Academic Edi o : Kenne h Imo-Imo
Is ael Eshie
Recei ed: 21 Janua y 2025
Re ised: 26 Feb ua y 2025
Accep ed: 3 Ma ch 2025
Published: 5 Ma ch 2025
Ci a ion: Semko, O.; Vynnyko , Y.;
Filonenko, O.; Yu in, O.; Ilchenko, T.;
H anko, O.; Semko, V.; Salles, A.;
Ma eus, R.; B agança, L.; e al. To he
Issue o Assessmen o he Technical
Condi ion o Unde g ound S uc u es
o Buildings. Sus ainabili y 2025,17,
2264. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/
su17052264
Copy igh : © 2025 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
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dis ibu ed unde he e ms and
condi ions o he C ea i e Commons
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(h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/
licenses/by/4.0/).
A icle
To he Issue o Assessmen o he Technical Condi ion o
Unde g ound S uc u es o Buildings
Oleksand Semko 1, Yu iy Vynnyko 2, Olena Filonenko 1, Oleg Yu in 1, Te iana Ilchenko 1,
Olena H anko 3, Volodymy Semko 4, Ad iana Salles 5, Rica do Ma eus 5, Luís B agança 5,
Roman Rabensei e 6and Na aliia Mahas 1,6,*
1Educa ional and Resea ch Ins i u e o A chi ec u e Ci il Enginee ing and Land Managemen , Na ional
Uni e si y “Yu i Kond a yuk Pol a a Poly echnic”, Pe sho a ne yj A e. 24, 36011 Pol a a, Uk aine;
[email p o ec ed] (O.S.); [email p o ec ed] (O.F.); [email p o ec ed] (O.Y.);
[email p o ec ed] (T.I.)
2Educa ional and Resea ch Ins i u e o Oil and Gas, Na ional Uni e si y “Yu i Kond a yuk Pol a a
Poly echnic”, Pe sho a ne yj A e. 24, 36011 Pol a a, Uk aine; [email p o ec ed]
3Ins i u e o Geology, Facul y o Geog aphical and Geological Sciences, Adam Mickiewicz Uni e si y,
Bogumiła K ygowskiego 12, 61-680 Poznan, Poland; [email p o ec ed]
4Depa men o S uc u al Enginee ing, Ins i u e o Building Enginee ing, Facul y o Ci il and T anspo
Enginee ing, Poznan Uni e si y o Technology, Pio owo S ee 5, 61-138 Poznan, Poland;
olodymy [email p o ec ed]
5Depa men o Ci il Enginee ing, ARISE, ISISE, Uni e si y o Minho, 4804-533 Guima ães, Po ugal;
[email p o ec ed] (A.S.); [email p o ec ed] (R.M.); [email p o ec ed] (L.B.)
6Depa men o Building Cons uc ion, Facul y o Ci il Enginee ing, Slo ak Uni e si y o Technology in
B a isla a, Radlinského 2766/11, 810 05 B a isla a, Slo akia; [email p o ec ed]
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac : A su ey and assessmen o he echnical condi ion o basemen and semi-
basemen s uc u es in public buildings aged 60 o 130 yea s we e conduc ed o e alua e
hei sui abili y o use as basic shel e s. Based on he su ey esul s, he mos ad e se
impac s we e iden i ied, including changes in g oundwa e le els, imp ope building op-
e a ion, and he cha ac e is ic damages o unde g ound s uc u al elemen s. S uc u al
solu ions we e p oposed o elimina e he consequences o hese damages. The e iewed
cases indica e ha he e ical and ho izon al wa e p oo ing sys ems used du ing con-
s uc ion canno pe o m hei unc ion h oughou he building’s en i e li e cycle. When
designing new buildings, wa e p oo ma e ials should be used o he enclosing s uc u es
o unde g ound p emises. While his may ha e a highe ini ial cos han memb ane o
coa ing wa e p oo ing, conside ing li e-cycle cos s, i can p o ide a posi i e economic e ec
and imp o e he quali y and com o o he indoo en i onmen .
Keywo ds: echnical condi ion assessmen ; damage; wa e p oo ing; ein o cemen co osion;
loess soil; looding; se lemen
1. In oduc ion
The analysis o he building’s li e cycle, cos , and impac on he en i onmen om he
beginning o cons uc ion, h oughou ope a ion, and du ing decons uc ion is one o he
key componen s o design and new cons uc ion. Li e cycle assessmen me hods o exis ing
buildings include ways o mode nize, epai , o econs uc buildings, which can ex end he
building’s li e cycle. This, in u n, can educe li e cycle cos s and en i onmen al impac [
1
].
