli ude, Emily’s poe y is simila ly illed wi h in ense
emo ional ou pou ings.
28
Likewise, he heme o soli ude and isola ion is common o bo h
poe s, as Sappho o en depic s social e en s, such as eas s and es i als, bu con eys a sense
o pe manen isola ion and abandonmen . The same heme can be seen in B on ë, o
ins ance, in he poem “I am he only being whose doom” (1839), whe e he speake seems
condemned o doom and exile.
29
In addi ion, Sappho and Emily B on ë come oge he in hei
depic ion o na u e, as hey bo h eso o image y om he na u al wo ld o exp ess emo ion
and ins ances o human expe ience. Fo example, in F agmen 91, Sappho exp esses how "On
he hills he shephe ds ample he lowe unde oo and i lies on he g oup, da kening in
decay”
30
, hus using na u e o e lec he epheme ous and delica e beau y o joy and he
pe manence o loss. Simila ly, bo h in Emily’s poe ic oice and in Wu he ing Heigh s, na u e
seems o be he ca alys o e e y pi o al momen in he speake ’s/cha ac e ’s na a i es,
b inging abou li e, dea h and ebi h.
28
Fo ins ance, in “No Cowa d Soul is Mine” (1846), he speake ’s oice in Emily’s poem passiona ely a i ms he s eng h and
cons ancy o hei inne sel : "No cowa d soul is mine / No emble in he wo ld’s s o m- oubled sphe e / I see Hea en’s
glo ies shine /And Fai h shines equal, a ming me om Fea ."
29
The lines “As iendless a e eigh een yea s / As lone as on my na al day” e lec his sense o p o ound isola ion and
disconnec ion om o he s.
30
“F agmen 91”, in he 2011 dual- ex ansla ion by Pe e Russell (Sappho, 2013)
57
2.2 Edmund Bu ke’s A Philosophical Enqui y in o he O igins o Ou Ideas o he Sublime
and Beau i ul (1757)
In he mid-18 h cen u y, he wo d ‘sublime’ acqui ed a new meaning as a new cul u al
mo emen was on he ise: he Roman ic Mo emen (1798- 1824)
31
, which began ques ioning
he na u e and limi a ions o he sel , and led bo h a is s and philosophe s o ocus on in ense
expe iences ha challenged conscious con ol and blu ed he lines o indi idual au onomy.
Thus, he Sublime became a synonym o de iance o adi ional (= neoclassical) sys ems o
hough , which we e g ounded on adi ional and ou moded p inciples and he o ic, mos ly o
he eligious and spi i ual kind, which we e hen deemed as unable o con ey o ansla e
ins an s o human expe ience.
In A Philosophical Enqui y in o he O igins o Ou Ideas o he Sublime and Beau i ul
(1757), Edmund Bu ke no only explo es he o igins o he Sublime and he Beau i ul bu also
sepa a es each in o hei own espec i e a ional ca ego ies. Fo Bu ke, he Beau i ul is ha
which is balanced and aes he ically pleasing, while he Sublime (which Bu ke posi ions as
being he igge o he s onges o emo ions one is capable o eeling) is ela ed o he powe
o compel and annihila e. I is e iden ea ly on in he ea ise ha Bu ke ele a es he Sublime
o e he Beau i ul, p e e ence ha can also be ega ded as a sign o he ansi ion om he
Neoclassical o he Roman ic e a. In o he wo ds, he Sublime ceased o be seen as subsequen
o o ano he o m o beau y, as in Longinus’s wo k, and was g adually gaining i s own space
as a sepa a e ca ego y o aes he ic expe ience, wi h ea u es and ai s somewha di e gen
om hose o he Beau i ul.
Indeed, Bu ke’s A Philosophical Enqui y no only examines in dep h he di e ences
be ween he ca ego ies o he Sublime and he Beau i ul, which a e an icipa ed in he i le
i sel as wo dis inc concep s, bu also goes beyond a me e sepa a ion by es ablishing how
and how much hey di e , o , e en u he , oppose each o he .
31
The Roman ic Mo emen is o en conside ed o ha e s a ed a ound 1798, wi h he publica ion o Ly ical Ballads by William
Wo dswo h and Samuel Taylo Cole idge, a seminal wo k ha ma ked a shi in English poe y, as i is seen as he mani es o
o he Roman ic ideals, shedding new ligh on heo e ical and p ac ical concep s such as emo ion, na u e, and he indi idual
expe ience o e he a ionalism o he Enligh enmen . As o he end da e, 1824 is used as an endpoin , he same yea Lo d
By on died. None heless, i s in luence pe sis ed well in o he mid- o-la e 19 h cen u y, as seen in he wo ks o Emily B on ë.
Wu he ing Heigh s (1847) echoes many Roman ic hemes, such as he celeb a ion o na u e, he ocus on in ense emo ions,
and he explo a ion o he Sublime, posi ioning Emily as a li e a y igu e shaped by he Roman ic legacy.
58
Bu ke posi ions all hough s o he Sublime and he Beau i ul as being unde s ood by
means o hei causal s uc u es, as pos ula ed by A is o le. The e a e ou causal s uc u es:
he ma e ial ( he aw ma e ials used o p oduce he concep ), he o mal ( he s uc u al
p inciples ha go e n he concep ), he e icien ( he p ocess unde aken o ma e ialise he
concep ), and he inal cause ( he pu pose o he concep ).
Focusing mainly on he e icien cause in he p ocess o li e a y c ea ion, i is ele an
o discuss wha sepa a es he Sublime and he Beau i ul. Edmund Bu ke was, i s and
o emos , an empi icis , ollowing he s eps o Hume and Locke. Thus, o Bu ke, he o igin o
bo h he Sublime and he Beau i ul lies in ou senses, a guing o a mechanis ic unde s anding
o how ou human passions ope a e, and hei pu pose. One expe iences bo h pain and
pleasu e, and ha leads o conc e e physical eac ions, mani es ed in one’s body, a he ne e
and muscula le els. The eac ions can be di ided in o wo ca ego ies: ension and con ac ion,
on he one hand, elaxa ion and decomp ession, on he o he . Acco dingly, Bu ke hen a gues
ha i is in he momen o ension ha one is mo e likely o expe ience he sublime and,
con e sely, i is when one expe iences elaxa ion ha one is mo e likely o expe ience he
beau i ul.
Bu ke u he di e en ia es he aes he ic expe iences o he Sublime and he Beau i ul
by s a ing ha bo h he Sublime and he Beau i ul ha e he abili y o mo e, bu he Sublime is
mo e p o ound in i s bea ing. Beau i ul objec s end o be smoo h and delica e, while Sublime
ones a e as , gloomy, da k, and h ea ening. Beau i ul scena ios depic well-kep ga dens and
colou ul sunse s, bu Sublime scenes po ay hunde s o ms and moun ain ops, which a e
o e whelming. Pa adoxically, howe e , while peaking o e a moun ain op, one can ind deligh
in e o , and he shee powe is exhila a ing. The Sublime is ied o he possibili y o pain,
which consequen ly igge s he ins inc o sel -p ese a ion and links o he Roman ic idea o
na u e as an un ain ed powe .
The ole o sel -p ese a ion is eminen in Bu ke’s o mula ion o he sublime and he
beau i ul. In an exce p om Sec ion II o Pa II o he ea ise, en i led “Te o ”, Bu ke (2015)
no es ha passions, which conce n sel -p ese a ion, u n mos ly on pain and dange , which
he classi ied as he mos powe ul o all passions.
59
No passion so e ec ually obs he mind o all i s powe s o ac ing and easoning as ea . Fo
ea , being an app ehension o pain o dea h, ope a es in a manne ha esembles ac ual pain.
Wha e e he e o e is e ible, wi h ega d o sigh , is sublime oo … Indeed e o is in all cases
wha soe e , ei he mo e openly o la en ly, he uling p inciple o he sublime. (p.73)
In he same sec ion o his ex , Bu ke highligh s ha among such ins an s o human
expe ience, some p o ide momen s o pe e se pleasu e by blending bo h ea and deligh .
He shi s he discussion on he Sublime om languages o a i ices o language o ocus on he
expe ience gene a ed by aspec s o he na u al wo ld, which, due o hei o e powe ing
immensi y o obscu i y, would no all in he ca ego y o he Beau i ul, bu would a he be
associa ed wi h some deg ee o ho o : “The passion caused by he g ea and sublime in
na u e, when hose causes ope a e mos powe ully, is as onishmen : and as onishmen is ha
s a e o he soul in which all i s mo ions a e suspended, wi h some deg ee o ho o .” (p.73).
Bu ke hen lis s he ype o images and ea u es ha popula e he sublime. Concep s
o da kness, obscu i y, as ness, heigh , d ead, and de o mi y a e combined wi h images o
moun ains, oceans, he supe na u al, he absolu e ( y annical) powe o God, wa , wild i e,
uins, and dis igu ed cha ac e s, o illus a e how hese p oduce wi h he eade an e ec o
he sublime due o he ea and e o hey a ouse:
To make any hing e y e ible, obscu i y seems in gene al o be necessa y. When we know he
ull ex en o any dange , when we can accus om ou eyes o i , a g ea deal o he
app ehension anishes. E e y one will be sensible o his, who conside s how g ea ly nigh adds
o ou d ead, in all cases o dange , and how much he no ions o ghos s and goblins, o which
none can o m clea ideas, a ec minds which gi e c edi o he popula ales conce ning such
so s o beings. (p. 75)
Howe e , Bu ke’s ask wen beyond a lis ing o he kinds o a is ic objec s ha
con igu ed he “Sublime” o he “Beau i ul”, o he eelings hey e oke. He se ou o un eil
he bio-physiological basis o such eelings and ocused his endea ou on he ans o ma ion
o he sel when aced wi h wha seemed o h ea en one’s su i al. This highligh s a shi om
Longinus’s wo k, by changing he ocus om he objec o he indi idual expe ience.
When Bu ke (2015) examines he physiological exp ession o hose exposed o he
sublime, as in he s a e o o e whelming awe, he associa es such exp ession wi h a so o

60
elie om e o . This emo ion is, hen, a “nega i e” pleasu e
32
because i ep esen s a e u n
o he balance o a neu al s a e (which had been h ea ened), as opposed o a mo emen
om he emo ional neu al balance o a s a e o pleasu e. In his wo ds, a “deligh ”: “As I make
use o he wo d deligh o exp ess he sensa ion ha accompanies he emo al o pain o
dange , so, when I speak o posi i e pleasu e, I shall o he mos pa call i simply pleasu e.”
(p. 44).
Bu ke goes on o s a e ha , a he basis o e o , i.e., o he Sublime, is one’s sense o
mo ali y and he po en ial o an objec o cause he eeling o h ea o pain. As Bu ke pu s i :
Wha e e is i ed in any so o exci e he ideas o pain and dange , ha is o say, wha e e is
in any so e ible, o is con e san abou e ible objec s, o ope a es in a manne analogous
o e o , is a sou ce o he sublime; ha is, i is p oduc i e o he s onges emo ion which he
mind is capable o eeling. I say he s onges emo ion, because I am sa is ied he ideas o pain
a e much mo e powe ul han hose which en e on he pa o pleasu e. (p. 47).
He hen a gues ha he Sublime is " he s onges emo ion which he mind is capable
o eeling", hus s essing ha he aes he ic ca ego y o he Sublime is supe io o he
Beau i ul.
To u he he sepa a ion be ween he Sublime and he Beau i ul, Bu ke p oposes wo
se s o pleasu able phenomena: he expe ience o beau y as a posi i e pleasu e gea ed
owa ds sociabili y and he sha ed expe ience o an indi idual, as opposed o he pain and ea
(o he ea o pain) o he Sublime as an exp ession o an indi idual expe ience on he sel . As
ci ed abo e, he wo d “as onishmen ” de i es om he La in a oni us, which o iginally mean
“ hunde s uck”, a e e ence also made by Longinus, hus es ablishing a connec ion be ween
he “passion” o he Sublime, shock, and ea .
Pe haps a no el y in his s udy o he Sublime is ha Bu ke adds an u ban componen
o he images ha had been canonical o na u e and na u al phenomena, in his de ini ion o
he Sublime: among he many scena ios ha po ay he Sublime, Bu ke lis s e en s and
loca ions ha may also be ound in he ci y, such as hea es and public execu ions o c iminals,
s ee p eaching, i ewo ks, and u ban a chi ec u e. These e e ences a e clea e idence o he
32
E. Bu ke does no ac ually use he e m “nega i e pleasu e”. We only use i he e as opposed o he “posi i e pleasu e”
associa ed wi h Bu ke’s concep o Beau y. The exp ession “nega i e pleasu e” ea u es in Kan ’s wo k The C i ique o
Judgmen , p. 139.
61
e ec s o u banisa ion in a is ic ca ego ies such as he o ic and li e a y aes he icism and
in eg a e Edmund Bu ke in o a cul u e o eme ging capi alism, indus ialism, and me can ilism.
The I ish-bo n philosophe is well-known no only o his poli ical endea ou s in he
de ence o adi ional ins i u ions bu also o his scep icism o apid poli ical change and a
belie in he o ganic na u e o socie y. Al hough Bu ke was wa y o he e y no ion o
e olu ion as he saw i as a mani es a ion o chaos and diso de , he saw he Ame ican
Re olu ion as a de ence o adi ional igh s and libe ies, as he conside ed he B i ish
go e nmen 's policies owa ds he colonies unjus and imp uden (“…lea e Ame ica, i she has
axable ma e in he , o ax he sel ." (Bu ke & Magnus, 1948, p. 28).
Howe e , despi e suppo ing he igh s o Ame ican colonis s, Bu ke did no a ou
e olu ion as a p inciple, as he ehemen ly condemned he F ench Re olu ion. In his wo k
Re lec ions on he Re olu ion in F ance (1790), Bu ke c i iques he F ench Re olu ion and
a icula es his b oade iews on Wes e n poli ics, emphasising he impo ance o adi ion and
con inui y in socie y, a guing ha ins i u ions and cus oms ha ha e e ol ed o e ime
embody he collec i e wisdom o pas gene a ions. Fo him, ab up poli ical change o socie al
uphea al, like hose in F ance, dis ega d his accumula ed wisdom and isk causing
ci ilisa ional collapse. “People will no look o wa d o pos e i y, who ne e look backwa d o
hei ances o s.” (Bu ke, 2012, p.43). Bu ke also ad oca ed o g adual and cau ious
go e nmen al e o m, combining, syn hesising, and ha monising he complexi ies inhe en o
human socie ies. He was scep ical o abs ac and absolu e poli ical ideals, such as hose
pu sued by he F ench e olu iona ies, hus a ou ing a mo e conc e e and p agma ic
app oach g ounded in he eali ies o human na u e, his o ical expe ience, and socie al
ag eemen .
Taking hese wo majo his o ical e en s, we may associa e hem wi h Bu ke’s concep
o he Sublime. Bu ke saw he Ame ican Re olu ion as a de ence o long-es ablished igh s and
adi ions g ounded in eason and s abili y. In his iew, he s uggle o libe y de ini ely ca ied
elemen s o he Sublime, such as awe and powe . I did no , howe e , e i y o e oke chaos.
Ins ead, Bu ke iewed i as a p incipled esis ance o injus ice, ied o he p ese a ion o he
amilia . I inspi ed admi a ion a he han ea . Fo Bu ke, he sublime in he Ame ican
Re olu ion was connec ed mo e wi h he colonis s seeking o p ese e wha hey alued a he
62
han des oy o annihila e he exis ing social o de . In con as , Bu ke saw he F ench
Re olu ion as embodying he des uc i e and chao ic side o he Sublime. In Re lec ions on he
Re olu ion in F ance (1790), Bu ke desc ibed he e olu ion as a iolen , des uc i e powe
ha abandoned adi ion, espec o au ho i y, and social o de . I was an uncon ollable o ce
ha ins illed no hing mo e han d ead, wi h i s adical ideas and mob-d i en iolence e oking
he Sublime in i s mos ea some and bleak o m. Bu ke unde lined he e olu ion’s powe o
des oy a he han ele a e, and he saw i as a h ea o he e y ounda ions o ci ilisa ion:
"Bu he age o chi al y is gone. Tha o sophis e s, economis s, and calcula o s has succeeded;
and he glo y o Eu ope is ex inguished o e e ." (p.97).
2.2.1 Edmund Bu ke and he (a)gende ed deba e on he Sublime – Ma y Wolls onec a
Fo he pu poses o ou discussion, and as we endea ou o analyse he poe ic and
na a i e wo ks o Emily B on ë, a woman w i e in he i s hal o he 19 h cen u y, wi hin he
scope o he Sublime, we canno men ion Bu ke’s Sublime wi hou e e ing o his a he
gende ed iews. No ha we in end o asc ibe he w i ings o Emily B on ë o a speci ic wa e
o eminism ( he i s wa e o eminism only ook place in he la e 19 h cen u y and i is unlikely
ha Emily B on ë was e en amilia wi h i s onse ) o imply ha she was willingly and ac i ely
pa o any social-poli ical mo emen , bu by analysing he wo ks o a emale w i e unde
such aes he ic concep , we canno igno e he weigh as a emale a is o he Sublime. We may
no e en need such labelling o “ emale and/o male w i ings” since Emily B on ë p o ed o
be mas e ul in assuming he oices o bo h sexes, as he Gondal poems and Wu he ing
Heigh s demons a e.
No wi hs anding, i seems ele an o men ion ha Bu ke’s iews on adi ional male
and emale oles spa ked a deba e wi h Ma y Wolls onec a in he las decade o he 18 h
cen u y. Bo h p ominen igu es o he li e a y and poli ical wo lds a ha ime, Bu ke’s almos
p opagandis ic iews emphasised he impo ance o p ese ing es ablished ins i u ions,
espec ing adi ion, and main aining a balance be ween o de and p og ess. He also s ongly
ad oca ed o p i a e p ope y igh s, which he saw as a sou ce o s abili y and indi idual
g ow h owa ds he be e men o socie y. Conce ned abou he dange s o secula ism and
a heism, Bu ke opposed adicalism, namely ha associa ed wi h he adul e a ion, o e en
in e sion, o adi ional social s uc u es, hus ad oca ing o a s a i ied pa ia chal socie y.
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Wolls onec a ’s poli ical iews, on he o he hand, we e mo e p og essi e and adical, being
also closely ied o he belie s on gende equali y and indi idual igh s.
33
She ook a e y dim
iew o he p e ailing socie al no ms ha elega ed women o a domes ic sphe e and denied
hem oppo uni ies o educa ion and pe sonal g ow h, such as access o educa ion and
pa icipa ion in public li e.
I was in his in e sec ion be ween poli ics and he a s ha Wolls onec a challenged
Bu ke’s poli ical doc ine while es ablishing a connec ion o his aes he ic iews as well, namely
in he concep ualisa ion o he Sublime, aiming a a ision o gende inclusi i y in bo h a s
and socie y. Bu ke's conse a ism and emphasis on adi ion clashed wi h Wolls onec a 's
p og essi e ideas abou equali y and uni e sal indi idual igh s. He iewed he Sublime as a
mo e masculine and powe ul expe ience han beau y, which he pe cei ed as being eminine,
and, he e o e, mo e agile and supe icial. Howe e , Wolls onec a , as a women’s igh s
ad oca e, a gued agains his pe spec i e and i s depic ion o women as inhe en ly weak and
passi e. Fo he , he Sublime deal wi h he sel , ega dless o sex o gende , and hei
subjec i e iews o socie y and he na u al wo ld.