An al e na i e o building econs uc ion and ex ending i s li e cycle is decons uc ion
(disman ling an exis ing building and cons uc ing a new one using pa ially ecycled ma-
e ials) o demoli ion ollowed by new cons uc ion [
2
]. E en conside ing exis ing models
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 2264 h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/su17052264
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 2264 2 o 19
o ma e ial euse and cons uc ion was e managemen [
3
,
4
], he inancial and ene gy cos s
o hese app oaches may be highe han hose o building econs uc ion [
2
]. Con inuous
moni o ing o he echnical condi ion o s uc u es is c ucial o sa e ope a ion, which is
ca ied ou isually and h ough non-des uc i e es ing me hods, allowing o decisions
ega ding u he building ope a ion, s eng hening me hods, and econs uc ion [5–9].
Ca ying ou epai wo k and building econs uc ion, which may include he econ-
igu a ion o in e io spaces, changes in unc ional pu pose, and b inging he building’s
s uc u es and spa ial planning solu ions in line wi h exis ing egula o y equi emen s, is
one o he ways o ex end he building’s li e cycle.
The unde g ound pa o he building equi es a en ion du ing design and con-
s uc ion [
10
] and du ing he building’s ope a ion. A popula end in mode n u ban
planning, especially in densely popula ed a eas, is he in eg a ed use o unde g ound
space, such as cons uc ing mul i-le el pa king lo s, e ail and wa ehouse spaces, ca es,
and o he acili ies.
As can be seen om he daily ch onicle o mili a y con lic s and la ge-scale hos ili ies,
especially in Uk aine nowadays, he e is a g ea social need o nume ous eliable and
easily accessible unde g ound shel e s o ci ilians. The exis ing basemen and semi-
basemen p emises we e ei he no in use o we e u ilized as echnical acili ies. Wi h he
need o b ing hem in o p ope ope a ional condi ion o po en ial use as basic shel e s,
many inspec ions we e conduc ed on basemen and semi-basemen p emises in public and
esiden ial buildings. Typical damages we e iden i ied, and a comp ehensi e analysis was
ca ied ou on he in luencing ac o s a ec ing he “na u al soil ounda ion– ounda ion–
unde g ound pa o he building–abo e-g ound s uc u es”. As geo echnical p ac ice
shows, his a ea is also ele an o econs uc ing buildings and s uc u es.
In addi ion o he social and economic ad an ages o unde g ound cons uc ion,
he e a e also pu ely geo echnical achie emen s, such as cu ing h ough he uppe laye s,
whose soils o en ha e unique p ope ies (subsidence, swelling, high o ganic con en ,
an h opogenic o igin, and signi ican comp essibili y). This makes i possible o choose
mo e obus and less comp essible soils as he bea ing laye o he na u al ounda ion base
and, he e o e, o some imes e use o use piles.
Howe e , he downside o building p ojec s wi h a de eloped unde g ound compo-
nen is he need o (1) p o ec i om g oundwa e du ing cons uc ion and ope a ion and
(2) ensu e ha he absolu e and ela i e se lemen s o he ounda ion o he su ounding
buildings do no exceed hei maximum egula o y alues, which depend on he echnical
condi ion o he exis ing acili ies.
Acco ding o Eu opean [
11
,
12
] and na ional s anda ds [
13
,
14
], he builde mus ensu e
a su icien le el o eliabili y (dependabili y, main ainabili y, and du abili y) o he sys em:
“na u al soil ounda ion– ounda ion–unde g ound pa o he building–abo e-g ound
s uc u es”. The e o e, o new cons uc ions and econs uc ion p ojec s, s anda ds limi
he maximum se lemen alues o he ounda ions S
u
, he ela i e di e ence in hese
se lemen s (∆S/L)u, and he il o s uc u es iu, among o he ac o s.
In addi ion o he a o emen ioned speci ic p ope ies o soils, dange ous enginee ing
and geological p ocesses, such as a ea looding, landslides, mechanical su osion, ka s ,
and a i icial impac s, signi ican ly complica e he sys em’s design. The ollowing g oups
o causes o ull o pa ial ailu e o he sys em a e o en iden i ied [15–17]:
1.
E o s in enginee ing and geological su eys (such as insu icien scope; inco ec
e alua ion o soil pa ame e s, pa icula ly wi h unique p ope ies; inco ec o absen
p edic ion o g oundwa e le el changes; neglec ing he possibili y o empo a y un-
de g ound wa e o ma ion; igno ing he his o y o he o ma ion o he enginee ing–
geological condi ions o he si e; and o he ac o s);
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 2264 3 o 19
2.
E o s in designing his sys em (such as ailu e o accoun o soil p ope y changes,
inco ec selec ion o he sys em’s calcula ion scheme, de ia ions om no ms, and
o he ac o s);
3.
Failu es o he sys em ela ed o changes in he p ope ies o he ounda ion and
o he componen s due o cons uc ion wo k (such as de iciencies in cons uc ion
dewa e ing, p olonged cyclic we ing, d ying, eezing o he uppe bea ing laye in
open exca a ions, poo compac ion o back ill soil, inco ec objec conse a ion, and
o he ac o s);
4.
Sys em ailu es du ing ope a ion (such as non-s anda d o unaccoun ed- o ope a-
ional load, wa e p oo ing and su ace p o ec ion de ec s, and o he ac o s).
As p ac ice shows, he g ea es dange o unde g ound s uc u es in hea ily u banized
a eas is he long- e m and seasonal looding o e i o ies [
18
]. In ou iew, an essen ial
de elopmen o imp o ing he eliabili y o calcula ions in geo echnical design is he
ecen p oposal by a g oup o geo echnical enginee s om he Ne he lands, Spain, and he
Uni ed Kingdom [
19
] o in oduce p obabilis ic app oaches in o ecas ing g oundwa e
le el changes, including ex eme annual alues, in he new edi ion o he Eu ocode.
The Uk ainian expe ience [
20
–
22
] and co esponding me hods o comp ehensi e
inspec ions o he condi ion o unde g ound cons uc ion s uc u es [
23
] a e also help ul.
Due o he u gen need o use basemen s and semi-basemen s as simple shel e s, he
esul s o such inspec ions p o ided ecommenda ions o he u he sa e ope a ion o
hese s uc u es and he buildings as a whole. Each me hod o assessing he echnical
condi ion o unde g ound s uc u es based on he inspec ion esul s has i s speci ics, such
as he ollowing:
•
The condi ion o buildings be o e and a e ex e nal in luences om adjacen unde -
g ound cons uc ion is conside ed [24];
•
The so-called s abili y o s uc u es and hei componen s is assessed based on s a-
is ical and enginee ing s udies, conside ing he pa ame e s o soils and ocks, new
unde g ound s uc u es, and o he s [25];
•
In he “ uzzy logic model”, he inpu a iables a e he assessmen s o he echnical
condi ion o indi idual elemen s o he s uc u e (unde g ound s uc u e, load-bea ing
walls, ceilings, oo , and o he elemen s) and he echnical condi ion o he s uc u e
as a whole [26]. Thus, none o hese o iginal app oaches is uni e sal.
I is also ad isable o moni o he echnical condi ion o s uc u es du ing cons uc ion
and subsequen ope a ion, i.e., o moni o he sa e y o unde g ound s uc u es by, o
example, eco ding he “s ess–de o ma ion” a io o he ounda ion soil du ing loading
and unloading [27,28].
A en ion is d awn o he new Chinese p ac ice o c ea ing a “comp ehensi e as-
sessmen o unde g ound space esou ces” o indi idual ci ies ( egions) based on he
esul s o inspec ions o he sys em “ ounda ion– ounda ion–unde g ound pa o he
building–abo e-g ound s uc u es” e alua ion o i s echnical condi ion and moni o ing
da a [
29
]. The in luence o mic obial-induced ca bona e p ecipi a ion ea men ac o s on
he s eng h cha ac e is ics o loess soils is conside ed in [
30
]. The cha ac e is ics and me h-
ods o con olling he o ma ion o c acks in unde g ound unnel s uc u es a e desc ibed
in [
31
], analyzing he dependence o c ack o ma ion on he lining g ade and he dep h o
he unnel.
The nex s ep in sol ing he p oblem o educing he isks o unde g ound s uc u e
ope a ion unde po en ial looding condi ions is he c ea ion o ma hema ical models o
his p ocess by Aus ian and Uk ainian specialis s [
32
,
33
]. Fo example, a model o p e-
dic ing g oundwa e le el changes in Kha ki was de eloped, which conside s essen ial
wa e balance componen s (g oundwa e eplenishmen om a mosphe ic sou ces, addi-
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 2264 4 o 19
ional eplenishmen om unde g ound wa e s, e apo a ion, and wa e ex ac ion om
unde g ound sou ces).
The e a e also well-known examples o es ing he mode n “sa e, op imized, and
sus ainable” design app oach o he sys em: “soil ounda ion– ounda ion–unde g ound
pa o he building–abo e-g ound s uc u es” [34].
The p o ec ion o he unde g ound pa o exis ing buildings om looding o en
includes he ollowing [
35
–
37
]: he ins alla ion o a ious d ainage and wa e di e sion
sys ems, o ganiza ion o open wa e d ainage om sumps, elimina ion o d ainage- ee
a eas, eg ading o su aces away om buildings, es o a ion o wa e p oo ing and d ainage
sys ems, c ea ion o clay seals, and an i- il a ion sc eens.
Thus, based on he analysis o he cu en s a e o he issue, his wo k aims o sys em-
a ize in o ma ion abou ypical cons uc ions and he ma e ials o he buildings’ unde -
g ound pa s, he impac s hey expe ience, and he damage caused by hese impac s.