In Vindica ion o he Righ s o Men, da ed 1790, a long exe cise on coun e -
a gumen a ion, Wolls onec a accuses Bu ke o i oli y and hedonism when discussing a
woman’s ole [o lack he eo ] in he Sublime. He w i es in his A Philosophical Enqui y…:
Obse e ha pa o a beau i ul woman whe e she is pe haps he mos beau i ul, abou he
neck and b eas s; he smoo hness, he so ness, he easy and insensible swell; he a ie y o
he su ace, which is ne e o he smalles space he same; he decei ul maze h ough which
he uns eady eye slides giddily, wi hou knowing whe e o ix, o whi he i is ca ied. (p. 152)
By desc ibing a woman in such an aloo and sensuous ashion, Bu ke, despi e de aching his
concep o beau y om he Neoclassic a che ype o beau y and i ue, is placing he woman
as a passi e objec o beau y, a ec ion, and admi a ion, hence ou side he concep o Sublime.
While Bu ke clea ly includes he igu e o he woman in he Beau i ul, by s essing he
33
On a biog aphical no e, Wolls onec a was he wi e o William Godwin, a adical philosophe and w i e . His wo k, An
Enqui y Conce ning Poli ical Jus ice, da ed 1793, c i icises go e nmen al and socie al s uc u es, ad oca ing o he aboli ion
o ins i u ional powe and he pu sui o indi idual libe y h ough eason and coope a ion: “Whene e go e nmen assumes
o deli e us om he ouble o hinking o ou sel es, he only consequences i p oduces a e hose o o po and imbecili y.”
(Godwin, 2022, p.4486). His belie ha human beha iou could be guided by a ionali y a he han coe cion challenged he
need o go e nmen con ol. Wolls onec a sha ed Godwin’s belie in eason and indi idual libe y, as i esona ed wi h he
a gumen s o gende equali y and women's educa ion.
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The subjec expe iences he Ma hema ical Sublime when hey ealise he size and scale
o such objec s, which anscend he abili y o ully comp ehend hem. When he subjec is
con on ed wi h some hing so absolu ely la ge (Kan , p.145), i o e whelms he subjec ’s
imagina ion’s capaci y o comp ehend i . In his si ua ion, he imagina ion, while “s i ing
owa ds in ini e p og ess”, ails o comp ehend he objec in acco dance wi h eason’s demand
o “absolu e o ali y”. This inabili y o ully g asp he as ness o powe o he sublime objec
leads o a eeling o inadequacy, which by ques ioning he limi s o human unde s anding, can
also inspi e a sense o humili y and a ecogni ion o one’s condi ion when placed o he scale
o one’s eali y.
In o he wo ds, he Ma hema ical Sublime occu s when a subjec wi nesses o
obse es an objec ha is so as ha i app oaches he in ini e—an objec ha is beyond he
subjec ’s abili y o imagine. When imagina ion is su passed, he subjec is o ced o use
unc ions o eason in o de o comp ehend he e en . Fo ins ance, i he subjec compa es a
ca o a ige , hey will quickly ealise ha a ige is, biologically, a la ge and mo e e ocious
e sion o he amilia pe —di e en in size, bu s ill unde s andable. Howe e , one begins o
asce ain he Ma hema ical Sublime when one calcula es he magni ude o he sun—which is
eno mous, ye ini e—and hen begins o con empla e he seemingly in ini e as ness o all
he s a s in all he galaxies in he en i e uni e se. Kan de ines he Ma hema ical Sublime as
he eeling o exhila a ion ha one expe iences when one ealises ha he highes e e ence
poin wi hin hei expe ience is ac ually minuscule beyond ue comp ehension when
compa ed o his new expe ience—as in he case o he almos in ini e numbe o gian suns
sca e ed ac oss unimaginable dis ances. The subjec mus hen ely on eason, logic, o
scien i ic calcula ion in o de o come o any kind o unde s anding.
The second ype o Sublime, acco ding o Kan , is he Dynamic Sublime. The Dynamic
Sublime ela es o he o ces o na u e, such as s o ms, wa e alls, and yphoons. I occu s
when a subjec expe iences pleasu e while obse ing he powe o awe-inspi ing and
des uc i e o ces in na u e bu does so wi h he knowledge ha hese o ces will no ha m
hem. This memb ane o sa e y can ake many o ms, bu he eeling ha hese awesome
o ces o na u e ha e “no dominion o e us” (Kan , 2017, p. 159) is a c i ical pa o he
dynamically sublime expe ience. Kan says:

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So also he i esis ibili y o i s migh , while making us ecognise ou own physical impo ence,
conside ed as beings o na u e, discloses o us a acul y o judging independen ly o , and a
supe io i y o e , na u e; on which is based a kind o sel -p ese a ion, en i ely di e en om
ha which can be a acked and b ough in o dange by ex e nal na u e. Thus, humani y in ou
pe son emains unhumilia ed, hough he indi idual migh ha e o submi o his dominion.
(p.161).
He e, Kan ou lines he wo condi ions o he Dynamic Sublime o occu : i s , he
subjec mus expe ience he i esis ible powe o na u e, and second, he subjec mus ealise
ha hey a e sa e om des uc ion. I is impo an o s ess he idea ha , in o de o an
expe ience o be conside ed Sublime, one mus no expe ience mindless ea , because ha
would nega e he subjec ’s abili y o pass judgmen abou he app op ia eness o being a aid,
and, since he expe ience o he Sublime is a unc ion o eason, he subjec ’s abili y o make
an assessmen abou hei sa e y is o pa amoun impo ance. Kan explains he dis inc ion
be ween abjec ea and he ype o ea associa ed wi h Dynamically Sublime expe iences by
con as ing he idea o ea ing God o he idea o being a aid o God:
Bu we can ega d an objec as ea ul, wi hou being a aid o i ; iz. i we judge o i in such a
way ha we me ely hink a case in which we would wish o esis i , and ye in which all
esis ance would be al oge he ain. Thus he i uous man ea s God wi hou being a aid o
Him; because o wish o esis Him and His commandmen s, he hinks is a case as o which he
need no be anxious. Bu in e e y such case ha he hinks as no impossible, he cognises Him
as ea ul. (p.160)
Kan posi s ha i uous people ha e a ea o God, bu hey ha e no eason o be
a aid o Him unless hey in end o ebel agains God’s will. In Kan ’s example, he subjec
ecognises he absolu e powe o God, bu he subjec ’s igh eousness ac s as a ba ie
be ween hemsel es and God’s w a h— ende ing abjec ea unnecessa y. In he same way, in
o de o a subjec o expe ience he Dynamic Sublime, hey mus ecognise he i esis ible
o ce being obse ed—while all he while also unde s anding ha hey a e p o ec ed om he
consequences o he phenomenon being wi nessed.
As opposed o he Ma hema ical Sublime, he Dynamic Sublime is no jus abou he
o mal p ope ies o he na u al phenomena o elemen s bu also abou he powe and
in ensi y o hese phenomena o elemen s, which makes he expe ience o he Sublime highly
subjec i e. I depends on he subjec ’s abili y o eason and comp ehend he objec s p esen ed
by na u e. The Dynamic Sublime e okes a sense o ea and awe in he ace o na u e's
o e whelming powe . I appea s when we expe ience na u e as ea ul, e en hough we migh
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be in a posi ion o sa e y and, he e o e, ha e no eason o be a aid when gazing a he au o a
bo eal, a hu icane, o an ac i e olcano (a a dis ance).
2.4 Main Echoes and Types o he Sublime in Emily B on ë’s Wo k
Wha we sugges om his poin onwa ds is an analysis o Emily B on ë’s poe y and only
no el, Wu he ing Heigh s (1847), in e wining hem wi h hese concep s o he Sublime, which
a e ans e sal o all he ca ego ies o bo h he poe ic and na a i e s uc u es. We shall adap
Longinus’s i e sou ces o he Sublime – he imagina ion o a g ea c ea i e genius, he
ehemen and inspi ed passion, he poe ic use o language, he choice and a angemen o
wo ds, and he digni ied ele a ion o s uc u es – while jux aposing Bu ke’s dis inc ion
be ween he Sublime and he Beau i ul, and highligh ing he change in he discussion om he
echnical and a ional manoeu es o language o he expe ience o elemen s o he na u al
wo ld. Due o hei as ness o obscu i y, hese a e associa ed in Emily wi h he sense o
mo ali y, ea , e o , bu also wi h he elie om such e o , a “deligh ”. We shall poin ou
he Bu kian scena ios o da kness, d ead, and de o mi y in Emily B on ë’s wo k and how hey
induce an expe ience o he Sublime in he eade . In e ms o Kan ’s heo y o he Sublime,
we shall analyse bo h he Ma hema ical Sublime and he Dynamic Sublime in B on ë’s poe y
and no el, and how hese complemen each o he in he depic ion o he as ness o na u e
and i s o e whelming powe o e he subjec ’s imagina ion.
In Wu he ing Heigh s, he expansi e and desola e moo s a e a ecu ing ep esen a ion
o he Ma hema ical Sublime. Cha ac e s such as Hea hcli and Ca he ine exp ess an awe-
inspi ing connec ion wi h he wildness and boundlessness o he moo s, which anscend he
limi s o human comp ehension, hus e oking a sense o he in ini e. The wide, open landscape
su ounding he Heigh s se es as a physical and symbolic mani es a ion o he Ma hema ical
Sublime, wi h i s limi less ho izons sugges ing he as ness o na u e ha can only be g asped
h ough eason, no h ough di ec expe ience. The bond ha Hea hcli and Ca he ine sha e
may also be in e p e ed as a mani es a ion o he Ma hema ical Sublime, as hey pe cei e
hemsel es as he same pe son; ha is, i is impossible o pinpoin whe e one begins and he
o he ends as hey e lec on each o he as an endless kaleidoscopic mi o . On Ca he ine’s
pa , we ealise he luidi y o he being pou ed in o Hea hcli when she a i ms, “He's mo e
mysel han I am” (p.64) and, on Hea hcli ’s monologue a e he lea ns o he dea h: “I
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CANNOT li e wi hou my li e! I CANNOT li e wi hou my soul!” (p.129). The e is a sense o
in ini y be ween he wo cha ac e s, as hey li e in a uni ied exis ence. In Ca he ine’s wo ds,
hei lo e “ esembles he e e nal ocks benea h” and any sepa a ion “is imp ac icable”.
Simila ly, B on ë’s poe y o en depic s ins ances o he Ma hema ical Sublime. In he
poem “Ah! why, because he dazzling sun” (Ap il 1845), s anza ou eads: “Though ollowed
hough , s a ollowed s a , / Th ough boundless egions, on; / While one swee in luence, nea
and a , / Th illed h ough, and p o ed us one!”. The pa allel hy hm o “Though ollowed
hough , s a ollowed s a ” e okes an image y o subjec i e in ospec ion whe e hough s and
na u al elemen s expand and epea hemsel es o in ini y (“Th ough boundless egions”). The
as ness o he nigh sky and he s a s beyond he each o human pe cep ion e lec his
sublime expe ience. The speake is con on ed wi h he immensi y o he uni e se, eeling a
sense o awe in he ace o celes ial as ness, which challenges human unde s anding bu is
concep ualised h ough he mind’s eason, ele a ing he human spi i .
On he o he hand, he Dynamic Sublime in ol es an expe ience o na u e’s
o e whelming powe . This o m o he Sublime occu s when indi iduals encoun e o ces in
na u e ha hey a e physically unable o con ol, such as s o ms o na u al disas e s. In
Wu he ing Heigh s, he Dynamic Sublime is embodied in he u hless s o ms ha o en
accompany momen s o iolence, emo ional ou bu s s, o con lic be ween cha ac e s. One
signi ican example occu s he nigh Ca he ine dies, du ing a empes ha mi o s Hea hcli ’s
uncon ollable g ie and age. The s o m’s in ensi y e lec s he o e whelming o ce o na u e,
which pa allels Hea hcli ’s own u bulen emo ions. Despi e he physical dange posed by he
s o m, he cha ac e s’ eason and inne s eng h allow hem o anscend ea , aligning wi h
Kan ’s no ion ha he sublime expe ience a i ms he subjec ’s mo al eedom and capaci y
o endu ance.
In B on ë’s poe y, he Dynamic Sublime is no ably p esen in ““In summe ’s mellow
midnigh ” (Sep embe 1840). He e, he speake is con on ed by he powe ul o ce o he
wind, which o e whelms ye cap i a es hem. The wind becomes an almos pe soni ied o ce
o na u e, embodying he uncon ollable and sublime powe ha e okes bo h ea and awe.
The speake 's in e ac ion wi h he wind e lec s he ension be ween submission o and
anscendence o na u e’s o ces, a key elemen o he Dynamic Sublime in Kan ian e ms.
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The e a e also w i ings in B on ë’s wo k ha combine bo h he Ma hema ical and he
Dynamic Sublime. In “No Cowa d Soul is Mine” (Janua y 1846), he speake aces he immense
o ces o li e and dea h wi h a de ian inne s eng h (s a ed immedia ely in he li o es and
hype ba on – much o Longinus as e – in line 1: “No cowa d soul is mine”. The a i ma i e
exp essed by he nega i e and he in e sion o he s anda d o de o wo ds may ansla e o
“My soul is b a e”). The poem embodies bo h he Ma hema ical and Dynamic Sublime, as he
subjec con on s he as ness o e e ni y and he powe ul o ces o exis ence wi h mo al and
spi i ual o i ude (“I see Hea en's glo ies shine, And ai h shines equal, a ming me om ea .”),
hus a i ming Kan ’s idea ha eason allows indi iduals o ise abo e na u e’s migh .
In his wo k, we will p ima ily see Emily B on ë's w i ings as a cons an sea ch and
explo a ion in o he place o he sel in he inne and ou e in ini e cosmos, culmina ing wi h
an expe ience o he Sublime when all he pain, e o , and ea subside. A e expe iencing,
bo h di ec ly and indi ec ly, na u e’s wild whims, ca aclysmic wea he , he un es ained age
and hunge in Hea hcli and Ca he ine’s o e whelming emo ional ou bu s s, and he ea and
awe inspi ed by he in ini e expanse o he moo s, we may ind ou sel es on he h eshold o
he Ma hema ical Sublime, whe e he in ensi y o passion, lo e, ange , and iolence s e ches
beyond he limi s o human comp ehension, anscending he subjec ’s abili y o imagine o
g asp hem ully. Al e na i ely, we may, as in he Dynamic Sublime, a e he mani es a ion o
such powe s and dange s, eel a sense o anscendence suppo ed by ou inne s eng h and,
like M Lockwood, ake com o in he e-es ablishmen o a ional o de and wonde “how
any one could e e imagine unquie slumbe s o he sleepe s in ha quie ea h” (p. 256).
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Chap e III
The Sublime in Emily B on ë’s Poe y and Wu he ing Heigh s
Poe y is mo e a h eshold han a pa h, one cons an ly app oached
and cons an ly depa ed om, a which eade and w i e unde go
in hei di e en ways he expe ience o being a he same ime
summoned and eleased.
Seamus Heaney, The Go e nmen o he Tongue
Ha ing explo ed he concep o he Sublime in a p e ious chap e , his sec ion now
u ns o he de ailed analysis o Emily B on ë's poe y and na a i e p ose h ough he lens o
his aes he ic. Cen al o his unde aking is he heme o h esholds, which plays a pi o al ole
in he c ea ion and expe ience o he Sublime in he wo k. Th esholds, bo h li e al and
me apho ical, signi y he bounda ies be ween opposing ealms—such as in e nal and ex e nal,
na u e and ci ilisa ion, pas and p esen – and a e c ucial in unde s anding how Emily B on ë,
in he own oice and in he cha ac e s and landscapes, e okes a sense o awe, e o , and
ul ima e anscendence.
By del ing in o hese liminal spaces, his chap e aims o showcase he dep h o
B on ë's engagemen wi h he Sublime and he depic ion o h esholds se es o heigh en he
Sublime expe ience. Th ough he analysis o key ex s, we shall shed ligh on how hese
h eshold momen s a e c ucial o he c ea ion o he Sublime e ec , hus o e ing a new
pe spec i e on B on ë's p o ound engagemen wi h his aes he ic adi ion.
The wo d “ h eshold” is belie ed o be ela ed o he Old English wo d h escan, om
which we ge he e b “ o h esh”, meaning " o sepa a e seed om (a ha es ed plan ) using
a machine o ool" (“Th eshold,” 2024). Tha is o say, in a way, ha a h eshold is a place o
sepa a ion and ansi ion. In Emily B on ë’s poe y and na a i e, we shall expe ience hese
h esholds in momen s o pe manen duali y: inside and ou side, d eam and eali y, human
and supe na u al, eedom and con inemen , sel and o he , ligh and da kness, hea en and
ea h, li e and dea h – each o hese “ h esholds” a e ep esen ed in he au ho ’s wo k and
play an essen ial ole in un eiling new meanings. Ne e heless, a h eshold, being a poin o
en ance o he line a which a phenomenon begins o p oduce an e ec , also implies he u ge
o o e s ep i , and he pu pose o his chap e is o show how he decision o walk i s line and
how his ansi ion akes place ansla es in o he poe ’s w i ings.

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Many au ho s ha e explo ed his concep o he h eshold and he exis ence o being
in-be ween s a es, some imes op ing o mo e o wa d and o he s jus linge ing on he
bounda y.
In Ch is ina Rosse i’s d ama ic monologue, “The Con en Th eshold” (1862), he
speake , a “ allen” woman in epen ance, desc ibes he easons unde lying he decision o join
a con en o ul il he spi i ual decision o epen (“You sinned wi h me a pleasan sin: / Repen
wi h me, o I epen .” l.51-52). She eels he body is s ained (“My lily ee a e soiled wi h
mud, / Wi h sca le mud which ells a ale / O hope ha was, o guil ha was, / O lo e ha
shall no ye a ail” l.7-10) and wishes o he pu i ica ion o he soul (“To wash he spo , o
bu n he sna e” l.14). She keeps eminding he in e locu o ha while hei eyes “look
ea hwa d, mine look up” (l.17), owa ds hea en. Thus, he poem’s speake s ands a a
h eshold: physically be ween he ou side and he inside o he building, me apho ically
be ween a physical li e and a spi i ual li e. The la e , howe e , implies he dea h o he o me
(a “social dea h” as joining a con en en ails seclusion and isola ion om socie y), so he e is
a solid an i he ical sense o li e and dea h in he decision.