2. Me hods
The p emises’ unde g ound s uc u es su e damage du ing ope a ion and equi e
ein o cemen . The de e io a ion o he ope a ional cha ac e is ics o load-bea ing and en-
closing s uc u es is o en associa ed wi h he cessa ion o he p emises’ ope a ion (hea ing,
en ila ion, and so on) and he impac o ex e nal ac o s, including agg essi e ones.
The inspec ion o he condi ion o unde g ound building s uc u es, he assessmen o
hei echnical condi ion, he design o epai s and ein o cemen s, and he execu ion o
u gen wo ks o es o e damaged objec s a e ca ied ou by egula o y documen s [
13
,
23
].
This s udy p esen s an analysis o he impac s on unde g ound building s uc u es, as
well as an assessmen o de ec s and damages based on he inspec ion esul s o i e
objec s in he Pol a a egion. Recommenda ions o imp o ing he ope a ional condi ion
o he s uc u es a e p o ided based on he cu en egula o y documen s in Uk aine.
The ecommenda ions we e de eloped as pa o echnical inspec ion epo s and design
documen a ion o epai wo k.
Acco ding o he me hodology o inspec ing unde g ound building s uc u es and
documen ing he esul s, he classi ica ion ea u es o he objec ’s damage ca ego y, he
es ima ed deg ee o damage o he objec as a whole, and gene al ecommenda ions o
u he ope a ion a e de e mined. These ecommenda ions include pe o ming es o a ion
wo k h ough ou ine epai s, majo epai s, o u gen demoli ion o he objec , i necessa y.
3. Resul s
The unde g ound pa o buildings and s uc u es is subjec ed o a complex ange
o impac s conside ed du ing hei design and ope a ion. Dis inguishing unde g ound
s uc u es by hei pu pose can include ounda ion s uc u es and s uc u es ha combine
load-bea ing and enclosing unc ions. Typical s uc u es o basemen p emises and hei
cha ac e is ic damages include he ollowing:
•
Conc e e (p e ab ica ed and cas in si u) load-bea ing s uc u es—non-sealed, exposed
o agg essi e in luences, such as chemical co osion o conc e e (e.g., basemen s o
indus ial buildings, elec olysis, e ilize s, and o he ac o s);
•
Rein o ced conc e e wall s uc u es—co osion o ein o cemen in walls and ceil-
ings, des uc ion o he p o ec i e conc e e laye , leaks om abo e, ee oo s, and
condensa ion, among o he s;
•Olde s uc u es— ubble o b ick cons uc ions wi h lime mo a —show des uc ion
o he lime ma ix, collapse o mason y, os damage, aul des uc ion, and o he s;
•
S eel–b ick ceilings—co osion o me al beams, c acks in aul s, and alling ceiling
elemen s, among o he s;
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 2264 5 o 19
•Wooden s uc u es—a ec ed by o , p ima ily in hei bea ing a eas.
The si es o he s udied objec s a e loca ed wi hin he Pol a a loess pla eau, which
consis s o Qua e na y loams and sandy loams. The hickness o he loess laye is
8.0–8.5 m
,
bu when we , he e is no soil se lemen om i s weigh .
The uppe laye o loess soils is ypically composed o hea y sil y clay loams, which
a e mac opo ous and, in a sa u a ed s a e, ange om s i plas ic o so plas ic. They ha e a
po osi y coe icien o e = 0.8–0.95 and he ollowing geo echnical pa ame e s in a sa u a ed
s a e: in e nal ic ion angle:
φ
= 17–20
◦
, Cohesion: c = 18–24 kPa, and de o ma ion
modulus: E = 4–7 MPa.
The lowe laye o loess soils is gene ally composed o ligh sil y clay loams, which
a e also mac opo ous and, in a sa u a ed s a e, ange om so plas ic o luid. They ha e a
po osi y coe icien o e = 0.85–1.0 and he ollowing geo echnical pa ame e s in a sa u a ed
s a e: in e nal ic ion angle:
φ
= 17–24
◦
, Cohesion: c = 10–15 kPa, and de o ma ion
modulus: E = 2.5–5 MPa.
I is also wo h no ing ha loess soils (loess) a e ypically sil y clays and sandy loams
wi h a cha ac e is ic p ope y o collapsibili y. This means ha upon we ing, hey unde go
addi ional de o ma ion—subsidence—beyond egula se lemen , educing hei mechan-
ical p ope ies. Loess soils a e ela i ely homogeneous, con aining mo e han
50% sil
pa icles anging om 0.05 o 0.005 mm. They also ha e a signi ican amoun o quickly
and mode a ely soluble sal s and many po es, c acks, and ca i ies o a ious sizes. In a
low-mois u e s a e, loess can main ain a nea ly e ical slope bu quickly disin eg a es upon
wa e exposu e. When sa u a ed, especially unde dynamic loads, i acqui es p ope ies
simila o quicksand. Loess is ypically ligh yellow o ligh b own. In i s d y s a e, i has a
powde y ex u e o he ouch. These cha ac e is ics allow geo echnical enginee s o iden i y
loess soil and inco po a e p e en i e measu es o educe o elimina e subsidence e ec s in
p ojec designs.