Likewise, in Amy Le y’s “On he Th eshold” (1889), he speake desc ibes hei eelings
o loss and helplessness a e d eaming o he dea h o hei lo ed one. The speake is s anding
a he doo way o he oom (“in he doo way wa ched you om a a ” l.6) whe e he co pse
lies and da es no en e he p i a e space as hey do no eel hei ela ionship wa an s such
in imacy (“I had no pa no lo in you” l.8). The poem alludes o many “ h esholds”, bo h
physical and me apho ical: he speake is physically s anding on he sill o he doo , i.e., in a
liminal space which is nei he in no ou o he oom; psychologically we ha e he wo s a es
o being asleep and hen awake (“I d eamed ha you we e dead” l.1); he e is also he duali y
be ween he physical and he pla onic and he p esence o language ( e bal) and he absence
o language (silence) (“O you misp ision and my impo ence.” l.11); inally, he duali y
be ween li e and dea h, as he speake is ali e bu he add essee o he poem is dead.
Despi e Emily B on ë’s as wo k, which, in addi ion o he no el, Wu he ing Heigh s,
accoun s o mo e han wo hund ed poems, his wo k aims o depic , by using a selec ion o
i e poems, how Emily B on ë in eg a es and in e wines he Sublime and he heme o
h esholds in he poe y, and how hese pa icula poems ind echo in he 1847 no el
Wu he ing Heigh s, subsequen ly discussing he ele ance o hese ‘Sublime h esholds’,
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which popula e his pa icula wo k as well. While his analysis del es in o jus i e poems,
hese se e as a ounda ional basis, in ica ely wo en wi h e e ences o nume ous o he s.
These i e, in ou opinion, ep esen he Sublime and heme o h esholds in Emily B on ë’s
wo k and p o ide a amewo k o explo ing b oade connec ions ac oss he poe 's wo k
h ough sha ed hema ic and s ylis ic elemen s.
As men ioned in he p e ious chap e , he Sublime in ol es expe iences ha e oke
awe, e o , and admi a ion h ough encoun e s wi h na u e's as ness o powe . And Edmund
Bu ke and Immanuel Kan p o ide he basic amewo k used in his disse a ion o analysing
B on ë’s li e a y engagemen wi h he Sublime and he heme o he h eshold.
E en hough Edmund Bu ke does no explici ly men ion " h esholds" o "liminal
spaces" as concep s di ec ly associa ed wi h he Sublime, his amewo k o he Sublime can
be in e p e ed as o en in ol ing “liminal momen s”— hose spaces whe e human beings a e
b ough o a momen whe e hey need o con on some hing abo e and beyond hei
limi a ions. The Sublime a ises om momen s o as onishmen :
In his case he mind is so en i ely illed wi h i s objec , ha i canno en e ain any
o he , no by consequence eason on ha objec which employs i . Hence a ises he g ea
powe o he Sublime, ha , a om being p oduced by hem, i an icipa es ou easonings,
and hu ies us on by an i esis ible o ce. As onishmen , as I ha e said, is he e ec o he
Sublime in i s highes deg ee. (p.72)
Th esholds, in his sense, a e poin s o ansi ion o bounda ies whe e he Sublime
migh be el mos in ensely, as in he c escendo o a music composi ion. The h eshold o
liminal space can be a me apho ical "en ance" in o he Sublime:
The ension o he pa hus inc easing a e e y blow, by he uni ed o ces o he s oke
i sel , he expec a ion and he su p ise, i is wo ked up o such a pi ch as o be capable o he
sublime; i is b ough jus o he e ge o pain. E en when he cause has ceased, he o gans o
hea ing being o en successi ely s uck in a simila manne , con inue o ib a e in ha manne
o some ime longe ; his is an addi ional help o he g ea ness o he e ec . (p.186)
Immanuel Kan ’s app oach o he Sublime is ela ed o Bu ke’s bu di e s in i s
philosophical ounda ions. While Kan also does no di ec ly speak o “ h esholds” o
"liminalspaces" as such, he idea o c ossing bounda ies be ween he
empi ical/sensible/comp ehensible and he anscenden /supe sensible/incomp ehensible is
deeply embedded in his heo y o he Sublime. Fo Kan , he Sublime occu s when we s and
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a he h eshold be ween one and he o he . I is he poin whe e human acul ies—speci ically
he imagina ion and eason—mee hei limi s. Fo ins ance, he imagina ion canno ully
comp ehend he as ness o he ma hema ical sublime o he des uc i e powe o he
dynamical sublime, bu eason s eps in o make sense o he immensi y o powe . In his way,
Kan 's concep o he Sublime con ains an inhe en liminali y ha lies in con on ing some hing
ha challenges ou acul ies, o cing us o anscend he limi s o ou unde s anding:
Bu because he e is in ou Imagina ion a s i ing owa ds in ini e p og ess, and in ou
Reason a claim o absolu e o ali y, ega ded as a eal Idea, he e o e his e y inadequa eness
o ha Idea in ou acul y o es ima ing he magni ude o hings o sense, exci es in us he
eeling o a supe sensible acul y. And i is no he objec o sense, bu he use which he
Judgemen na u ally makes o ce ain objec s on behal o his la e eeling, ha is absolu ely
g ea . Consequen ly, i is he s a e o mind p oduced by a ce ain ep esen a ion wi h which
he e lec i e Judgemen is occupied, and no he Objec , ha is o be called sublime. (p. 146)
While Bu ke ocuses mos ly on senso y expe iences (pain, ea , e o ) and emphasises
an emo ional esponse o hese liminal spaces, eme ging di ec ly om he senses and ex e nal
wo ld, Kan , on he o he hand, ocuses on he dialogue be ween eason and anscendence.
In Kan , he Sublime eme ges mo e om in e nal p ocesses, wi h h esholds ma king he
bounda ies o cogni i e acul ies a he han pu ely ex e nal senso y expe iences: “We may
he e o e append o he p eceding o mulas explaining he sublime his o he : he sublime is
ha , he me e abili y o hink which, shows a acul y o he mind su passing e e y s anda d o
Sense.” (p. 147)
In B on ë’s wo k, when one examines h esholds, one can apply bo h Bu ke’s and Kan ’s
ideas o he sublime o hese h esholds (i.e., ansi ional momen s), whe e cha ac e s and
eade s alike con on limi less emo ions o expe iences ha anscend eason. On one le el,
hese scenes o e Bu ke’s pain, ea , and e o , and on he o he , he c ossing o a h eshold
mi o s Kan ’s desc ip ion o he Sublime, whe e eason g apples wi h i s limi a ions.
The selec ion o he poems was based on ou basic c i e ia: i s ly, i was ou in en o
selec poems om di e en momen s o he (sho ) li e: he eenage yea s, he ea ly wen ies
and he la e wen ies, espec i ely; his in o de o assess whe he he e was some p og ession
in how Emily B on ë app oached he opic o he Sublime and h esholds; secondly, he ones
ha could ind echo in Wu he ing Heigh s, especially in he i s gene a ion “lo e iangle”
ela ionship, no , as many would expec , be ween Ca he ine, Hea hcli and Edga , bu
79
be ween Ca he ine, Hea hcli and na u e i sel ; he hi d was o selec , among he wo k, hose
poems which would ep esen he clea es examples o he use o Sublime h esholds, in all
hei mani es a ions (na u al, spi i ual, me apho ical, psychological and physical); and, inally,
as he ou h c i e ion, he poems discussed should be selec ed bo h om he Gondal
p oduc ion, in which she lends he oice o di e en cha ac e s and na a o s, poems whose
placemen wi hin he wo k a e s ill opic o deba e, and poems whe e he poe ic oice is he
own oice.
As a esul , he poems analysed in his sec ion a e as ollows: “High wa eing hea he
‘nea h s o my blas s bending”, da ed Decembe 13 h, 1836, ch onologically one o he i s
poems and ca ego ised as a non-Gondal poem; “The nigh is da kening ound me” (also i led
“Spellbound”, and i s published in 1902), wi h na a i e elemen s in common wi h he
Gondal saga, bu wi h no ex ual e e ence o any an h oponym o oponym o he saga, and
“Sleep b ings no joy o me”, conside ed a Gondal poem as i bea s he ini ials A.G.A a he op
o he manusc ip , bo h da ed No embe 1837; “In summe ’s mellow midnigh ”, also known
as he “Nigh -Wind”, da ed Sep embe 11 h, 1840, which was objec o ew i ing in i s i s
publica ion in 1850 by Emily’s sis e Cha lo e, who also p o ides us wi h a sho biog aphical
no e, as Geza i (1993, p. 270), in he no es o he poem ansc ibes Cha lo e’s in oduc o y
wo ds: “He e again is he same mind in con e se wi h a like abs ac ion. The Nigh -Wind,
b ea hing h ough an open window, has isi ed an ea which disce ned language in i s
whispe s”. Rope (1995, p. 249) adds ha on ha same day (Sep embe 11 h, 1840) “Emily
could ha e seen a ull moon om he pa lou , o dining oom, o he pa sonage; he day had
been wa m, wi h a mode a e wind and a li le ain”; and, he las one, “R. Alcona o J. B enzaida
‘Cold in he ea h’” (also known as “Rememb ance”, due o he need o e ase e e ences o
he Gondal Saga o he 1846 publica ion o he h ee B on ë sis e s’ poe y book, unde he
pennames o Cu e , Ellis and Ac on Bell), da ed 1845.
All in all, his sec ion is de o ed o he ollowing: a poem w i en in he own oice when
Emily was in he la e eens, wo poems w i en when Emily was in he ea ly 20s, he la e
belonging o he Gondal Saga and he o me wi h implied bu no explici connec ions wi h
e en s na a ed in he Gondal manusc ip ; a ou h da ed wo yea s la e , when Emily was 22
yea s old; and a la e one, almos immedia ely p eceding he incep ion o Wu he ing Heigh s
and one o he en las da ed poems o be w i en abou Gondal’s ise and all.
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means Hindley e u ning o he Heigh s and es ablishing a comple ely di e en household
dynamics om he one in place, namely in debasing Hea hcli o a se i ude posi ion, subjec
o almos subhuman ea men wi h egula bea ings and e bal o ence.
In Chap e IX, he wind se s he one o ano he dea h, his ime me apho ical, when
Hea hcli , hu by Ca he ine’s s ance on he pe spec i e o ma ying him, abandons Wu he ing
Heigh s, disappea ing o h ee yea s:
Abou midnigh , while we s ill sa up, he s o m came a ling o e he Heigh s in ull u y. The e
was a iolen wind, as well as hunde , and ei he one o he o he spli a ee o a he co ne
o he building: a huge bough ell ac oss he oo and knocked down a po ion o he eas
chimney-s ack, sending a cla e o s ones and soo in o he ki chen- i e. We hough a bol had
allen in he middle o us. (p.66)
In addi ion o he wind, o he elemen s ound in he poem a e also men ioned, such
as he e e ence o he midnigh h eshold, signalling he s a ing poin o ano he dis up ion
in he Ea nshaw’s household, he a ling dis up i e s o m, and he isual and sound image y
o ligh ning and hunde .
Ano he example o he o e lapping mo i s o he poem and no el is when, in Chap e
XII, Ellen Dean hin s a Ca he ine’s descen in o madness:
Tossing abou , she inc eased he e e ish bewilde men o madness, and o e he pillow wi h
he ee h; hen aising he sel up all bu ning, desi ed ha I would open he window. We we e
in he middle o win e , he wind blew s ong om he no h-eas , and I objec ed. (p.94).
The eeble madwoman
46
’s desi e o expe ience he wind s ems om an in ense, almos
animalis ic, u ge o eedom and e u n o na u e. The physical and emo ional e e ha
Ca he ine is expe iencing mi o s he speake ’s hy hmic a alanche con eyed in he poem, as
hey depic nume ous ac ions simul aneously occu ing. The window ep esen s ano he line
o h eshold as Ca he ine, con ined in he “dungeon” o he own bed oom, wishes o his
46
The e m ‘madwoman’ is no used ligh ly in his con ex . In addi ion o Ellen Dean’s wo ds, Ca he ine’s ac ions a his
pa icula momen mi o one o he mos agic Shakespea ean he oines: Ophelia, who, mad wi h g ie o a dead a he a
he hands o he lo e, exp esses he eelings o loss by enume a ing lowe s and hei meaning: “The e's osema y, ha 's o
ememb ance; p ay, / lo e, emembe : and he e is pansies. ha 's o hough s./(…)/ The e's ennel o you, and columbines:
he e's ue / o you; and he e's some o me: we may call i / he b-g ace o' Sundays: O you mus wea you ue wi h / a
di e ence. The e's a daisy: I would gi e you / some iole s, bu hey wi he ed all when my a he / died: hey say he made a
good end,--” (Ac IV, scene 5). Ca he ine, in Chap e XII, does some hing simila bu wi h bi d ea he s. While pulling hem
om he pillows on he bed, she begins a sho monologue: “Tha 's a u key's,' she mu mu ed o he sel , 'and his is a wild
duck's; and his is a pigeon's. Ah, hey pu pigeons' ea he s in he pillows - no wonde I couldn' die! Le me ake ca e o h ow
i on he loo when I lie down. And he e is a moo -cock's; and his - I should know i among a housand - i 's a lapwing's.”
(p.95).

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window, o his ba , o be b oken so she can mig a e o he moo s: “my soul will be on ha
hill- op be o e you lay hands on me again.” (p.99). The wind, again, appea s as bo h a li e-gi e
and li e- ake as Ca he ine wishes o expe ience he wind as he physical li e de e io a es.
Again, simila ly o “High wa ing hea he ‘nea h s o my blas s bending” and “The P isone (A
F agmen )”, no only does he wind gi e and ake li e, bu i also p eludes momen s o
in e sec ion be ween li e and dea h. The ac ion o he wind ca alyses Ca he ine’s i s
appea ance in he no el:
This ime, I emembe ed I was lying in he oak close , and I hea d dis inc ly he gus y wind, and he
d i ing o he snow; I hea d, also, he i bough epea i s easing sound, and asc ibed i o he igh
cause: bu i annoyed me so much, ha I esol ed o silence i , i possible; and, I hough , I ose
and endea ou ed o unhasp he casemen . The hook was solde ed in o he s aple: a ci cums ance
obse ed by me when awake, bu o go en. 'I mus s op i , ne e heless!'” (p.20)
Had he wind no insis ingly knocked he i bough agains he window, “ easing” Lockwood
o silence i , i would ne e ha e been b oken and allowed o Ca he ine’s li le hands o g ab
Lockwood’s w is . The wind, by causing he glass on he window o sha e , allows he line
be ween li e and dea h o be b oken.
In bo h he poem and he no el, Emily B on ë uses na u al image y o con ey he concep
o he Sublime. The wild, un amed inne and ou e landscapes – whe he i is he hea he -
co e ed moo s o he s o my skies – become a e lec ion o he in ense inne con lic
expe ienced by he cha ac e s, hus illus a ing he o e whelming and o en des uc i e powe
o na u e. This po ayal o na u e as bo h beau i ul and e i ying blu s he line ha ma ks he
h eshold be ween awe and ea .
3.1.2 “Sleep b ings no joy o me”
“Sleep b ings no joy o me” da es back o 1837, he same yea o “The nigh is
da kening a ound me, which ollows in his disse a ion. “Sleeps b ings no joy o me”, despi e
no ha ing any in- ex e e ences o he names o places in he land o Gondal, i s manusc ip ,
which es s in he B on ë Pa sonage Museum Lib a y, bea s he ini ials A.G.A (Augus a
Ge aldine Almeda) a he op, which sugges s his o be a Gondal poem. Guima ães (2002,
p.408) a gues ha his poem desc ibes mo e han Augus a’s lamen o he dea h o one o
he many lo e s, i depic s he haun ing eeling o being obse ed by hose whose dea h she
88
had been esponsible o
47
. The poem can hus be in e p e ed as he mani es a ion o a guil y
conscience, whe ein he speake pe cei es he pas ic ims and ac ions as e u ning o pass
judgmen upon he (“The shadows o he dead / They all gaze oh how sco n ully”).
The poem consis s o six qua ains (o ou -line s anzas), which gi es i a egula , a he
epe i i e s uc u e ha somewha mi o s he pe sis en and cyclical na u e o he speake 's
su e ing. As o he hyme, i ollows an ABAB scheme, some imes wi h slan hymes, which
depend mainly on he Yo kshi e accen , as is he example in he las s anza, wi h “kni ” hyming
wi h “ o ge ”. This al e na e hyme scheme c ea es a hy hmic consis ency ha enhances he
eeling o inescapabili y, emphasising he speake 's eeling o en apmen in hei mise y
48
. As
o he me ic, despi e he egula i y o he me e h oughou he poem, which again ein o ces
he idea o a epe i i e, un elen ing o men , each s anza is comp ised o h ee di e en ypes
o line me ic: he i s and second lines o each s anza a e iambic ime e s, as in “Sleep b ings
no joy o me / Rememb ance ne e dies”. No e ha , by beginning anapho ically he i s line
o each s anza wi h “Sleep b ings no”, he i s line o e e y s anza begins wi h a spondee, ha
is, wo s essed syllables “Sleep b ings”, ollowed by wo iambic ee . The second line o each
qua ain is a con en ional iambic ime e : “The shadows o he dead”. The hi d line is an
iambic e ame e , “My soul is gi en o mise y”, and he las line o he qua ains is sho ened
o an iambic dime e “And li es in sighs”, which b ings his poem e y close o wha is known
by he common me e /measu e, usually used in Ch is ian hymns
49
, wi h he di e ence o ,
ins ead o a ime e in he las line o he s anza, he e is a diame e , which pulls he hy hm
o he poem close o a ballad, whe e a sho e line a he end o a s anza can be used o
hy hmic o empha ic e ec as a e ain.
47
In ac , Augus a’s many c imes in ol e being he mo al o de ac o esponsible o he dea hs o a leas ou cha ac e s in
he Gondal saga: Amedeus, he i s lo e , who dies in exile (“The Dea h o A.G.A”: “Whe e my Amedeus lies asleep, And I
ha e long o go o weep.”), he lo e child, Alexand ia, whom she lea es o die o exposu e (“A Fa ewell o Alexand ia”: “I
migh ha e le hee, da ling one”), Fe nando de Sama a, who commi s suicide a e being dese ed by Augus a (“Ligh up hy
halls! ‘Tis closing day”: “And ye , o all he ha e, each pa ing glance would ell / A s onge passion b ea hed, bu ned in his
las a ewell – / Unconque ed in my soul he Ty an ules me s ill – / Li e bows o my con ol, bu , Lo e I canno kill!”, ou
i alics), and Al ed Sidonia, who is abandoned by he (“This summe wind, wi h hee and me”: "I know ha I ha e done hee
w ong").
48
Ano he ins ance o he occu ence o he p ison/dungeon mo i . Ins ead o expe iencing a elease om he shackles in he
h eshold be ween hea en and ea h, like in “High wa ing hea he 'nea h s o my blas s bending” (“Man's spi i away om i s
d ea dungeon sending / Bu s ing he e e s and b eaking he ba s”), he speake emains in hei psychological p ison o
ecu ing and unse ling hough s, en isioning dea h as he only possible a onemen .
49
Emily B on ë was mos ce ainly e y amilia wi h Ch is ian Hymns and he Book o Common P aye due o he a he ’s
posi ion wi hin he Chu ch and Aun Elizabe h’s e e ous eligious de o ion.