The mechanical p ope ies o loess soil in i s na u al s a e and a e we ing di e
signi ican ly. Fo example, he we ing o loess soils in he Pol a a egion o a wa e sa u a-
ion coe icien o S = 0.9 leads, on a e age, o a 2.7–3 imes educ ion in he de o ma ion
modulus (E), dec ease in he in e nal ic ion angle (
φ
) by 3–4
◦
, and 2.5–3 imes educ ion
in Cohesion (c).
Un a o able physical and geological p ocesses a he si es include subsidence phenom-
ena (soils o loess o igin due o we ing om abo e—domes ic leaks om wa e -ca ying
communica ions and a mosphe ic wa e s om d ainage- ee a eas a ound buildings—and
om below, due o he gene al ise in g oundwa e le els in ci ies, ha e p ac ically en e ed
a “deg aded” s a e, and pa o hem has been classi ied as weak ( e y comp essible) soils
wi h a de o ma ion modulus E < 5 MPa) and looding o he a ea; he o al hickness o he
non-s uc u al (an h opogenic) deposi s is up o 2 m.
The ounda ions o all he buildings we e buil by emo ing soil on a na u al base
consis ing o deg aded loess loams. The load-bea ing laye is o en composed o hea y,
sil y, s i -plas ic loam, wi h an unde lying laye o ligh sil y loam, om so plas ic o
luid plas ic.
I is also wo h no ing he signi ican impac on unde g ound s uc u es and hei
ounda ions om he ac ha in u ban a eas, g oundwa e le els ise in almos all ci ies
due o he ageing o wa e -ca ying communica ions (olde han 50 yea s) and he inc ease
in uncon olled leaks om hem.
Below, we will discuss in mo e de ail he unde g ound s uc u es o buildings, hei
damages and de ec s, and he p oposed me hods o ein o cemen and b inging hem o an
ope a ional s a e based on he inspec ion o basemen p emises ca ied ou o assess he
possibili y o he dual use o hese p emises, including as p o ec i e s uc u es.
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 2264 6 o 19
3.1. Shel e Tha Has Been Ou o Ope a ion
The inspec ed p emises we e ini ially designed and cons uc ed as shel e s [
21
]. Gi en
i s speci ic loca ion and pu pose, i was also used as a shoo ing ange. The s uc u e has
no been in use o o e 20 yea s. The ounda ion slab and walls o he shel e a e made o
cas in si u ein o ced conc e e, and he ceiling is p e ab ica ed ein o ced conc e e. The
ceiling is co e ed wi h wa e p oo ing consis ing o 2–3 laye s o ibe glass and opped wi h
soil and g ass.
The p ima y de ec o he shel e is wa e pe meabili y. Du ing inspec ion, he wa e
le el was be ween 20 and 30 mm, bu he humidi y plas e indica es ha he wa e le el
was abou 600 o 700 mm (Figu e 1a). This le el o looding is a ibu ed o bo h he ailu e
o he ex e nal d ainage sys em a ound he building and he wa e pe meabili y o he
p e ab ica ed and monoli hic ein o ced conc e e enclosing s uc u es o he loo and walls.
Acco ding o he p o ided design, he d ainage sys em was ins alled as a ing d ain 6–7 m
below he g ound su ace, benea h he ounda ion slab. The d ainage sys em consis s o
ound asbes os-cemen pipes wi h sli s e e y 30 cm, laid in ays and co e ed wi h coa se
and medium sand. The pipe slope is app oxima ely i = 0.005. Wells a e cons uc ed a he
co ne s o he shel e and along he middle o i s long sides.
Sus ainabili y 2025, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 o 20
due o he ageing o wa e -ca ying communica ions (olde han 50 yea s) and he inc ease
in uncon olled leaks om hem.
Below, we will discuss in mo e de ail he unde g ound s uc u es o buildings, hei
damages and de ec s, and he p oposed me hods o ein o cemen and b inging hem o
an ope a ional s a e based on he inspec ion o basemen p emises ca ied ou o assess
he possibili y o he dual use o hese p emises, including as p o ec i e s uc u es.
3.1. Shel e Tha Has Been ou o Ope a ion
The inspec ed p emises we e ini ially designed and cons uc ed as shel e s [21].
Gi en i s speci ic loca ion and pu pose, i was also used as a shoo ing ange. The s uc u e
has no been in use o o e 20 yea s. The ounda ion slab and walls o he shel e a e
made o cas in si u ein o ced conc e e, and he ceiling is p e ab ica ed ein o ced
conc e e. The ceiling is co e ed wi h wa e p oo ing consis ing o 2–3 laye s o ibe glass
and opped wi h soil and g ass.
The p ima y de ec o he shel e is wa e pe meabili y. Du ing inspec ion, he wa e
le el was be ween 20 and 30 mm, bu he humidi y plas e indica es ha he wa e le el
was abou 600 o 700 mm (Figu e 1a). This le el o looding is a ibu ed o bo h he ailu e
o he ex e nal d ainage sys em a ound he building and he wa e pe meabili y o he
p e ab ica ed and monoli hic ein o ced conc e e enclosing s uc u es o he loo and
walls. Acco ding o he p o ided design, he d ainage sys em was ins alled as a ing d ain
6–7 m below he g ound su ace, benea h he ounda ion slab. The d ainage sys em
consis s o ound asbes os-cemen pipes wi h sli s e e y 30 cm, laid in ays and co e ed
wi h coa se and medium sand. The pipe slope is app oxima ely i = 0.005. Wells a e
cons uc ed a he co ne s o he shel e and along he middle o i s long sides.
The long- e m semi- looded condi ion o he basemen has led o he ollowing
damages (Figu e 1): des uc ion o he loo s uc u es (such as o ing and o he s);
co osi e wea o me al ne wo k s uc u es— en ila ion, hea ing, wa e supply,
elec ici y, and sewage sys ems; co osi e damage o he wo king ein o cemen o he
p e ab ica ed ein o ced conc e e ceiling panels (co osion hickness 1–2 mm, bulges,
damage o p o ec i e plas e , and efflo escence); accumula ion o semi- o ed deb is—
emnan s o u ni u e and equipmen .
(a) (b)
Figu e 1. P ima y de ec s o he inspec ed basemen shel e ha has been ou o ope a ion: (a)
damage o he inishing laye and e osion o he shel e ’s wall and loo s uc u es due o p olonged
wa e exposu e and sa u a ion; (b) co osion damage o he ein o cemen o p ecas ein o ced
conc e e oo panels, o ma ion o co osion-induced c ack, de e io a ion o p o ec i e plas e , and
efflo escence.
Figu e 1. P ima y de ec s o he inspec ed basemen shel e ha has been ou o ope a ion: (a) damage
o he inishing laye and e osion o he shel e ’s wall and loo s uc u es due o p olonged wa e
exposu e and sa u a ion; (b) co osion damage o he ein o cemen o p ecas ein o ced conc e e oo
panels, o ma ion o co osion-induced c ack, de e io a ion o p o ec i e plas e , and e lo escence.
The long- e m semi- looded condi ion o he basemen has led o he ollowing dam-
ages (Figu e 1): des uc ion o he loo s uc u es (such as o ing and o he s); co osi e
wea o me al ne wo k s uc u es— en ila ion, hea ing, wa e supply, elec ici y, and
sewage sys ems; co osi e damage o he wo king ein o cemen o he p e ab ica ed ein-
o ced conc e e ceiling panels (co osion hickness 1–2 mm, bulges, damage o p o ec i e
plas e , and e lo escence); accumula ion o semi- o ed deb is— emnan s o u ni u e
and equipmen .
The condi ion o he load-bea ing building s uc u es can be assessed as condi ion
3—unsui able o no mal ope a ion, while he condi ion o all he ne wo ks is condi ion
4—eme gency, des oyed.
Conside ing ha he damage o he basemen occu ed due o he cessa ion o use
(suspension o dewa e ing, g oundwa e pumping in he 1990s, and hea ing), es o ing he
shel e equi es no only one- ime capi al expendi u es o epai s bu also ongoing cos s
( o wa e pumping and hea ing) o main ain he p emises’ ope a ional s a e. The e o e,
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 2264 7 o 19
when deciding o es o e he basemen ’s p ope ies, i is essen ial o also conside hese
ongoing main enance cos s.
Thus, o es o e he ope a ion o he basemen , he ollowing measu es ha e been
ecommended [21]:
1. Ins alla ion o low- ol age sa e ligh ing ( o we condi ions);
2. Cleaning up deb is and emnan s o he loo , co oded ne wo ks, and damaged plas e ;
3.
Res o a ion o wa e collec ion sumps; al e na i ely, ins alling 80 mm g a el ill and
a new 60–80 mm ein o ced conc e e loo wi h wa e collec ion pi s om which
wa e should be pumped ou and di e ed ou side he basemen , p e e ably in o a
s o m sewe ;
4.
Res o a ion o en ila ion (bo h exhaus and supply). I he basemen ’s pu pose
changes, na u al ae a ion can be a anged.