89
The poem may be desc ibed as a haun ing explo a ion o despondency and guil , wi h
a p o ound eeling o isola ion and men al and emo ional dis ess. The speake inds no solace
o edemp ion in sleep, which adi ionally is mean o be a momen o obli ion, peace and
ligh ness o he mind and body. Ins ead, in his poem, sleep b ings no hing bu pain (no joy),
a igue (no es ), despai (no hope), weakness (no s eng h), loneliness (no iend) and
numbness (no wish). The e is a s ong desi e o escapism h ough dea h, exp essed in he
inal s anza: “My only wish is o o ge / In he sleep o dea h.”.
The ini ial s anza in oduces he main “cha ac e ” o he poem: Sleep, which is hen
epea ed a he beginning o e e y s anza. The pe soni ica ion o sleep, exp essed by he
capi alisa ion o he wo d, u ns i in o a li ing o ce ha is supposed o b ing joy, es , o
s eng h bu b ings no hing bu anguish. The abs ac concep o sleep is seen as an ac i e
agen wi hholding any com o om he speake . The epe i i eness emphasises he cen al
ele ance o sleep, which should be a momen o enewal. Howe e , i ails o be so due o he
immense sadness o he speake , as i dep i es hem o wha is supposed o b ing: joy in he
i s s anza and hope, s eng h, company and willpowe in he ollowing. The enjambmen in
lines 3 and 4 s esses he mise able and mu e exis ence o he speake ’s soul as i “is gi en o
mise y / And li es in sighs.” The one is con essional, highligh ed by he absence o
punc ua ion, as i he speake ’s s eam o consciousness bleeds in o he w i en lines, and he
hough s low almos in a ance igge ed by he lack o sleep.
The second s anza begins anapho ically wi h he exac wo ding as he i s one: “Sleep
b ings no…” and hen comple es wi h ano he noun, his ime “ es ”. E en hough sleep is, in
deno a i e e ms, associa ed wi h es and enewal, he e i akes on an an agonis ic ole as i
b ings "The shadows o he dead, / My wakening eyes may ne e see, / Su ound my bed.",
i.e., sleep is he ca alys o he ememb ance o hose long depa ed, who lu k a ound and
su ound he speake ’s es ing place he momen he speake decides o sleep. The
nigh ma ish Go hic image y o he shadows, he ghos ly p esence o he dead and he ac ha
hese su ound he speake in a quasi-claus ophobic a mosphe e emphasise he sense o
unease and desola ion. The hi d s anza ei e a es he idea o he nigh ma e (“soundes
sleep”) as he speake lamen s ha sleep canno , his ime, b ing hope. In o he wo ds, he e
is no com o in es ing, solely ea , because i is when he speake is as asleep ha hese
ghos s (“ hey”) app oach hem o deepen hei despai .
90
In he ou h s anza, sleep b ings no s eng h o a eeble speake : i o e s no
consola ion o espi e as i deepens and widens he da kness a ound hem like a mons ous
wa e ha engul s he speake . The sea- ela ed me apho s o he "wilde sea" and "da ke
wa e" ep esen he umul uous emo ional s a e o he speake ("I only sail a wilde sea, / A
da ke wa e."). The sea is wild and haza dous; e e y wa e is a hea y and pain ul blanke which
con inually o men s he speake . The image y o wa e in he poem also se es o e oke he
sensa ions o d owning and su oca ion, symbolising he o e whelming eelings o pain and
eg e expe ienced by he speake .
The i h s anza s esses he isola ion and abandonmen el by he speake as sleep
b ings hem “no iend”. They eel desola e and o saken, and no one, no e en one o he
ghos s who isi he speake in hei sleep, is he e o console hem o help hem cope wi h
hei despai . E e yone gazes on sco n ully as hey a e su ounded by enemies who eel
no hing bu con emp owa ds he speake .
In he inal s anza, he speake men ions ha sleep b ings no o he wish bu o o ge
in a pe manen sleep, he sleep o dea h. The no ion o "sleep o dea h" concludes he poem
and encapsula es he magni ude o he speake ’s wish o elease om hei o men .
E en hough he poem's one is con essional, and he ixed s uc u e p o ides a sense
o epe i i eness, which may en e ain a sense o s abili y and egula i y, his is ye ano he
poem in which he Sublime is qui e p esen , bo h in he hemes and language. The poem's las
s anza es ablishes dea h as an ul ima e, almos anscenden elease om he anguish o li e.
The speake ’s desi e o he "sleep o dea h" can be iewed as an exp ession o he Kan ian
Sublime in i s mos e i ying o m—encoun e ing he as ness o he unknown, he in ini e
s a e o unconsciousness, and su ende ing o i . This idea o in ini y in he "sleep o dea h"
e lec s he p inciple o he ma hema ical sublime, as i exceeds ou capaci y o senso y
comp ehension bu may be g asped by ou eason: "… o he ma hema ical es ima ion o
magni ude, he e is, indeed, no maximum ( o he powe o numbe s ex ends o in ini y)."
(Kan , p.147). The speake is also ace- o- ace wi h he "shadows o he dead", an awe-
p o oking si ua ion as he speake yea ns o dea h, no ou o ea , bu as a elease om an
exis ence illed wi h mise y and so ow. The image y o he sea, o en associa ed wi h he
Sublime, is also signi ican as i e okes ano he ins ance o na u e's as ness and
uncon ollable powe , as he sea is depic ed as an immense o ce ha cons an ly badge s he
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speake wi h i s da k and impene able wa es. Sleep, which should o e e uge, becomes a
nega i e, unlimi ed space illed wi h d ead, e o , and supe na u al o ces.
The e a e ins ances in Wu he ing Heigh s ha somehow echo he one and con en o
his poem, mainly he sec ions o he no el in which he wo main cha ac e s, p omp ed by
he physical absence o he o he , di e in o an exace ba ed emo ional and physical dis ess
and e use o sleep. The e a e wo passages in he ex whe e his is a he e iden : he i s ,
in Chap e IX, when, a e Hea hcli pa ially o e hea s he con e sa ion be ween Ellen and
Ca he ine, who con esses ha i would “deg ade” he o ma y Hea hcli , and consequen ly
disappea s in o he s o my nigh , Ca he ine e uses o sleep:
Coming down somewha la e han usual, I saw, by he sunbeams pie cing he chinks o he
shu e s, Miss Ca he ine s ill sea ed nea he i eplace. The house-doo was aja , oo; ligh
en e ed om i s unclosed windows; Hindley had come ou , and s ood on he ki chen hea h,
hagga d and d owsy. (p. 67).
Ca he ine, eeling he absence o Hea hcli , canno es and emains in he chai ,
soaking we , by he doo
50
and windows she kep open in he hope he may e u n. Ca he ine
na iga es wo dis inc ye in e ela ed h esholds ha seem o ha e he powe o bo h uni e
and sepa a e he om Hea hcli . By e using o sleep, she delibe a ely main ains a igilan
s a e, d i en by he ea ha sleep migh somehow se e he connec ion wi h him. In he
e o s o ensu e Hea hcli ’s e u n, she keeps he doo aja and windows open, hus p o iding
pa hs o his eappea ance. The second, and pe haps he one ha mos closely ela es o he
con en o he poem is when, in Chap e XXXIV Hea hcli begins his nigh excu sions in o he
as ness o he moo s: “One nigh , a e he amily we e in bed, I hea d him go downs ai s,
and ou a he on doo . I did no hea him e-en e , and in he mo ning I ound he was s ill
away.” (p.247). Upon e u ning o he Heigh s, Hea hcli is he ace o he Sublime: “Hea hcli
s ood a he open doo ; he was pale, and he embled: ye , ce ainly, he had a s ange joy ul
gli e in his eyes, ha al e ed he aspec o his whole ace.” Hea hcli ’s emo ional u moil is
cap u ed h ough he jux aposi ion o his physical appea ance and he con adic o y
exp essions on his ace. The image o Hea hcli s anding a he open doo is ano he depic ion
o a cha ac e abou o c oss a pa icula h eshold and highligh s his liminal posi ion be ween
50
The open/closed doo /window mo i is ecu en in Emily B on ë’s wo k and wa an s u he esea ch, especially ocusing
on he ole o ga es, doo s, and windows as physical h esholds and he an i he ical ela ionship be ween wha lies wi hin and
wha esides beyond such bounda ies.

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he ealms o he dead and he li ing. His paleness and embling sugges in ense emo ional
dis ess, pe haps ea o anxie y. Howe e , he "s ange, joy ul gli e " in his eyes makes his
demeanou con adic o y. The "gli e " al e s his en i e appea ance, indica ing ha concu en
o his appa en dis ess lies a deep, almos pe e se (“s ange”) sense o joy o sa is ac ion.
This duali y e lec s he complex na u e o Hea hcli 's cha ac e as he pe soni ica ion o he
Sublime, whe e pain and pleasu e a e inex icably in e wined. One wonde s wha Hea hcli
may ha e seen o done while oaming he moo s, and he absence o a conc e e answe
con ibu es o he eade ’s uneasiness. We e hese he amblings o a dis u bed, mal-
nou ished man
51
? Is Hea hcli answe ing he call om someone o some hing in he wild?
Wha is he doing ou he e in he da k all nigh long? Is he expe iencing some supe na u al
o ce? Is he he supe na u al o ce? Ellen Dean’s ques ion is he eade ’s ques ion: “Whe e
we e you las nigh ?” (p. 249), o which Hea hcli answe s c yp ically: “Las nigh I was on he
h eshold o hell. To-day, I am wi hin sigh o my hea en.” (p.249). Hea hcli is no only
s anding on he physical h eshold o he doo . He is s anding on he inal h eshold: he one
ha sepa a es hell and hea en.
Due o he lack o nou ishmen and sleep, Hea hcli begins o gi e signs o physical
agi a ion and men al de e io a ion:
He e u ned a e midnigh , and, ins ead o going o bed, shu himsel in o he oom benea h.
I lis ened, and ossed abou , and, inally, d essed and descended. I was oo i ksome o lie
he e, ha assing my b ain wi h a hund ed idle misgi ings. I dis inguished M . Hea hcli 's s ep,
es lessly measu ing he loo , and he equen ly b oke he silence by a deep inspi a ion,
esembling a g oan. He mu e ed de ached wo ds also; he only one I could ca ch was he name
o Ca he ine, coupled wi h some wild e m o endea men o su e ing; and spoken as one
would speak o a pe son p esen ; low and ea nes , and w ung om he dep h o his soul. (p.
251).
Hea hcli is pacing, sighing, g oaning, mumbling incohe en wo ds (o pe haps wo ds
om he unin elligible “gibbe ish” he spoke when he i s a i ed a he Heigh s) o which only
he name Ca he ine could be unde s ood. His one is lo ing bu despe a e, and he is add essing
someone who is no physically in he oom, much like he speake in he poem who inds no
51
A his poin in he no el, Ellen says ha Hea hcli ba ely ea s (“I ainly eminded him o his p o ac ed abs inence om
ood: i he s i ed o ouch any hing in compliance wi h my en ea ies, i he s e ched his hand ou o ge a piece o b ead, his
inge s clenched be o e hey eached i , and emained on he able, o ge ul o hei aim.” (p.251) and is g adually losing his
physical in eg i y, acqui ing ghos -like ea u es (“The way you' e passed hese h ee las days migh knock up a Ti an. Do ake
some ood, and some epose. You need only look a you sel in a glass o see how you equi e bo h. You cheeks a e hollow,
and you eyes blood- sho , like a pe son s a ing wi h hunge and going blind wi h loss o sleep.” (p.252)
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solace in sleep bu o whom he lack he eo also makes hem amble epe i i ely all he
so ow in hei li e. O pa icula in e es is he line “Sleep b ings no iend o me”, as, in
Wu he ing Heigh s, i , in Chap e IX, Ca he ine alls asleep, she ea s missing he iend
(Hea hcli ), and Hea hcli , in Chap e XXXIV, should he all asleep, also ea s losing con ac
wi h his imma e ial iend (Ca he ine). In Wu he ing Heigh s, sleep is also seen no as a e uge
bu as a space o a oid.
The ele ance o sleep is highligh ed in he e y las sen ence by Lockwood:
I linge ed ound hem, unde ha benign sky: wa ched he mo hs lu e ing among he hea h
and ha ebells, lis ened o he so wind b ea hing h ough he g ass, and wonde ed how any
one could e e imagine unquie slumbe s o he sleepe s in ha quie ea h.”
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(p.256).
Lockwood akes his inal s oll and obse es he es ing places o Hea hcli , Ca he ine,
and Edga benea h a "benign sky." The scena io is mild and pleasan , wi h “so wind,” “mo hs
lu e ing,” and “hea h and ha ebells,” all signs o a ha monious and peace ul a mosphe e.
Hea hcli and Ca he ine a e dead, and Lockwood seems o sugges ha he na u al o de has
inally been e-es ablished. Lockwood sees his na a i e as inished and Hea hcli ’s dea h
ma ks he end o he cha ac e s’ pe sonal agedy, as hey a e all inally uni ed in he a e li e,
should he e be one (e e yone’s exac ole in his dynamic is no ully desc ibed as i does no
i he “na u al” socie al o de by which Lockwood abides: e en in dea h, Ca he ine is s ill a
woman be ween wo men). All in all, Lockwood belie es o wan s o belie e ha now li e is
inally o he li ing, and he eason will no longe be dis u bed by passions, haun ings o o he
ansg essions.
Howe e , a his poin , he eade is awa e ha hey canno ely on Lockwood o
in e p e he e en s o con ey co ec in o ma ion. F om he e y beginning o he no el, he
epea edly ails o iden i y people, places, and e en s. The polyp o on in "unquie " and "quie "
d aws a delibe a e con as in Lockwood’s las wo ds. E en hough he seems ce ain o his
e sion o eali y, he eade is le wi h he ques ion o whe he Hea hcli and Ca he ine uly
es in peace o i hei spi i s will con inue o haun he moo s. The "unquie slumbe s"
sugges ha , despi e he appa en peace o he “quie ea h,” hei in ense connec ion and
un esol ed issues in li e may p e en hem om inding comple e es . As much as Lockwood
wishes o dismiss he sigh ings o Hea hcli and Ca he ine by Joseph and he li le boy, as he
52
Ou i alics.
94
idea o he supe na u al does no i wi hin his s uc u es o a ional hough , one is le wi h
he imp ession ha now, a e six mon hs, he na a o e en ques ions himsel whe he he
e en s he wi nessed ook place exac ly how he pe cei ed hem. The e is a linge ing ension, a
eminde ha o cha ac e s as in ense as Hea hcli and Ca he ine, peace migh ne e come
easily – e en in dea h – and ha hey may only be wai ing o he nex s o m o eappea .
In he end, Lockwood s ill does no unde s and Wu he ing Heigh s, which is pe haps
Emily B on ë’s way o hin ing ha some h esholds a e be e le unc ossed.
3.1.3 “The nigh is da kening ound me”
Emily B on ë’s “The nigh is da kening ound me” was w i en in No embe 1837 in
Hawo h, a windswep illage in Yo kshi e, whe e he au ho spen almos he en i e li e and
whe e snowbound ees and ga he ing s o ms would ha e been a he equen . Al hough he
manusc ip does no bea any o he ma kings usually used by Emily o signal he poems
belonging o he Gondal saga, Julie Ba ke , he edi o o he olume The B on ë's Selec ed
Poems, in 1989, sugges s ha his poem may be he mani es a ion o he speake ’s “ma e nal
emo ions”, ela ed o an inciden when one o he Gondal he oines, Augus a Ge aldine Almeda
exposes he child o die on he moun ains in he dep hs o win e
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, which is also men ioned
la e on by Ch is ine Alexande (2010), as his poem is he e y i s one included in he
an hology solely dedica ed o he ju enilia o he B on ë siblings.
“The nigh is da kening ound me” is a ly ic poem consis ing o 12 lines, di ided in o
h ee qua ains. Each s anza has a simila s uc u e: he poe desc ibes he inhospi able
landscape in which hey a e apped o ei e a e hen ha , due o unspoken easons, hey
53
To ein o ce he in eg a ion o his poem in he Gondal saga, he e seems o be some hema ic o e lap ega ding ins ances
o ma e nal abandonmen , as Emily e u ns o he heme in wo o he poems: in 'A Fa ewell o Alexand ia,' da ed 1839,
Augus a Ge aldine Almeda (AGA), a somewha uncon en ional queen o Gondal, allegedly (migh ) abandons he illegi ima e
newbo n daugh e (whose a he is Al ed Sidonia, one o AGA’s many lo e s) o he ha sh na u al elemen s: “I migh ha e
laid hee down / And deemed hy sleep would gen le be / I migh ha e le hee, da ling one / And hough hy God was
gua ding hee!” (s anza 5), a ile ac ha seems pa icula ly di icul o commi due o he ex eme wea he condi ions: “Alas,
he lakes a e hea ily alling; / They co e as each gua dian c es ; / And chilly whi e hei sh oud is palling / Thy ozen limbs
and eezing b eas ” (s anza 8). The las s anza o he poem makes i clea ha no only is his an unwan ed child bu also
highligh s he inne con lic o he speake : “Wakes up he s o m mo e madly wild, / The moun ain d i s a e ossed on high—
/ Fa ewell, unblessed, un iended child, / I canno bea o wa ch hee die!” Again, in “Wha win e loods, wha showe s o
Sp ing,” om 1839, AGA emo se ully ecalls he inal es ing place o a well-kep sec e : “And ye , benea h, ha spec e ing,
Unmo ed and undisco e ed lay // A mu e ememb ance o c ime, / Long los , concealed, o go o yea s, / I comes a las
o cancel ime, / And waken una ailing ea s” (l.3-8).
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"canno go". This epe i ion, e oked 3 imes, ha hey "canno go" a he end o he las line
o each s anza p o ides his poem wi h he sense o a ballad, as i ac s as a e ain.
In addi ion o he s anza s uc u e, buil like a g im old song, “The nigh is da kening
ound me” is w i en in accen ed me e . Al hough he me e is inconsis en a imes, i s ill
ollows he same numbe o s essed syllables pe line (in his case, h ee), hus gi ing he
poem he paced hy hm o he ales o o al adi ion. The A and C lines a e iambic ime e s +
an uns essed syllable, “The nigh is da kening ound + me” (l.1) and “The gian ees a e bend
+ ing” (l.5), and he B and D lines a e iambic ime e s, “The wild winds coldly blow” (l.2) and
“Thei ba e boughs weighed wi h snow”. The excep ion is he hi d s anza, in which he i s 2
lines unca e he i s uns essed syllable, “Clouds beyond clouds abo e + me, / Was es
beyond was es below” (l.9-10), hus b eaking he es ablished pa e n by changing he pace
and an icipa ing he las e ain o close he ballad (simila o a nu se y hyme “Ladybi d,
Ladybi d”
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, which also has a h ee-bea accen ual me e ). The pa allel hy hm o "clouds
beyond clouds" and "was es beyond was es" e okes an image y o a loca ion whe e skies and
lands, bo h abo e and below, a e equally chao ic, c aggy, and ominous. No ma e how much
he poe migh wan o escape om his "d ea " place, all hei e o s a e in ain. The e u n
o he egula i y o he las wo lines, again wi h consis en h ee- ee iambs, e okes hei
helpless s illness: “I will no , canno go.” (l.12).