This is he minimal cos op ion; implemen ing hese wo ks will allow he acili y o be
used immedia ely a e comple ion (expenses—ligh ing, wa e pumping, and en ila ion),
which is essen ial o p o iding he popula ion wi h he simples shel e s. Capi al epai s
a e necessa y o p olonged, com o able basemen use as a simple shel e and o he
pu poses. In addi ion o measu es 1–4 lis ed abo e, he ollowing addi ional measu es
a e ecommended:
5. Res o a ion o d ainage and ex e nal dewa e ing sys ems.
6. Roo epai o he basemen :
•Remo al o soil ill;
•
Res o a ion o wa e p oo ing (applying new wa e p oo ing o asphal conc e e sc eed);
•Ins alla ion o a 300 mm hick polys y ene conc e e insula ion, γo= 100–150 kg/m3;
•Asphal conc e e sc eed wi h a hickness o δ= 60–80 mm;
•Filling wi h clay and soil mix u e wi h a 400–500 mm hickness.
7. Res o a ion o hea ing in he basemen .
8. Res o a ion o wa e supply and sewage ne wo ks.
9. Res o a ion o in e io inishing.
10.
Res o a ion o u ni u e and u nishing o he p emises.
3.2. Basemen o he His o ical Gymnasium Building in Pol a a Region
A his o ical gymnasium building, app oxima ely 110 yea s old, was inspec ed in he
Pol a a egion [
22
]. O e i s li e ime, he building has been used as an educa ional acili y
and o mili a y accommoda ion. The building has a U-shaped layou and is wo s o ies
high, wi h a unc ional basemen unde pa o he s uc u e and an a ached single-s o y
gymnasium. The building’s s uc u al design is ameless, wi h longi udinal and ans e se
load-bea ing walls. The walls a e b ick, wi h a hickness o 85 o 64 cm. The ounda ion and
base o he building we e examined h ough exca a ion pi s. The ounda ions a e made o
b ick, wi h 2.5–3.5 m dep h. The subsoil consis s o subsidence-p one soils.
The blind a ea a ound he building is in poo condi ion and un i o use (Figu e 2a).
The layou o he su ounding a ea con ibu es o he accumula ion o a mosphe ic wa e
and i s localized in il a ion in o he ounda ion base, esul ing in he o ma ion o a wa e -
logged a ea. Ex e nal enginee ing ne wo ks and wells a e loca ed a ound he building bu
a e no longe used. Thei poo echnical condi ion has led o wa e accumula ion in hese
a eas. A mechanical su usion o he soil was obse ed, causing subsidence o he asphal
blind a ea a ound he building.
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 2264 8 o 19
Sus ainabili y 2025, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 o 20
The blind a ea a ound he building is in poo condi ion and un i o use (Figu e 2a).
The layou o he su ounding a ea con ibu es o he accumula ion o a mosphe ic wa e
and i s localized in il a ion in o he ounda ion base, esul ing in he o ma ion o a wa e -
logged a ea. Ex e nal enginee ing ne wo ks and wells a e loca ed a ound he building bu
a e no longe used. Thei poo echnical condi ion has led o wa e accumula ion in hese
a eas. A mechanical suffusion o he soil was obse ed, causing subsidence o he asphal
blind a ea a ound he building.
Dampness was de ec ed on he basemen walls (Figu e 2b). F os -induced damage
was eco ded in a eas whe e ain gu e s we e p e iously damaged and in he dampened
plin h a eas due o he wa e -logged sec ions a ound he building. Fu he mo e, nei he
he ounda ions no he building i sel is sui ed o subsidence-p one soil condi ions ( he
ounda ions lack ein o cemen , he e a e no monoli hic ein o ced conc e e bel s, he
load-bea ing walls a e no ein o ced, and o he ac o s).
To ensu e he building’s con inued sa e ope a ion, i is ecommended ha he old
enginee ing ne wo ks wi hin a 30 m adius o he building be inspec ed. Any damaged
enginee ing ne wo ks should be disman led, and he su ounding a ea should be
imp o ed. Ve ical g ading a ound he en i e building, sloping away om he s uc u e,
should be pe o med, and a blind a ea a leas 2 m wide wi h a clay ba ie should be
cons uc ed.
To es o e he ho izon al wa e p oo ing laye o he load-bea ing b ick walls, i is
ecommended o injec hyd ophobic solu ions in o he s uc u e a he le el o he i s -
loo slab in a con inuous s ip, as de ailed in [22].
(a) (b)
Figu e 2. Rele an de ec s o he inspec ed his o ical gymnasium building in he Pol a a egion: (a)
he pa emen a ound he building is in an un i condi ion, and he si e g ading p omo es he
accumula ion o a mosphe ic wa e , leading o i s localized in il a ion in o he ounda ion base; (b)
de e io a ion o he in e io wall su aces in he basemen due o capilla y mois u e ise, esul ing
in plas e damage and efflo escence o ma ion.
Figu e 2. Rele an de ec s o he inspec ed his o ical gymnasium building in he Pol a a egion:
(a) he pa emen a ound he building is in an un i condi ion, and he si e g ading p omo es he
accumula ion o a mosphe ic wa e , leading o i s localized in il a ion in o he ounda ion base;
(b) de e io a ion o he in e io wall su aces in he basemen due o capilla y mois u e ise, esul ing
in plas e damage and e lo escence o ma ion.