As o he hyme scheme, his poem uses ABAB in i s h ee qua ains, which esul s in a
pa e n o ABAB CBCB ABAB, which o ms a symme ical pa e n, as he B hymes chime wi h
one ano he ac oss he whole poem. The odd lines hyme in pai s (me/me;
bending/descending; me/me); howe e , he e en lines, he B hymes, always e u n o a /əʊ/
sound: blow, snow, below, and go in he las line o each s anza. The speake , hus, keeps
ci cling back o wha hey canno do – "go" – making he also ci cula hyme scheme mi o
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The line "Ladybi d, ladybi d, ly away home" is w i en in iambic ime e + an uns essed syllable. The nu se y hyme was
well known in he B on ë household. No only we e he B on ë child en well acquain ed wi h local olklo e and nu se y
hymes, he in luence o he local se an s, bu he e was a li e a y a ia ion, w i en by Ca oline Anne Sou hey, second wi e
o he Poe Lau ea e Robe Sou hey, which appea ed in an 1827 issue o Blackwood's Magazine, a publica ion also welcomed
by he B on ë household. The i s s anza eads: “Lady-bi d, Lady-bi d, ly away home, / The ield mouse is gone o he nes , /
The daisies ha e shu up hei sleepy ed eyes / And he bi ds and he bees a e a es . The i s line, “Lady-bi d, Lady-bi d, ly
away home,” also heads a poem penned by he B on ë sis e s. Howe e , i s au ho ship has been p o usely deba ed h oughou
he yea s. While some academics a ibu e he poem o Cha lo e (namely in Guima ães (2002, p.383), s a ing i desc ibes he
inal a emp a econcilia ion be ween Zamo na and No hange land, hence pe aining o he Ang ia poems), his holog aph
poem appea s in mos an hologies unde he au ho ship o Emily. While consul ing he ca alogue o he manusc ip in he
Hen y W. and Albe A. Be g Collec ion o English and Ame ican Li e a u e in The New Yo k Public Lib a y, "Lady-bi d! lady-
bi d! Fly away home" is iled unde he name o bo h sis e s.
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Wu he ing Heigh s, adding o he bleak and opp essi e mood. The snow's hea iness and he
ees wis ed by he wind enhance he cha ac e s’ emo ional weigh and he no el’s somb e
one. I one is o ecall he mo i o hea en and ea h exp essed in “Clouds beyond clouds
abo e me, / Was es beyond was es below” (l.9-10), he hin line ha sepa a es bo h planes is
also e oked in he no el. When Lockwood expe iences his “nigh ma e”, he ghos ly image y
and he sense o being o e whelmed e lec he no el’s use o he o e lapping o he na u al
and supe na u al elemen s o mi o cha ac e s’ inne s a es, simila o he way he poem uses
na u e o e lec emo ional weigh . In Chap e III, Lockwood, while in he daze ha sepa a es
he s a es o consciousness and unconsciousness while alling asleep, says
I hea d dis inc ly he gus y wind, and he d i ing o he snow; I hea d, also, he i bough epea
i s easing sound, and asc ibed i o he igh cause: (…) 'I mus s op i , ne e heless!' I
mu e ed, knocking my knuckles h ough he glass, and s e ching an a m ou o seize he
impo una e b anch; ins ead o which, my inge s closed on he inge s o a li le, ice-cold hand!
The in ense ho o o nigh ma e came o e me: (…) Te o made me c uel. (p.20).
The passage opens wi h a iple audi o y desc ip ion: “I hea d dis inc ly he gus y wind,
and he d i ing o he snow; I hea d, also, he i bough epea i s easing sound, and asc ibed
i o he igh cause:”. This synaes he ic engagemen no only es ablishes he scene's
a mosphe ic condi ions bu also imme ses he eade in he chao ic and o midable o ces o
na u e, by enhancing hei awa eness o he en i onmen 's magni ude and i s capaci y o
induce eelings o insigni icance and ea , i.e., he desc ip ion o he wind, snow and bough, as
powe ul and un elen ing con ibu es o he Sublime by p esen ing na u e as a dominan o ce.
Lockwood’s esponse o he sounds culmina es in a p o ound emo ional eac ion. When
eaching ou o g ab he boughs, “my inge s closed on he inge s o a li le, ice-cold hand!
The in ense ho o o nigh ma e came o e me.” (p.20). This momen o e o e lec s he
Sublime's psychological dimension, whe e he sublime expe ience anscends physical
sensa ions and plunges in o a ealm o psychological ho o . The encoun e wi h his “li le,
ice-cold hand” ampli ies he sense o d ead and ho o . This momen encapsula es he
Sublime’s capaci y o con on indi iduals wi h he unknown o he supe na u al, in oking a
deep sense o awe and e o . The na a o ’s subsequen eac ion, “Te o made me c uel”,
indica es he in ense psychological impac o he expe ience, highligh ing how he Sublime can
elici ex eme emo ional and mo al esponses. B on ë’s po ayal o na u e as an ac i e, almos
malignan o ce ha in e ac s wi h human consciousness in bo h he poem and he no el

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unde sco es he Sublime’s heme o na u e's powe o e oke a sense o exis en ial ulne abili y
and e o .
Ano he mo i in Wu he ing Heigh s ha may easily connec wi h bo h “The nigh is
da kening ound me” and he no el is he wo ding in he au ology used by Hea hcli upon
lea ning o Ca he ine’s dea h, in Chap e XVI: “Oh, God! i is unu e able! I CANNOT li e
wi hou my li e! I CANNOT li e wi hou my soul!” (p.129). This is eminiscen o he heme o
isola ion and en apmen p esen in lines 4, 8 and 12 o he poem: “I canno [will no ], canno
go”. This exce p e lec s Hea hcli ’s p o ound sense o emo ional en apmen and isola ion,
simila o he speake in he poem, who eels bound and powe less. Hea hcli ’s li e is
inex icably ied o Ca he ine and hei o u ed ela ionship, showcasing hei own sense o
en apmen wi h one ano he . They a e each o he ’s “ y an spell”. Likewise, in “Ligh up hy
halls! ‘Tis closing day”, one can pe cei e he sense o isola ion and en apmen in Fe nando
De Sama a’s accusa ions owa ds A.G.A. In a sel -dep eca ing soliloquy, he s a es ha she mus
be glad now ha she will ne e see his ace again (“B igh be hine eyes, undimmed hei
dazzling shine, Fo ne e , ne e mo e shall hey encoun e mine!” l.7-8). He e en imagines he
sco ning him wi h “ca eless p ide” should she see him in hose las momen s
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. In he las
s anza o he poem, Fe nando calls A.G.A. a “ y an ”, who, despi e all he pain she has caused
him, s ill ules o e his hea and soul (“Unconque ed in my soul he Ty an ules me s ill:”
l.43). Wi h he same one o powe lessness and be ayal, we see Hea hcli in Chap e XV,
poin ing his inge a Ca he ine, blaming he o hei down all:
'You each me now how c uel you' e been - c uel and alse. WHY did you despise me?
WHY did you be ay you own hea , Ca hy? I ha e no one wo d o com o . You dese e his.
You ha e killed you sel . Yes, you may kiss me, and c y; and w ing ou my kisses and ea s:
hey'll bligh you - hey'll damn you. You lo ed me - hen wha RIGHT had you o lea e me?
Wha igh - answe me - o he poo ancy you el o Lin on? Because mise y and
deg ada ion, and dea h, and no hing ha God o Sa an could in lic would ha e pa ed us, YOU,
o you own will, did i . I ha e no b oken you hea - YOU ha e b oken i ; and in b eaking i ,
you ha e b oken mine. So much he wo se o me ha I am s ong. Do I wan o li e? Wha
56
Qui e eminiscen o he concep o "La Belle Dame sans Me ci", po ayed in John Kea s’ ballad (1819), i also explo es
hemes o lo e, loss and a al a ac ion. The poem ea u es a knigh who encoun e s a mys e ious, beau i ul lady. She is
desc ibed as enchan ing, almos supe na u al, wi h “wild eyes” (l.16) and an allu ing cha m. She o e s him " oo s o elish
swee " (l.25) and o he seemingly magical sus enance, leading him o d eam o pas ic ims—kings, p inces, and wa io s—
who, like him, ha e allen unde he spell and been abandoned. By he end o he poem, he knigh is le "alone and palely
loi e ing" (l.46) on a desola e hillside, haun ed by he memo y o he lady’s allu e. The "beau i ul lady wi hou me cy"
ep esen s an idealised ye des uc i e beau y, an un equi ed lo e ha can only lead o despai . The ope o “La Belle Dame
Sans Me ci” in Emily B on ë’s wo k would be a ascina ing opic o u he esea ch.
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kind o li ing will i be when you - oh, God! would YOU like o li e wi h you soul in he
g a e?’(p.125)
Simila ly o Fe nando De Sama a, who u ns on A.G.A. by calling he a “Decei e ” and
a “Ty an ”, Hea hcli calls Ca he ine “c uel and alse”, a ai o who despises his lo e o he .
Hea hcli also has no wo ds o com o o Ca he ine, as Fe nando does no ha e any hing
else o say o A.G.A. jus ha she dese es all he mis o une ha comes he way
(“Say ha my pangs a e pas , bu he s a e ye o come” l.36). He also accuses Ca he ine o
b eaking his hea and conside s suicide: “Do I wan o li e?”. Like Fe nando de Sama a, in his
dying wo ds, Hea hcli decla es he can annihila e e e y hing, including himsel , bu “Lo e I
canno kill”: “You know ha I could as soon o ge you as my exis ence!” (p.123).
These exce p s om Wu he ing Heigh s highligh how he hemes and s ylis ic elemen s
in he no el echo hose ound in Emily B on ë’s poems, illus a ing he consis en explo a ion
o isola ion, na u e’s powe , and emo ional in ensi y ac oss he wo ks.
3.1.4 “In summe ’s mellow midnigh ”
The poem “In summe ’s mellow midnigh ,” w i en in 1840 while Emily was back in he
amily home in Hawo h, a e he six-mon h s in as a eache in Miss Pa che 's school a Law
Hill, nea Hali ax, explo es na u e's in luence on he human mind agains a backd op o
noc u nal image y.
Ex e nally, he poem's s uc u e is qui e s aigh o wa d, wi h no de ia ion om he
qua ain o ma , wi h an ABCB hyme scheme. The me ic o he s anzas consis s mos ly o
iambic ime e s: “In summe s mellow midnigh / A cloudless moon shone h ough” (l.1-2).
Howe e , he i s e sion o his poem ansla es in o a a he i egula me ic, by al e na ing
iambic ime e s wi h e ame e s, as in he las s anza: "And when hy hea is laid a es
( e ame e ) / Benea h he chu ch-ya d s one, ( ime e )/ I shall ha e ime enough o mou n,
( e ame e ) / And hou o be alone.". Peeck-O’Toole (1988, p.80), howe e , s a es ha his
i s e sion was e ised by Cha lo e B on ë upon publica ion in 1850, esul ing in a
s anda disa ion o he line me ic in o h ee iambic ee . This is, hus, he e sion in p in oday:
"And when hy hea is es ing / Benea h he chu ch-aisle s one, / I shall ha e ime o
mou ning, / And hou o being alone."
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Cha lo e B on ë co ec ed his s anza pos humously o s ylis ic pu poses and o inse
a biog aphical no e in o he poem, as i now would desc ibe Emily’s bu ial loca ion. Unlike he
speake in he poem, Emily B on ë was bu ied unde he loo o S . Michael and All Angels in
Hawo h, oge he wi h he en i e amily, excep Anne, who died and was bu ied in
Sca bo ough, No h Yo kshi e, in 1849. The o iginal wo ding “chu ch-ya d” is also e oca i e o
Wu he ing Heigh s in he desc ip ion o Ca he ine’s g a e gi en by Ellen: “The place o
Ca he ine's in e men , o he su p ise o he illage s, was nei he in he chapel unde he
ca ed monumen o he Lin ons, no ye by he ombs o he own ela ions, ou side. I was
dug on a g een slope in a co ne o he ki k-ya d, whe e he wall is so low ha hea h and
bilbe y-plan s ha e climbed o e i om he moo ; and pea -mould almos bu ies i .” (p.130).
In he la e 18 h cen u y, i was cus oma y o people, especially people o a pa icula social
s anding, as would he Ea nshaws and Lin ons be, o be bu ied inside he building i sel o , a
leas , in a aul unde nea h he chu chya d immedia ely su ounding he chu ch. The ac ha
Ca he ine is bu ied in he limi s o he ki k-ya d, whe e he wall is so low ha he wild
ege a ion has al eady in aded, places he on ano he h eshold be ween he human-buil
and he na u al and, ul ima ely, be ween he consec a ed and he pagan.
Howe e , he poem’s appa en egula i y in o m (pe ec ed by Cha lo e) con as s
wi h he in e nal umul con eyed h ough he wind's dialogue wi h he speake , hus
mi o ing he umul uous in e ac ion be ween na u e and human expe ience. I begins wi h a
i id depic ion o a summe midnigh , whe e he moonligh and dew-laden ose ees c ea e a
se ene and e lec i e a mosphe e. As he speake medi a es in his se ing, he gen le nigh
wind becomes an almos sen ien p esence, con eying messages o beau y and o eboding,
hus u ning i in o an ac i e, pe suasi e o ce ha in e ac s wi h he speake 's hough s and
emo ions. The wind, in he i s pa o he poem desc ibed as bea ing a delica e and seducing
oice, se es as bo h a sou ce o com o and a ca alys o deepe con empla ion o he
speake ega ding hei own hough s. B on ë's use o senso y image y – such as he
whispe ing wind and he us ling lea es – c ea es a ichly a mosphe ic expe ience, d awing
he eade in o a space whe e he h eshold be ween he physical, he na u al and he spi i ual
becomes luid. The second hal o he poem consis s o a dialogue be ween he speake and
he wind i sel , and, as he dialogue p og esses, he wind's insis ence on he speake 's
engagemen becomes mo e p onounced, and he eade senses an unde lying ension
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be ween he pe sonal au onomy o he speake and he pe suasi e powe o na u e. The
wind's pe sis en allu e and nos algic eminiscence highligh a s uggle be ween he desi e o
isola ion and he seduc i e pull o na u e's companionship. He e, he wind is a o ce ha bo h
deligh s and challenges he human spi i . This p og ession culmina es in he inal s anza, whe e
he speake 's esis ance o he wind's u ges is i mly es ablished.
The opening s anza desc ibes a anquil, idyllic scene, emphasising he beau y and
se eni y o a summe nigh : “In summe ’s mellow midnigh ” (l.1). The use o he adjec i e
mellow poin s o he se eni y emb acing he speake and he alli e a ion in he epe i ion o
he consonan /m/ sound e okes a sense o so ness and in imacy. No e ha , much like in he
poem “High wa ing hea he ‘nea h s o my blas s bending”, he ime e e ence is also o
midnigh as he op imum momen o poe ic insigh . The concep o midnigh as a ime
h eshold is ein o ced by he use o ano he elemen o en conside ed a h eshold be ween
wo dis inc planes: he window. Line 3, “Ou open pa lou window,” indica es ha he speake
is indoo s. Howe e , hei a en ion is u ned ou doo s. The passage be ween hese wo planes
is symbolised in he open window om whe e he wind in ades he oom and he speake ’s
mind escapes he oom. This s anza is illed wi h elemen s o synaes hesia: he isual elemen
wi h a “cloudless moon shone h ough” (l.2), which c ea es a i id isual image o he moon’s
clea , unobs uc ed ligh , and he ac ile elemen in “And ose- ees we wi h dew.” (l.4), which
con eys he idea o eshness and enewal, as well as he emb ace o he lo a.
The second s anza explo es he impac o na u e on he speake 's hough s and
ini ia es he dialogue be ween he speake and he wind, e en hough i is s ill in he epo ed
speech. By pe soni ying he wind in line 6, “The so wind wa ed my hai ,” he speake opens
he doo o he dialogue and o he a ibu ions o human ac ions o he wind, hus making i
an ac i e pa icipan in he speake ’s expe ience. The ph ase “The so wind” e okes a ac ile
sense o he wind’s gen le ouch again, as i s ands as a sou ce o deligh , as a “silen musing”,
leading he speake o con empla e he beau y o bo h he hea ens and he ea h: “I old me
hea en was glo ious, / And sleeping ea h was ai .” (l.7-8). By p o iding he wind wi h speech,
he speake con eys he idea ha anscendence may be ound in bo h hea en and ea h, as
he o me is glo ious, bu he la e is ai .
The silence can also symbolise an emp y space illed wi h in ospec ion and
con empla ion, in aded by he wind’s ac ions by ca essing he hai and hen u e ing wo ds as
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he la e c osses he h eshold o he windowsill. Wha ollows is a so ba le o wills, in which
eason and imagina ion play ug-o -wa wi hin he speake ’s inne hough s. Sligh ly di e en
om Kea s’ concep o “nega i e capabili y”
57
, whe e he subjec emp ies and abandons i sel
o be occupied by he objec , in ejec ion o a ionali y, Emily ies o balance bo h Imagina ion
and Reason wi hin he poe ic oice. Hence, his silence ha he wind in ades is played agains
he speake ’s own hough s: “I needed no i s b ea hing / To b ing such hough s o me;” (l.9-
10). The wind eases and pushes bounda ies, bu he speake does no o sake hei Reason.
Wha we see is a mee ing be ween he wo o ces: he imagina i e unknown and he a ional
hough . Simila o he Kan ian Sublime, he speake s ands on he h eshold whe e
imagina ion and eason mee hei limi s.
The poem con inues wi h he speake con essing he in usi e na u e o he wind,
which ein o ces wha hey al eady pe cei e abou he duali y be ween hea en and ea h,
pa icula ly he da kness and mys e y o he woods, which “ ep esen wha p imi i e,
un amed e en unhuman” (Rope , 1995, p.249) is. In his s anza, he wind is in i s ull
an h opomo phic o m: i b ea hes and whispe s. The e is an audi o y sensa ion in he use o
hese e bs, especially in line 3 o he s anza, “Bu s ill i whispe ed lowly”, whe e he pleonasm
in “whispe ed lowly” as bo h he e b o m and he ad e b imply a so o gen le manne o
speaking. By using bo h "whispe ed" and "lowly", he speake accen ua es he delica e, almos
impe cep ible quali y o he wind's oice, inc easing he eade 's awa eness o i s sub le
in luence. This edundancy con ibu es o he c ea ion o a se ene and e he eal a mosphe e
and has a di ec in luence on he poe ic hy hm as i enhances i s musicali y.
The ou h s anza ollows he p e ious ones by pe soni ying he na u al elemen s o
he lea es and hei us ling sounds, hus ampli ying he mys ical and almos supe na u al
quali y o he wind’s p esence. By compa ing he us le o he hick lea es o a d eam
(“Rus ling like a d eam”), he speake sugges s a su eal and e he eal quali y. The image y is
also en iched by he use o he synaes hesia o he audi o y expe ience as he lea es ha e
57
Roman ic poe John Kea s’ no ion o “nega i e capabili y” can be associa ed wi h silence in he sense ha bo h in ol e
su ende ing o an unknown o ce and accep ing ambigui y. Silence, like he nega i e capabili y, ep esen s a space whe e
ce ain y and clea answe s a e absen , allowing o con empla ion, in ospec ion, and he explo a ion o ambigui ies beyond
he es ain s o language. In his silence, he mind is ee om he in e e ence o a ionali y and explana ion, hus c ea ing
a space o he imagina ion o engage wi h he mys e ies o exis ence. Jus as nega i e capabili y emb aces he un esol ed,
silence p o ides a quie oid whe e he complexi ies and con adic ions o li e can be el and unde s ood wi hou he need
o wo ds o de ini i e conclusions: "I mean Nega i e Capabili y, ha is when man is capable o being in unce ain ies,
mys e ies, doub s, wi hou any i i able eaching a e ac and eason" (John Kea s in a le e o his b o he s Geo ge and Tom,
on Decembe 21s , 1817). E en he e, a h eshold is being c ossed: he one be ween he p esence and absence o language.

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coun less oices all combined in a mu mu : “The hick lea es in my mu mu / (…) / And all
hei my iad oices”.
In s anza i e, he speake add esses he wind by using he impe a i e and he
apos ophe: “Go, gen le singe ” (line 1 o he s anza). The speake pe soni ies he wind and
calls i a gen le singe ”, adding ha i s oice is a he seduc i e. I s “wooing oice”
me apho ically desc ibes he wind’s in luence as an ac o cou ship o pe suasion. The
assonance in he long [uː] sound in he line "So ly wooing a my window," con ibu es o he
poem's an alising and melodious quali y. Despi e acknowledging he wind’s cha m, he
speake asse s hei emo ional and in ellec ual independence as hey esis i s allu e,
indica ing a desi e o main ain pe sonal con ol o e hei eelings and hough s. This is ma ked
by he ad e sa i e “Bu ”, clea ly s a ing ha , e en hough he wind’s oice is cap i a ing, i will
no in luence he speake : “Bu do no hink i s music / Has powe o each my mind.” The
same easoning bleeds in o he nex s anza, in which he speake con inues using he
impe a i e (“play” and “lea e”) o s ee he wind away om hei hough s and eelings,
edi ec ing i o o he na u al elemen s, such as he scen ed lowe o he mo ing boughs,
upon which i can also exe i s in luence – by sp eading he ag ance and making he boughs
mo e: "Play wi h he scen ed lowe , / The young ee's supple bough”. The speake u ges he
wind o le hei emo ional s a us and easoning ollow hei na u al cou se: “And lea e my
human eelings / In hei own cou se o low."
S anza se en signals a shi in bo h he one o he poem and he dynamics be ween
he “cha ac e s”, s essed me ically by he use o he hype ca alexis in he i s line o he
s anza: he appa en iambic “The wande e would no heed me” has an addi ional syllable a
he end a e he ime e is me ically comple e: “me”; and, hema ically, by in oducing he
dismissi eness o he wind o he speake ’s will and easoning. The wind, now pe soni ied as
a “Wande e ,”
58
becomes mo e insis en , e lec ing an almos o ce ul and coe ci e pu sui .
The line depic s he wind as a wande ing en i y wi h agg essi e ai s, such as dis ega d o he
pleas o he speake and pe sis ence in i s in en s. The one in ensi ies, as he e is an ob ious
ension be ween emp a ion and esis ance, wi h he speake ’s esol e almos subsiding unde
58
The igu e o he Wande e can also be applied o Hea hcli and Ca he ine a di e en momen s o he no el Wu he ing
Heigh s. In Lockwood’s d eam, Ca he ine desc ibes he sel as a “wai ” (p.20) who has been wande ing he moo s o wen y
yea s. La e in he no el, i is Hea hcli who becomes a wande e , oaming he moo s in he da kness. A e Hea hcli ’s dea h,
bo h a e seen wande ing he moo s oge he .
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he wind's pe sis en cha m. The me apho “I s kiss g ew wa me s ill” uses he image y o he
kiss o desc ibe he inc easing in imacy o he wind’s in luence. This s anza also ma ks he i s
ime he wind speaks in he i s pe son, using he in e jec ion and he impe a i e: “O come!
i sighed so swee ly”. The impe a i e di ec ed a he speake os e s an in ima e and immedia e
connec ion, he eby blu ing he line be ween he na u al and human ealms. By di ec ly
in i ing he speake o engage wi h i in he liminal space be ween hea en and ea h, he wind
anscends i s na u al ole, c ea ing an in e sec ional space be ween he physical and he
e he eal. The ac he wind is sighing ansla es he d ama ic one o i s cha ac e . Mo eo e ,
he alli e a ion in /s/ (“sighed so swee ly”) adds a so , soo hing and, pe haps mo e
impo an ly, a hissing e ec o he ex , akin o he onoma opoeic sound o a snake.
The e is some hing de ilish abou he cha ac e and beha iou o he wind, which will
no elen e en i no gi en consen : "I'll win hee 'gains hy will.” This is a clea use o he
language o he Sublime, as i depic s na u e o e powe ing he speake ’s eason in a
demons a ion o i s o ce. The wind con inues o use i s wo ds o seduce he speake by
men ioning he his o y o he speake ’s ela ionship wi h he wind, po aying i as a long-
s anding, almos in ima e connec ion. The he o ical ques ions, “Ha e we no been childhood
iends?” and “Ha e I no lo ed hee long?” c ea e a sense o amilia i y and pe sonal
connec ion and appeal o he naï e é cha ac e is ic o childhood, which can be seen as a he
manipula i e on he wind’s pa . The heme emphasises he deep, endu ing bond be ween
he na u al wo ld and he speake ’s inne li e. By pe soni ying he nigh i sel in “Thou, he
solemn nigh ”, he wind e okes a hi d pa y as a coun e pa and wi ness o he wind’s
in luence in he speake ’s li e. Again, he idea o silence, o he emp y space ha is illed wi h
he “song” o he wind, c ea es a quie , e lec i e a mosphe e ha complemen s he poem’s
hemes o soli ude and in ospec ion.
As men ioned abo e, he las s anza su e ed some changes in he wo ding, as s a ed
in he 1840 manusc ip and i s la e e ision and publica ion in 1850 by Emily’s sis e
Cha lo e..
59
Fo he pu poses o his analysis, he o iginal 1840 e sion o he poem will be
adop ed. In gene al e ms, he s anza e lec s on he ine i abili y o sepa a ion and he
59
This was no he only change made o he wo ding, as he i le “The Nigh -Wind” was added o he manusc ip , i is belie ed
by Emily he sel , when he sis e s we e p epa ing hei collec i e poe y book in 1846, bu i is de ini ely he mos signi ican ,
as i changes he undamen al me ic, syn ax and seman ics o he s anza, as one will be able o see in he sec ion de o ed o
pa allelling his poem o Wu he ing Heigh s.
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ul ima e soli ude ha comes wi h dea h. By using he image y “Benea h he chu ch-ya d
s one”, he oice o he wind c ea es a isual image o dea h and bu ial, hus ein o cing he
heme o human ini ude bu na u e’s pe enni y. The wind also uses mou ning (“I shall ha e
ime o mou ning”) as a me apho o he u u e e lec ion and loss expe ienced a e dea h.
No e ha he pe manen na u al elemen uses a u u e e b o m, “shall ha e ime,” o
highligh a u u e ha he speake will no ha e due o hei mo ali y. This pe soni ica ion o
he wind as a mou ne , highligh s i s pa as an ac i e p esence in he poem, hough luc ua ing
be ween agg essi eness and melancholy.
The poem “In summe ’s mellow midnigh " is deeply in e wined wi h he concep o
he Sublime, as a icula ed by Edmund Bu ke and Immanuel Kan . Bo h Bu ke’s A Philosophical
Enqui y in o he O igin o Ou Ideas o he Sublime and Beau i ul (1757) and Kan ’s C i ique o
Judgmen (1790) p o ide ounda ional unde s andings o he Sublime ha illumina e he
hema ic and a mosphe ic elemen s o B on ë's wo ks.
Edmund Bu ke de ines he Sublime as an expe ience o g andeu ha inspi es awe and
e o , o en e oking eelings o as ness and gloom. One may ecall his de ini ion: “The sou ce
o he Sublime is In ini y” (2025, p.94). This no ion is e lec ed in he poem’s image y o he
nigh and he in ini e expanse o na u e. The wind’s capaci y o e oke a sense o boundlessness
connec s o Bu ke’s idea o he Sublime as some hing ha anscends o dina y limi s and
induces a p o ound emo ional esponse. In "In summe ’s mellow midnigh ”, he wind
embodies he dynamical Sublime h ough i s o ce ul, agg essi e p esence. The line “I’ll win
hee’ gains hy will” e eals he speake ’s weakness agains he wind’s o e whelming o ce.
This momen cap u es Kan ’s no ion o he Sublime as a o ce ha challenges human
capabili ies, in oking bo h awe and a sense o immense ulne abili y. Kan also w i es, “The
eeling o he Sublime is he e o e a eeling o pain, a ising om he wan o acco dance
be ween he aes he ical es ima ion o magni ude o med by he Imagina ion and he
es ima ion o he same o med by Reason”. (2017b, p.155). This duali y is e iden in he poem,
whe e he wind’s gen le whispe con as s wi h i s unde lying h ea , hus c ea ing a complex
emo ional expe ience ha combines admi a ion wi h ea . The wind’s abili y o inspi e a sense
o bo h beau y and e o e lec s Kan ’s concep ion o he Sublime as a mul i ace ed
emo ional and aes he ic esponse. The pe soni ica ion o he wind and i s whispe s also e oke
he Sublime by sugges ing an in isible, magni icen and powe ul o ce in na u e ha connec s
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wi h he inne wo kings o he human mind. The "mellow midnigh ", "cloudless moonli sky",
and "mu mu ing low" conju e a se ene ye haun ing a mosphe e, s anding on he ine
h eshold be ween beau y and unease inhe en o he Sublime.
The e is a s ong connec ion be ween his poem and “Shall Ea h no mo e inspi e hee,”
da ed May 1841. In addi ion o ha ing a simila s uc u e, as hey a e bo h composed o
qua ains wi h iambic e ame e s (Shall Ea h no mo e inspi e hee), hey eso o he same
d ama ic dialogue wi h wo poe ic oices duelling in a ba le o wills, e en hough he second
oice, which is assumed o be human, emains silen . In “Shall Ea h no mo e inspi e hee,”
na u e is pe soni ied in he use o he i s pe son, namely in he image y o he ea h, he
moun ains, he sky, and he wind: “I know my moun ain b eezes / Enchan and soo he hee
s ill— / I know my sunshine pleases / Despi e hy waywa d will.” (l.9-12). Simila ly o “In
summe ’s mellow midnigh ”, na u e is also ying o allu e he poe in o joining i , "dwell wi h
me" (l.8), i s by he use o seduc i e language and hen by asse ing i s dominance on he
“d eame ”: “I’ e wa ched hee e e y hou ; / I know my migh y sway, / I know my magic powe
/ To d i e hy g ie s away.” (l.17-20).
The las s anza o he poem e eals na u e’s main asse , he wind, which eco e s he
ea u es and ole gi en in “In summe ’s mellow midnigh ”: na u e u ges he subjec o le he
wind ca ess hem as i has always been hei “com ade”, much like he wind in he 1840 poem
has been a childhood “ iend” o he speake (l.29).
The in oca ion o na u e as a o ce capable o seducing and e en o e powe ing he
subjec is akin o he concep o he Sublime as i eme ges om he pe soni ica ion o na u e
i sel as a sen ien en i y endowed wi h a “migh y sway” and “magic powe .” By pe soni ying
na u e, B on ë ele a es i o a le el whe e i in e ac s wi h he speake and ac i ely in luences
hei emo ional wo ld. On he one hand, na u e is as and un ameable bu also in ima e
enough o "d i e hy g ie s away". The ension be ween he com o able in imacy o i s close
ela ionship wi h he subjec and he powe i exe s on he la e cap u es he duali y o he
Sublime. S anza six e okes ano he duali y common o he image y o he Sublime: ha o
hea en and ea h. In his s anza, na u e poin s ou he singula i y o he subjec who, unlike
many, does no u ge o ascendance o hea en bu was able o seek and ind hei hea en on
ea h. As in “High wa eing hea he ‘nea h s o my blas s bending” (“Ea h ising o hea en and
hea en descending” l.4) and “In summe ’s mellow midnigh ” (I old me hea en was glo ious,
118
ela ionships be ween wo ds and ideas, such as opposi es and pa adoxes. Fo example, in he
hi d s anza, "sp ing" hymes (slan ly) wi h "su e ing" o highligh he an i hesis be ween he
seasons and he speake 's ememb ance, which has emained unchanged. Likewise, in he
six h s anza, "des oy" hymes wi h "joy" o accen ua e he idea ha all ha was des oyed
could s ill be che ished and emembe ed, e en i wi hou joy.
The poem p ima ily employs iambic pen ame e , each line comp ising i e iambic ee .
Howe e , Day Lewis (1954) p o ides he ollowing commen a y on he poem’s me e:
The line he e is basically a pen ame e ; bu i is pulled ou o he o dina y young pigmen
ama eu hy hm and gi en a di e en shape by h ee de ices - by pu ing a s ess on he i s
syllable o each line, by a ma ked caesu a a e he second oo , and by he use o “ eminine
hymes” in lines one and h ee o each s anza. The e ec o his hy hm I ind ex emely
powe ul, ex emely app op ia e. I is a d agging e o as o ee mo ing in he une al ma ch;
an andan e maes oso; i is he slowes hy hm I know in English poe y and he mos somb e.
(p. 13).
The mos gla ing example o such h ee de ices is line 9: “Cold in he ea h—and i een
wild Decembe s”, whe e he s ess o he i s oo alls in he i s syllable “Cold”; he e is a
caesu a ma ked by a hyphen a e he second oo “ he ea h—", and he use o a eminine
ending (-e s) in “Decembe s”.
The poem exempli ies B on ë’s use o “ eminine endings” and hymes, as all he odd-
numbe ed lines in he poem consis o eminine endings.
62
In addi ion o he usual wo-syllable
wo ds in which he second is uns essed, such as “ho e ” and “co e ” in s anza wo, he e is
one ex ended eminine hyme (Decembe s/ emembe s) and he p onouns “ hee” and “me”
a e uns essed in lines 1, 3, 13 and 15. Al hough B on ë's hyme in his poem o “su e ing”
wi h “sp ing” s esses he -ing, wo ds ending in -ing p o ide he mos common eminine
ending. This wo k has al eady included one o hose examples in “High wa ing hea he ‘nea h
s o my blas s bending” (1836), bu he e a e o he poems, such as “Songs by Julius B enzaida
o G.S. ‘Ge aldine, he moon is shining’”, in which he odd hymes a e w i en in eminine
endings: “Ge aldine, he moon is shining / Wi h so so , so b igh a ay; / Seems i no ha
e e's declining / Ushe ed in a ai e day?”; o a non-Gondal poem such as “Loud wi hou
62
In poe y, a " eminine ending" e e s o a line ha ends wi h an uns essed syllable. Acco ding o C. Day Lewis, a eminine
ending con as s wi h a "masculine ending," which concludes wi h a s essed syllable. Feminine endings c ea e a so e , mo e
nuanced conclusion o a line, o en esul ing in a sub le hy hmic a ia ion. In addi ion, hey add complexi y o he me e by
ex ending he hy hm beyond he expec ed closu e, highligh ing he sense o incomple ion o luidi y as opposed o he mo e
adi ional masculine endings, which end o deli e a sense o inali y and s eng h. See Lewis, 1948, p. 78.

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he wind was oa ing” in i s i s s anza: “Loud wi hou he wind was oa ing / Th ough h'
au umnal sky; / D enching we , he cold ain pou ing, / Spoke o win e nigh.”
Howe e , he “Cold in he ea h” me ic is somewha mo e complex han he
s aigh o wa d i e- ee -o -uns essed-s essed-syllable line. The e y i s line o he poem
s a s wi h a ochee, i.e., a me ical oo is made up o a s essed syllable ollowed by an
uns essed syllable (as opposed o an iamb): “Cold in”, ollowed by an anapaes (a oo
consis ing o h ee syllables: wo uns essed syllables ollowed by a s essed syllable) “and he
deep”, wi h an amphib ach (a me ical oo consis ing o an uns essed syllable, ollowed by a
s essed one, ollowed by an uns essed one): “abo e hee”. Al hough he base me e seems
ela i ely consis en h oughou he poem, me ical de ia ions change he pa e n. This
accen ua es he speake 's emo ions, whose mou n ul one is se in line 1. The speake applies
long syllables ("Cold") and uns essed anapaes s ("and he deep"), hus “d agging” he line. A
o he imes, especially when he speake wishes o ma k a u n in he poem's hy hm, he e
a e lines cha ac e is ic o iambic pen ame e s, like line 25 (e en hough he e is an
ex ame ical syllable a he end o he line, hus making i “ eminine”): “Then did I check he
ea s o useless passion.”
The i s wo lines o he poem, “Cold in he ea h—and he deep snow piled abo e
hee, / Fa , a emo ed, cold in he d ea y g a e!", in oduce he opic o he poem by ocusing
on he image o a deceased lo ed one, who is now "cold in he ea h," (an euphemism o
dead and bu ied), hus indica ing ha his w i ing can be seen as an elegy. In hese wo lines,
adjec i es such as “deep” and “ emo ed” illus a e he physical and emo ional dis ance
be ween he speake and he dead pe son. The "deep snow" s esses he cold, isola ing na u e
o dea h, while he ph ase " a , a emo ed", by epea ing he ad e b a , in ensi ies he sense
o sepa a ion and dis ance in ime and space while unde lining he speake ’s haun ing echoing
g ie . The exclama ion a he end o line 2 ("g a e!") depic s he speake ’s emo ional s a e. By
using punc ua ion, which is, by de aul , ab up and in ense, he speake e eals he dep h o
hei so ow and he o e whelming na u e o hei loss. These demons a ions o ab up ness
and in ensi y a e common occu ences in he li e a u e o he Sublime. In he lines, “Ha e I
o go , my only Lo e, o lo e hee, / Se e ed a las by Time's all-se e ing wa e?", he speake
wonde s whe he he passage o ime has caused hem o o ge hei lo e as a esul o he
passage o ime, whose “wa e” cu s all ies wi h he pas . Time, in his con ex , is pe soni ied
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o exp ess how powe ul i is in g adually wea ing away memo y and eelings, ul ima ely
leading o a de achmen be ween he cha ac e s and he b eaking o once unb eakable bonds.
The speake ’s conce ns eme ge om he ea ha ime may ha e damaged hei abili y o
emembe and con inue lo ing hei "only Lo e." The speake di ec ly add esses hei absen
belo ed using an apos ophe in line 3, “my only Lo e”, emphasising hei pas ela ionship's
exclusi i y (“only”) and sugges ing ha his lo e is no only unique bu also i eplaceable. The
me apho in line 4, “Time’s all-se e ing wa e”, u he illus a es i s des uc i e capaci y, which
can be associa ed wi h he image y o he Sublime. The depic ion o an en i y, such as Time,
unning ampan and des oying e e y hing in i s pa h e okes he uns oppable, powe ul
o ces o na u e, which, like ime i sel , sweep e e y hing in hei pa h ega dless o human
will. The speake ealises ha hey a e helpless in he ace o he ine i able changes b ough
by ime.
The second s anza begins wi h a dual ime e e ence, "now" and "no longe " (line 5),
hus highligh ing he weigh o he passage o ime since he dea h o he lo e and how
emo ionally dis an he speake eels om he pas . The speake 's hough s no longe "ho e "
o e he g a e on "Ango a’s sho e", hin ing a a g adual mo emen away om he sou ce o
hei g ie and an a oidance o he omb. The physical dis ance c ea ed by he moun ains and
he yea s gone by (space and ime) a e me apho s o he speake 's inc easing emo ional
de achmen om he su e ing. The speake adop s a mo e medi a i e one by mo ing away
om cons an ea ul mou ning owa ds in ospec ion and a emp ed emo ional balance,
eso ing o he image y o hei hough s ha , me apho ically ep esen ed as bi ds, no longe
ly o e he moun ains o es “ hei wings” on he lo e ’s g a e, al eady co e ed in hea h and
e n-lea es.
The he o ical ques ions a he end o he i s and second s anzas emphasise he
speake 's sel -doub , as hey ha e jus ealised ha , wi h he dis ance in ime and space, hey
ha e pe haps inad e en ly ceased o emembe he lo ed one wi h he same in ensi y. The
poem's me e also suppo s he speake 's shi ing emo ions, wi h a iambic pen ame e (+
uns essed syllable) in line 8: "Tha noble hea o e e , e e mo e?". The epizeuxis in " o
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e e , e e mo e" c ea es a linge ing e ec , as i he wo ds in he lines a e being spoken a he
same ime hey a e p oduced in he speake ’s mind.
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The hi d s anza begins wi h an anapho a in “Cold in he ea h” as a call back o he
i s s anza, bu hen p oceeds wi h a speci ic ime e e ence: he " i een wild Decembe s"
ha ha e passed since hei lo e 's dea h. This image y o he “wild” Decembe s s esses he
con as be ween win e 's cold and he mildness o sp ing, hus e lec ing on he cyclical
na u e o he seasons. While li e goes on, spinning om win e o sp ing, he speake s ill eels
somewha emo ionally s un ed, as, in lines 11 and 12, e oke a " ai h ul" spi i ha con inues
o emembe hei lo e despi e he changes ime b ings and he o e whelming amoun o
su e ing. This is, none heless, mo e o an in e nal dialogue wi h he speake ying o sol e
he con lic be ween he desi e o emain a ached o he lo ed one and he ine i able e ec s
o he passage o ime. I is also an a emp o answe he he o ical ques ions posed in he
i s wo s anzas. The exclama ion in line 9 ("su e ing!") adds emo ional in ensi y o his
s a emen , as in “No, I ha e no o go en”, hus ein o cing he speake ’s de o ion despi e he
yea s ha ha e passed. The slan hyme be ween "sp ing" and "su e ing" u he highligh s
he ension be ween he na u al enewal o he seasons and he speake ’s s a ic g ie , hus
illus a ing he heme o asynch ony be ween he cons an o wa d-mo ing na u al cycles o
li e and he emo ional s a us o he speake .
In he poem's ou h s anza, he speake add esses he long-los lo e, asking o
o gi eness i hey happen o o ge him due o he ine i able changes b ough by ime. Line
13 begins wi h an apos ophe o he "Lo e o you h," which could e e bo h o he speake ’s
lo e and he you h ul lo e hey expe ienced. This i s “lo e" is o en idealised o i s
innocence and uniqueness. The speake acknowledges ha ime and su e ing ha e aken hei
oll despi e hei a emp s o emain de o ed. This in e nal con lic be ween emembe ing and
o ge ing encapsula es a uni e sal s uggle. While he speake ies o p o e hei dedica ion,
hey a e simul aneously awa e o he ine i able impac o ime. The me apho ical "wo ld's
ide" ha d ags hem ine i ably in o he u u e mi o s li e’s con inuous mo ion—one is bo n,
li es, and dies. The speake , by using he impe a i e “ o gi e”, adop s a con essional one and
seeks he dead lo e ’s unde s anding. In lines 15 and 16, he speake admi s ha "s e ne
63
Simila o he epizeuxis in he las line o e e y s anza o he poem “The nigh is da kening a ound me”: “can/will no , canno
go”.
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desi es and da ke hopes" (line 11) some imes o e whelm hem, hus blu ing he memo y o
hei los lo e. Ye , hey insis ha hese new hopes canno e ase hei lo e en i ely (“…bu
canno do hee w ong”). This acknowledgemen o li e's unp edic abili y and he ine i abili y
o change ein o ces hei ulne abili y o he "wo ld's ide." The speake appea s o accep
ha li e b ings new desi es, bu his does no diminish he lo e hey once el . The hyme
scheme - pa icula ly he pai ing o " hee" and "me" in a eminine hyme - sugges s a
connec ion be ween hei pas lo e and he pe son hey ha e become, symbolising he
endu ing in luence o ha lo e despi e he changes b ough abou by ime.
In s anza i e, he speake ells us he e ha he e has no been anyone else since hei
"Swee Lo e o you h.", h ough he pa allel me apho s “No la e ligh has ligh ened up my
hea en” / No second mo n has e e shone o me;”. The exp essions "la e ligh " and "second
mo n" s and me apho ically as “ano he lo e ”, which has no happened. The polyp o on
“ligh ”/”ligh ened” s esses how he speake has been li ing in da kness since he passing o
he lo e and he alli e a ion in [l] in he iambic pen ame e o he i s line o his s anza (+ an
uns essed syllable), “No la e ligh has ligh ened up my hea en”, c ea es a synes he ic
momen in i s audi o y appeal. I p oduces an elonga ed e ec and con eys a melodic and
engaging hy hm while enhancing he poem’s somb e mood. Such hy hm is also e iden in
he anapho a “No…” (lines 17-18), which no only ma ks he nega i e and somb e one o he
poem, bu also imbues i wi h a symme ical s uc u e when con as ed wi h he ollowing wo
lines, “All my li e's bliss om hy dea li e was gi en, / All my li e's bliss is in he g a e wi h
hee.”, which ha e hei anapho a in he an i he ical “All”. All he happiness sp ung om he
lo e when hey we e ali e and lies wi h hem deep down in he g a e unde he snow.
S anza six ma ks a shi wi h he ad e sa i e “bu ”: e en hough he speake li es in
da kness upon he dea h o hei “golden d eams” ( he d eams a e pain ed in a golden ligh as
i is a colou o en a ibu ed o he idealisa ion o he pas
64
, especially momen s o childhood
and you h) and all he happiness has died, Despai (no e he capi alisa ion o he wo d,
pe soni ying i and depic ing i as a la ge ominous o ce ha o e powe s he speake ) has no
des oyed hem comple ely. The e is also he alli e a ion in [d]: "days, d eams, Despai ,
64
Golden Age Thinking is he nos algic belie ha a pas e a was supe io o he p esen and is seen in mode n psychology as
a coping mechanism. The o igins o he concep da e back o Hesiod, who desc ibes a "Golden Age" as a u opian ime in he
pas when humans li ed in pe ec symbiose wi h na u e and each o he . He e, i is belie ed ha he speake e okes he
golden hue o hei d eams as a con as o hei bleak exis ence in he p esen .
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des oy.", which g an s a melodious quali y o he lines while keeping on he same onal ield.
G aphically he e is also some hing ele an : by low-casing nouns such as days, d eams and
he e b o m des oy and capi alising Despai , he speake is emphasising he magni ude o
he eeling when compa ed o o he , mo e common and o less impo ance, wo ds.
S uc u ally, his line also ma ks he end o he lamen a ion sec ion o he elegy, as in he nex
wo lines (“Then did I lea n how exis ence could be che ished, / S eng hened, and ed wi hou
he aid o joy.”), he speake , a e ealising ha despai did no des oy hem en i ely, hey
conclude ha hei exis ence could s ill be alued and ewa ding wi hou " he aid o joy.". E en
hough he speake ’s happiness lies wi h he dead pe son, he e a e o he ways o alida e
one’s li e.
S anza se en ea i ms his will o push o wa d. The speake wipes he ea s om hei
ace, saying hey a e o “useless passion”, hus eleasing hemsel es om he g ie and
ejec ing ull consump ion by despai . They also "weaned" hemsel es o yea ning o a pe son
and a lo e ha canno be e ie ed. The e b o m “weaned” is o en associa ed wi h he
s ages o childhood and you h, he e o e me apho ically implying ha he lo e hey el was a
sou ce o nou ishmen , bu i needs o s op so hey can mo e o wa d wi h hei g ow h. On
he o he hand, he “yea ning” associa ed wi h he “weaning” pain s his lo e no only as a
sou ce o nou ishmen o he soul bu also as some so o addic ion om which he speake
needs o be weaned. One should also no ice ha he hy hm in hese lines is di e en om
he poem's i s pa . In line 25, he pacing is as e , mo e diligen , and mo e obus . The e a e
no de ia ions om he me ic o mula o he iambic pen ame e (+ uns essed syllable): “Then
did I check he ea s o useless passion”. The e’s no caesu a, no d ama ic pause, jus he
succession o i e iambs wi h sho , s essed syllables (did/check/ ea s). This line con eys a
sense o de e mina ion and in ensi y as opposed o he slow hyme o he i s and second
s anzas, whe e he speake linge s on hei nos algia. The e is a no iceable c escendo in he
inne s eng h o he speake . The pacing o he line emains quick, unde sco ing he speake ’s
con ic ion. The speake ’s con on a ion wi h he "useless passion" (l.26) and he "di ines
anguish" (l.30) e lec an emo ional ex emi y ha bo de s on he Sublime, whe e g ie and
despai each a le el o almos me aphysical in ensi y. Lines 27-28, “S e nly denied i s bu ning
wish o has en / Down o ha omb al eady mo e han mine!”, emphasise such a shi in he
powe dynamic, as he speake ejec s (“denied”) he impulse o h ow hemsel es in o he

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g a e o hei lo ed one. The speake has acknowledged (“checked” in line 25), cu loose
(“weaned” in line 26), and, inally, ejec ed (“denied” in line 27), gi ing way o a new ound
s eng h. The speake sheds a leas pa o hei ulne abili y and has elie ed hemsel es
om he bu den o loss, bo h o memo y and he lo ed one. They no longe eel he appeal o
he omb bu wish o ca y on despi e lacking he joy once el .
The las s anza opens wi h he enjambmen “And” (line 29), se ing he conclusi e one
o he poem as he speake is abou o add one inal hough . The speake da es no "le i
languish" and linge . I is as i hey know be e , so hey use he nega i e e b "da e no .",
which is epea ed o s ess ha he speake has mo ed on and is now mo e expe ienced and
wise . They e use o le Memo y’s (again, no e he pe soni ica ion in he uppe case)
" ap u ous pain" emp hem much like a ice, which pa adoxically causes pleasu e/ elease
(“ ap u ous”) and su e ing (“pain”) and may be in insically associa ed wi h Kan ’s concep o
“nega i e pleasu e”, in ha B on ë’s Sublime also combines bo h pain and pleasu e since he
speake ’s mind is ini ially o e whelmed by some hing immense o o e whelming ( he g ie o
he loss o he lo ed one) bu ul ima ely akes pleasu e in he ealisa ion ha eason
anscends hese limi a ions, by e using o linge in mou ning and s i ing o mo e o wa d:
[ he eeling o he Sublime] is a pleasu e ha a ises only indi ec ly; (…)Hence i is incompa ible
wi h cha ms; and as he mind is no me ely a ac ed by he objec bu is e e being al e na ely
epelled, he sa is ac ion in he sublime does no so much in ol e a posi i e pleasu e as
admi a ion o espec , which a he dese es o be called nega i e pleasu e. (Kan , 2017b, p.
139).
The pa adox epea s in he wo las lines, “Once d inking deep o ha di ines anguish,
/ How could I seek he emp y wo ld again?”, in which one can see he ei e a ion o he
combina ion be ween pleasu e/ elease (“di ines ”) and su e ing (“anguish”). Again, anguish
is seen as mo e o a ice om which he speake is “d inking deep” and ecognises ha i hey
indulge in mise y, i would be no hing mo e han del ing in o a oid, an “emp y wo ld” whe e
hey a e alone wi h hei so ow. The he o ical ques ion a he end b ings closu e o his elegy
as i exp esses, despi e ne e o ge ing ("canno do hee w ong"), how meaningless emaining
in an emp y wo ld o so ow would be, i.e., a e expe iencing he pain and pleasu e o he
en i e cycle, i would be “useless” (line 21) o e u n o he s a ing poin o pe manen loss.
The in e nal s uc u e is now comple e: he ini ial lamen (s anzas 1-4), he p aise and
admi a ion: acknowledging he impac and signi icance o he deceased (s anzas 5-8), and he
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consola ion and accep ance in he speake ’s a emp o econcile wi h he loss and ind a
semblance o peace (s anzas 9-11).
“Cold in he ea h” inds some o i s main hemes in Wu he ing Heigh s. Line 1
in oduces he image y o he snow (“snow piled abo e hee”), which is ecu en in he no el,
pa icula ly, simila o he wind, in momen s o li e and dea h. Ca he ine dies in he Sp ing
equinox
65
and on he day o he une al, which, acco ding o he ypical ime ame o a Chu ch
o England bu ial in 18 h-cen u y Yo kshi e migh ha e been a ound 2 o 7 days, snow began
o all: “The day she was bu ied, he e came a all o snow.” (p.219). The e e ence o he
c ushing weigh o he ea h and snow e okes a sense o awe and desola ion. The heme o
g ie con inues in line 2 (“Fa , a , emo ed, cold in he d ea y g a e!”), whe e he epizeuxis in
he ad e b and he adjec i e “ emo ed” hype bolically depic no only he physical dis ance
bu he emo ional chasm caused by he inali y o dea h.
In Chap e XXXIII, Hea hcli ceases o ea , d ink o es , and becomes eclusi e and
mo ose. One a e noon, he ells Ellen Dean: “The en i e wo ld is a d ead ul collec ion o
memo anda ha she did exis , and ha I ha e los he !” (p.245). Hea hcli ealises ha
e e y hing a ound him se es as a eminde o his loss and highligh s his sense o deeply
pe sonal and isola ed g ie wi h he p onoun “I” in “I ha e los he ”. Time wen by, e e yone
mo ed on wi h hei li es, he child en g ew up, and his enemies we e dead. His men al and
physical de e io a ion a ises no only om malnou ishmen and sleep dep i a ion bu also
om he exhaus ion o ha ing spen so much ime obsessing o e powe , c uel y and e enge.
Hea hcli eels ha his ea hly body has inally los Ca he ine and ha he e is no hing le o
do (o say) bu o wai o mee he again in he a e li e. Line 10 o he poem speaks o “b own
hills ha ha e mel ed in o sp ing” (l.10), hus highligh ing he changes b ough abou by he
passage o ime, and one emembe s he budding ela ionship be ween young Ca he ine and
Ha e on, who we e aised so di e en ly bu ha e bonded a e subs an ial auma (caused by
Hea hcli ).
S anza i e is o pa icula in e es o his analysis: “No la e ligh has ligh ened up my
hea en, / No second mo n has e e shone o me; / All my li e's bliss om hy dea li e was
gi en, / All my li e's bliss is in he g a e wi h hee.” because i combines he way in which bo h
65
Young Ca he ine’s bi hday is men ioned o be Ma ch 20 h, a he h eshold o “ wel e o'clock ha nigh ” (p.127), hus
making i also he da e o Ca he ine’s dea h.
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Hea hcli and Ca he ine a icula e hei mu ual lo e. Fo Hea hcli , he e was no o he ha
could eplace he one he el o Ca he ine, no did he seek i . F om he momen o Ca he ine’s
dea h, his en i e exis ence is di ec ed owa ds in lic ing as much su e ing as possible upon
hose a ound him. Fo Ca he ine, i ep esen s he a i ma ion ha he en i e exis ence has
been en i ely in e wined wi h Hea hcli 's. Pe haps in he mos ecognised monologue in he
no el, Ca he ine says:
Wha we e he use o my c ea ion, i I we e en i ely con ained he e? My g ea mise ies in his
wo ld ha e been Hea hcli 's mise ies, and I wa ched and el each om he beginning: my
g ea hough in li ing is himsel . I all else pe ished, and HE emained, I should s ill con inue
o be; and i all else emained, and he we e annihila ed, he uni e se would u n o a migh y
s ange : I should no seem a pa o i . (…) My lo e o Hea hcli esembles he e e nal ocks
benea h: a sou ce o li le isible deligh , bu necessa y. Ellen, I AM Hea hcli ! He's always,
always in my mind: no as a pleasu e, any mo e han I am always a pleasu e o mysel , bu as
my own being. So don' alk o ou sepa a ion again: i is imp ac icable; (p. 64).
This immedia e iden i ica ion wi h he O he , inex icable bond be ween he
cha ac e s, e lec s he p o ound and consuming na u e o hei ela ionship. Simila ly, in “Cold
in he ea h,” he speake ’s pe sis en memo y o he belo ed and he endu ing impac o hei
loss highligh he inescapable na u e o g ie and he way i shapes one’s iden i y. Hea hcli
and Ca he ine a e no soulma es; hey a e he same pe son.
This concep closely esembles ano he celeb a ed poem by Emily B on ë: “No cowa d
soul is mine” (1846), pa icula ly in i s las wo s anzas:
Though ea h and moon we e gone
And suns and uni e ses ceased o be
And Thou we le alone
E e y Exis ence would exis in hee
The e is no oom o Dea h
No a om ha his migh could ende oid
Since hou a Being and B ea h
And wha hou a may ne e be des oyed.
This mo i also esona es wi h Hea hcli ’s emo ional ou bu s ollowing Ca he ine’s
dea h, p opelling him in o a hopeless abyss o so ow ha mi o s he g ie exp essed in he
poem:
Ca he ine Ea nshaw, may you no es as long as I am li ing; you said I killed you – haun me,
hen! The mu de ed DO haun hei mu de e s, I belie e. I know ha ghos s HAVE wande ed
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on ea h. Be wi h me always - ake any o m - d i e me mad! only DO no lea e me in his abyss,
whe e I canno ind you! Oh, God! i is unu e able! I CANNOT li e wi hou my li e! I CANNOT
li e wi hou my soul!' (p. 129).
The idea o he uni e se ceasing o exis , lea ing only a soli a y p esence in O he ness,
is, in i sel , a depic ion o he Sublime. The as ness o his concep , coupled wi h he no ion
o e e nal exis ence wi hin he O he , e okes a p o ound sense o awe and wonde .
I is, howe e , imp uden o y o es ablish a ull co espondence o he poem o he
no el and e en mo e imp uden o ully iden i y he speake o he poem as a p ojec ion o
Hea hcli . E en hough much o he wo ding and emo ional one o he poem esona es wi h
he cha ac e in Wu he ing Heigh s, he e a e se e al ins ances in which such immedia e
iden i ica ion is misma ched. Visick (1958, p.15) no es he pa allel o Hea hcli ’s lamen o
Ca he ine in he poem (“’Cold in he ea h, and he deep snow piled abo e hee’ has s uck
many eade s as p e igu ing he eigh een yea s o Hea hcli ’s mou ning o Ca he ine”) bu
Ha dy (1976, p.104) poin s ou ha he speake canno be Hea hcli because he la e lacks
he “unobsessed ememb ance, e oded and dis ac ed” o he o me . While Visick’s s ance
can be unde s ood, as he emo ional weigh p esen ed in he poem esembles Hea hcli ’s
immeasu able g ie o e Ca he ine’s dea h, i is undeniable ha h oughou he poem, he
speake ’s one d i s apa om Hea hcli ’s as he speake inds consola ion and exp esses
accep ance o hei lo e ’s absence. Hea hcli is no as able o econcile his eelings as he
poem’s speake seems o be. While he speake managed o ind a way o ca y on (e en
wi hou joy) and e en wonde s i hey ha e, a imes, ailed o emembe he deceased,
Hea hcli inds no o he pu pose, no o he hough in his mind o he han Ca he ine and he
u ge o e enge owa ds hose who opposed hei ela ionship. Addi ionally, we need o
conside ha o iginal poem belongs o he Gondal saga, namely depic ing Rosina’s lamen o
he dea h o he pa ne , Julius B enzaida. Rosina and Hea hcli a e wo e y di e en
cha ac e s. Apa om being in eg a ed in o di e en geo-poli ical con ex s, one in he
ic ional wa - iddled wo ld o Gondal and he o he in 18 h-cen u y Yo kshi e a mland, Rosina
Alcona is desc ibed by Alexande (2010, p.613) as an ambi ious, haugh y woman o he Gondal
a is oc acy who suppo s Julius B enzaida’s campaigns o powe in Gaaldine. Howe e , she is
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powe o na u e, he jux aposi ion o ea hly and celes ial ealms, and he asse ion o human
libe a ion om con inemen all con ibu e o he poem's in oca ion o he Sublime, po aying
i as a i al o ce in B on ë's li e a y landscape.
"Sleep b ings no joy o me", and i s hemes o guil and isola ion, del es in o he
psychological in icacies o despai and con inemen , e lec ing he speake ’s longing o elie
om o men . The poem's s uc u e, wi h i s hy hmic epe i ion and haun ing image y,
echoes he speake 's en apmen wi hin a cycle o eg e . He e, sleep, an elemen adi ionally
associa ed wi h peace, becomes a o men ing p esence, in ensi ying he sense o isola ion.
The medi a ion on dea h as a o m o escape mi o s hemes p esen ed in Wu he ing Heigh s,
whe e he con lic su ounding lo e leads o despai and an un esol ed longing o connec ion.
Blending na u al elemen s wi h exis en ial dilemmas unde sco es B on ë's p o ound
engagemen wi h he Sublime o explo e complex emo ional s a es.
Emily B on ë’s poem, “The nigh is da kening ound me,” was penned du ing a ime
ma ked by ha sh win e s and s o ms. The poem consis s o wel e lines a anged in h ee
qua ains ha ollow an ABAB hyme scheme. This symme y in he hyme scheme e lec s he
cyclical na u e o he speake 's p edicamen , whe e bo h he physical and emo ional s a es a e
inescapably in e wined. Image y plays a c ucial ole in es ablishing he emo ional landscape
o he poem and con eys he in e nal eelings o helplessness and us a ion, as seen in he
line "I canno , canno go," whe e epizeuxis highligh s he speake 's sense o en apmen , which
hen e ol es in o “will no go.” This pi o al change e lec s a conscious decision o con on
hei emo ional u moil a he han seeking escape, hin ing a a complex ela ionship wi h
hei su e ing. The poem sugges s ha he speake ’s immobili y may be sel -imposed,
indica ing a mo e p o ound psychological s uggle ied o eelings o despai and helplessness.
These hema ic elemen s align wi h B on ë's o he wo ks, including he poem “F. de Sama a
o A.G.A. ‘Ligh up hy halls ‘Tis closing day” (1838) and he no el Wu he ing Heigh s. In bo h
w i ings, B on ë explo es mo i s o isola ion, emo ional u moil, and he o e whelming aspec s
o na u e ha e lec cha ac e s’ in e nal ba les.
“In summe ’s mellow midnigh ” (1840) e lec s on he ela ionship be ween na u e and
human hough , uniquely employing noc u nal image y o con ey his connec ion. I
e e be a es wi h no ions o he Sublime as i e okes admi a ion and ulne abili y h ough i s
na u al image y. Kan ’s Sublime, which es s on he esponse o he inadequacy o human

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unde s anding aced wi h na u e’s magni ude, can be seen in he dicho omy be ween he
wind's gen le whispe and he unde lying h ea i poses. The mo i s explo ed in “In summe ’s
mellow midnigh ” echo B on ë’s no el Wu he ing Heigh s, pa icula ly conce ning he
symbolism o he window as a h eshold. The window unc ions as a pi o al liminal space
wi hin he na a i e– ep esen ing ansi ions be ween he inne and ou e wo lds, eali y and
imagina ion, li e and dea h. This aligns wi h he sha ed heme o con on ing he Sublime
aspec s o na u e and human emo ion. In addi ion, Emily B on ë's “In summe ’s mellow
midnigh ” cap u es he in ica e ela ionship be ween na u e and human hough . The poem
e lec s on he Sublime, in oking hemes o beau y, ea , soli ude, and companionship h ough
i id image y and pe soni ica ion. The in e play o hese elemen s con ibu es o he poem's
emo ional dep h and es ablishes i al in e connec ions wi h B on ë's b oade li e a y wo k,
including Wu he ing Heigh s.
The poem “R. Alcona o J. B enzaida ‘Cold in he ea h and he deep snow piled abo e
hee!’” (1845) appea s wi hin he con ex o he Gondal saga, explici ly e e encing he
cha ac e s Rosina Alcona and Julius B enzaida. This na a i e in e se is ma ked by i s complex
na a i es conce ning amilial ies and poli ical con lic s, al hough much o his con ex is
elusi e due o los manusc ip s. The poem hin s a an elabo a e ale o lo e, loss, and be ayal
in ol ing B enzaida, his ela ionships wi h Rosina and Ge aldine S., and his e en ual demise.
This pa icula poem se es as a lamen i een yea s a e B enzaida's dea h, po aying
Rosina's endu ing g ie and he s uggle o econcile he passage o ime wi h he memo ies.
The poem’s s uc u e unde sco es he speake ’s emo ional dissonance as hey g apple wi h
mou ning and he elen less ma ch o ime. The poem employs eminine hymes and me ical
a ia ion, con ibu ing o i s medi a i e, somb e one. The speake 's emo ional u moil is
jux aposed agains he ine i abili y o ime’s p og ession.
The poem opens wi h s a k image y o dea h and isola ion, aming i as an elegy ha
lamen s a deceased lo e . The physical and emo ional dis ance caused by dea h is con eyed
h ough cold, somb e image y, while e lec i e he o ical ques ions highligh he speake 's
inne con lic abou memo y and he ea o o ge ing. As he poem un olds, he speake
acknowledges he des uc i e powe o ime, symbolised by "Time's all-se e ing wa e," which
h ea ens o e ode emo ional bonds. By he end, he speake mo es owa d a econcilia o y
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s ance, ecognising ha while so ow pe sis s, li e can hold meaning and signi icance beyond
loss, ul ima ely a i ming hei exis ence despi e he belo ed’s absence.
B on ë's explo a ion e lec s he philosophical cons uc s o he Sublime, whe e pain
and beau y in e wine. The speake w es les wi h eelings o longing and anguish, mi o ing
he awe o ho o o en associa ed wi h Sublime expe iences. The conclusion o he poem
encapsula es his ich emo ional spec um, in oking he pe asi e heme o endu ing lo e
while simul aneously acknowledging he u ili y o linge ing solely in so ow.
The hemes obse ed in “R. Alcona o J. B enzaida ‘Cold in he ea h and he deep snow
piled abo e hee!’” a e deeply in e wined wi h he na a i e a cs in B on ë’s no el Wu he ing
Heigh s. The poem ea u es e oca i e pa allels e lec ing he p o ound lo e and despai
cha ac e is ic o he ela ionship be ween Hea hcli and Ca he ine. Bo h B on ë’s poem and
he no el con end wi h hemes o endu ing loss and he emo ional u bulence associa ed wi h
memo y. The poem encapsula es he in e nal s uggle and de as a ion expe ienced by i s
speake , akin o Hea hcli 's elen less so ow a e Ca he ine's passing. The na u al image y
complemen s he na a i e's explo a ion o g ie , emphasising he indelible connec ion
be ween lo e and pain.
The explo a ion o hema ic esonance be ween B on ë's poe y and Wu he ing
Heigh s illus a es how he mo i s o h esholds and he Sublime in e wine h oughou he
wo ks. The s o my and windy a mosphe e ha o en goes oge he wi h pi o al li e and dea h
e en s and he deep emo ional con lic s expe ienced by cha ac e s like Hea hcli and
Ca he ine echo he ea lie poe ic depic ions o na u e, human emo ion, and mo i a ion. The
cha ac e dynamics o en e lec he ension be ween con inemen and eedom, li e and
dea h, ein o cing B on ë's endu ing conce n wi h hese hemes. De ails such as he endu ing
p esence o na u e's o ces in he cha ac e s' emo ional expe iences demons a e he ways in
which B on ë's li e a y ision pe sis s ac oss he poe ic and p ose wo ks, emphasising a
cohesi e na a i e o he Sublime in e wined wi h ep esen a ions o h esholds.
Despi e he ex ensi e body o schola ship dedica ed o Emily B on ë, he li e, and he
wo ks, his s udy o e s a dis inc i e and cons uc i e con ibu ion by shedding new ligh on
how he concep and expe ience o he Sublime a e in ica ely wo en in o he poe y and
na a i e. While i may seem ou da ed o e isi a 19 h-cen u y classic ha has been analysed
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exhaus i ely and adap ed ac oss coun less o ma s, B on ë’s wo k emains an inexhaus ible
wellsp ing o meaning because i speaks o uni e sal and imeless ques ions abou human
expe ience. By ocusing on he ole o li e al and me apho ical h esholds as a cen al
mechanism in shaping he Sublime, his esea ch p o ides a new in e p e i e amewo k ha
deepens he unde s anding o B on ë’s li e a y a is y. These liminal spaces unc ion as mo e
han pe iod-speci ic se ings; hey anscend hei his o ical momen , o e ing insigh s in o he
human condi ion ha esona e ac oss ime, cul u e, and gen e bounda ies. In highligh ing he
ans o ma i e powe o such spaces, his s udy no only en iches exis ing con e sa ions
a ound B on ë’s con ibu ions o he li e a y canon o he ime bu also a i ms he endu ing
ele ance o con empo a y audiences and schola ship.
This s udy also opens up some lines o unde s anding Emily B on ë's wo ks and
po en ially eshaping b oade li e a y discussions. By ocusing on he in e play be ween he
Sublime and h esholds, i bea s addi ional dep h o exis ing discussions. I encou ages eade s
and schola s o e-e alua e B on ë’s language, s yle, and hemes as ools ha c ea e a unique,
liminal expe ience o he Sublime. This pe spec i e shi s he ocus om o he hemes like
Go hic opes o Roman ic image y o he s o y elling's s uc u al and expe ien ial mechanics.
I also highligh s how B on ë ein en s he Sublime by si ua ing i in liminal spaces. This
con ibu es o he b oade s udy o he Sublime in li e a u e, sugges ing i is no jus a g and,
o e whelming o ce bu also a deeply pe sonal, ans o ma i e expe ience shaped by
ansi ional momen s. This wo k could po en ially inspi e in e disciplina y app oaches o
B on ë’s wo k, mainly because Emily’s use o he Sublime and h esholds anscends he
his o ical, geog aphical and cul u al con ex , hus showing he endu ing ele ance.
None heless, his wo k also ca ies some limi a ions, as he objec he ein is
ci cumsc ibed o a deep analysis o i e poems, plus Wu he ing Heigh s, and, despi e e e ing
o many o he composi ions o he wo k, does no p o ide a comp ehensi e examina ion o
B on ë's en i e oeu e. Also, i does no explo e po en ial b oade implica ions o applica ions
o o he a eas o s udy. In addi ion o wha has been men ioned h oughou his disse a ion,
namely he me i s o u he discussion on he connec ion be ween Sappho's and Emily
B on ë's w i ings and Ma y Wolls onec a 's claim o Sublimi y o women, u u e s udies could
in ol e a mo e comp ehensi e examina ion o B on ë's wo k. This s udy o e s signi ican
po en ial o expansion, pa icula ly h ough he inclusion o a b oade ange o Emily B on ë's
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poems o unco e he ecu ing hemes and expe iences o he Sublime ha connec he
poe ic wo ks. By applying he same dep h o analysis o addi ional ex s, i would be possible
o u he explo e how B on ë’s engagemen wi h he Sublime mani es s ac oss he li e a y
c ea ions. Mo eo e , Wu he ing Heigh s could be e isi ed wi h an e en sha pe ocus on i s
in ica e h esholds, hus del ing deepe in o how hese liminal spaces enhance he no el’s
e oca ion o he Sublime. Such an ex ension would p o ide a mo e comp ehensi e
unde s anding o B on ë’s a is ic ision and i s engagemen wi h he Sublime.
This s udy o e s p ac ical applica ions o examining he social and cul u al dynamics
o 19 h-cen u y li e a y wo ks and he impac o poli ical, social, and economic uphea als on
a is ic and li e a y mo emen s. I also con ibu es o he ields o li e a u e, aes he ics, and
cul u al s udies by shedding ligh on he p o ound human esponses o na u e and he
ex emes o human po en ial – bo h i s c ea i e heigh s and des uc i e dep hs. The indings
can be applied o he analysis o o he li e a y wo ks add essing he heme o he Sublime,
en iching ou unde s anding o how h esholds p o oke a sense o wonde , d ead, and
anscendence. Fu he mo e, his s udy p oposes in e p e ing Emily B on ë's wo ks unde he
lens o he Sublime, shedding ligh on how he poe y and no el se e as a uni ying amewo k
o a p o ound comp ehension o he concep and i s esonance ac oss he c ea ions.
In answe ing how he Sublime akes o m in Emily B on ë’s wo ks and how h esholds
shape i s unique mani es a ion, we a i m B on ë’s posi ion as a pi o al, bounda y-de ying
oice in li e a y his o y. He explo a ion o he Sublime anscends adi ional aes he ic
amewo ks, o e ing eade s a deeply pe sonal and ans o ma i e encoun e ha adia es a
beyond he pages o he ex s. The in e play o h esholds heigh ens he Sublime expe ience
and mi o s he eade ’s own nego ia ion o bounda ies be ween unde s anding and awe, he
sel and he O he , eali y and imagina ion.
As hese indings illumina e he ichness and complexi y o B on ë’s wo ks, hey also
open he doo o u he inqui ies in o he in e sec ions o he Sublime, liminali y, and eade
engagemen ac oss o he au ho s and li e a y adi ions. The jou ney ha began wi h B on ë’s
windswep moo s and shadowy h esholds is a om o e ; i o e s a e ile g ound o u u e
explo a ion in o how li e a u e ans o ms ou unde s anding o bounda ies and he
boundless. In his ligh , Emily B on ë’s legacy no only endu es bu con inues o inspi e,
eminding us o li e a u e’s powe o e oke, challenge, suspend and anscend.
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Annex I
Full ex o he Poems Analysed in Chap e III o his Disse a ion
69
“High wa ing hea he 'nea h s o my blas s bending”
Decembe 13 h, 1836
High wa ing hea he 'nea h s o my blas s bending
Midnigh and moonligh and b igh shining s a s
Da kness and glo y ejoicingly blending
Ea h ising o hea en and hea en descending
Man's spi i away om i s d ea dungeon sending
Bu s ing he e e s and b eaking he ba s
All down he moun ain sides wild o es s lending
One migh y oice o he li e-gi ing wind
Ri e s hei banks in hei jubilee ending
Fas h ough he alleys a eckless cou se wending
Wide and deepe hei wa e s ex ending
Lea ing a desola e dese behind
Shining and lowe ing and swelling and dying
Changing o e e om midnigh o noon
Roa ing like hunde like so music sighing
Shadows on shadows ad ancing and lying
Ligh ning b igh lashes he deep gloom de ying
Coming as swi ly and ading as soon
69
Spelling and punc ua ion s anda ds used in B on ë, E., & Geza i, J. (1992). Emily B on ë: The comple e poems. Penguin
Books.

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“Sleep b ings no joy o me”
No embe 1837
Sleep b ings no joy o me
Rememb ance ne e dies
My soul is gi en o mise y
And li es in sighs
Sleep b ings no es o me
The shadows o he dead
My waking eyes may ne e see
Su ound my bed
Sleep b ings no hope o me
In soundes sleep hey come
And wi h hei dole ul image y
Deepen he gloom
Sleep b ings no s eng h o me
No powe enewed [ o] b a e
I only sail a wilde sea
A da ke wa e
Sleep b ings no iend o me
To soo he and aid o bea
They all gaze on how sco n ully
And I despai
Sleep b ings no wish o kni
My ha assed hea benea h
My only wish is o o ge
In he sleep o dea h
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“The nigh is da kening ound me”, also i led “Spellbound”
No embe 1837
The nigh is da kening ound me
The wild winds coldly blow
Bu a y an spell has bound me
And I canno canno go
The gian ees a e bending
Thei ba e boughs weighed wi h snow
The s o m is as descending
And ye I canno go
Clouds beyond clouds abo e me
Was es beyond was es below
Bu no hing d ea can mo e me
I will no canno go
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“In summe 's mellow midnigh ”, also i led “The Nigh -Wind”
Sep embe 11 h, 1840
In summe 's mellow midnigh
A cloudless moon shone h ough
Ou open pa lou window,
And ose ees we wi h dew
I sa in silen musing –
The so wind wa ed my hai
I old me hea en was glo ious
And sleeping ea h was ai –
I needed no i s b ea hing
To b ing such hough s o me
Bu s ill i whispe ed lowly
‘How da k he woods will be! –
‘The hick lea es in my mu mu
A e us ling like a d eam,
And all hei my iad oices
Ins inc wi h spi i seem’
I said, ‘Go, gen le singe ,
Thy wooing oice is kind:
Bu do no hink i s music
Has powe o each my mind –
‘Play wi h he scen ed lowe ,
The young ee's supple bough –
And lea e my human eelings
In hei own cou se o low’
The Wande e would no lea e me
I s kiss g ew wa me s ill –
‘O come,’ i sighed so swee ly
‘I'll win hee 'gains hy will –
‘Ha e we no been childhood iends?
Ha e I no lo ed hee long?
As long as hou has lo ed he nigh
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Whose silence wakes my song?
‘And when hy hea is laid a es
Benea h he chu ch-ya d s one
I shall ha e ime enough o mou n
And hou o be alone’ –