Dampness was de ec ed on he basemen walls (Figu e 2b). F os -induced damage
was eco ded in a eas whe e ain gu e s we e p e iously damaged and in he dampened
plin h a eas due o he wa e -logged sec ions a ound he building. Fu he mo e, nei he
he ounda ions no he building i sel is sui ed o subsidence-p one soil condi ions ( he
ounda ions lack ein o cemen , he e a e no monoli hic ein o ced conc e e bel s, he
load-bea ing walls a e no ein o ced, and o he ac o s).
To ensu e he building’s con inued sa e ope a ion, i is ecommended ha he old
enginee ing ne wo ks wi hin a 30 m adius o he building be inspec ed. Any damaged
enginee ing ne wo ks should be disman led, and he su ounding a ea should be imp o ed.
Ve ical g ading a ound he en i e building, sloping away om he s uc u e, should be
pe o med, and a blind a ea a leas 2 m wide wi h a clay ba ie should be cons uc ed.
To es o e he ho izon al wa e p oo ing laye o he load-bea ing b ick walls, i is
ecommended o injec hyd ophobic solu ions in o he s uc u e a he le el o he i s - loo
slab in a con inuous s ip, as de ailed in [22].
3.3. The Basemen o an Adminis a i e Building in Pol a a
The basemen se es as a simple shel e in an adminis a i e building in Pol a a. The
building is his o ically om he la e 19 h cen u y, o iginally cons uc ed as a p i a e es a e.
I is a wo-s o y s uc u e wi h a load-bea ing wall sys em. The building’s dimensions a e
23.55
×
16.65 m, wi h he highes oo poin eaching +13.00 m. A basemen is loca ed
unde pa o he building (Figu e 3), and no g oundwa e was de ec ed.
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 2264 9 o 19
Sus ainabili y 2025, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 o 20
3.3. The Basemen o an Adminis a i e Building in Pol a a
The basemen se es as a simple shel e in an adminis a i e building in Pol a a. The
building is his o ically om he la e 19 h cen u y, o iginally cons uc ed as a p i a e
es a e. I is a wo-s o y s uc u e wi h a load-bea ing wall sys em. The building’s
dimensions a e 23.55 × 16.65 m, wi h he highes oo poin eaching +13.00 m. A basemen
is loca ed unde pa o he building (Figu e 3), and no g oundwa e was de ec ed.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figu e 3. P ima y de ec s o he basemen in he adminis a i e building in Pol a a: (a) de e io a ion
o he in e io wall su aces in he basemen , wi h efflo escence appea ing on he walls; (b) co osion
damage o he basemen ceiling s uc u es, along wi h efflo escence on he wall su aces; (c)
des uc ion o he b ick mason y o he basemen walls; and (d) dis up ion o he ai –mois u e
balance wi hin he p emises.
Figu e 3. P ima y de ec s o he basemen in he adminis a i e building in Pol a a: (a) de e io a ion
o he in e io wall su aces in he basemen , wi h e lo escence appea ing on he walls; (b) co osion
damage o he basemen ceiling s uc u es, along wi h e lo escence on he wall su aces; (c) des uc-
ion o he b ick mason y o he basemen walls; and (d) dis up ion o he ai –mois u e balance wi hin
he p emises.
The ounda ions o he load-bea ing walls a e s ip- ype and made o b ick. The ceiling
abo e he basemen consis s o cylind ical b ick aul s suppo ed by s eel beams (I-beams
Nos. 18-20), plas e ed in e nally wi h cemen mo a .
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 2264 16 o 19
•
Damage o absence o a blind a ea a ound he building. Imp ope su ace g ading
a ound a building ypically esul s in localized wa e sa u a ion o he unde g ound
s uc u es, hei soil base, and ounda ions. This can a ec he s uc u e i sel , causing
excessi e mois u e and damage. I may lead o une en se lemen o he ounda ions
in ce ain soil ypes, esul ing in c acks and o he de ec s in he building’s load-bea ing
and enclosing s uc u es.
•
P oximi y o ees and sh ubs o he building. Excessi e wa e ing o plan s can lead o
localized wa e sa u a ion o ounda ion bases and back ill, while he oo sys ems o
ees may impac he s uc u es.
•
Damage o wa e supply and sewage ne wo ks a ound he building esul s in localized
wa e sa u a ion o he ounda ions and s uc u es. Wo n-ou ne wo ks in he soil o en
ha e up u es and de ec s ha cause ei he mino leaks o signi ican soil mois u e, as
well as mechanical soil e osion (su usion).
•
Damage o wa e supply and sewage sys ems inside he building can cause localized
wa e sa u a ion o s uc u es, anging om small leaks o pe sis en wa e accumula-
ion in basemen a eas, po en ially leading o agg essi e en i onmen al e ec s.
•
The des uc ion o he building’s oo d ainage sys em causes wa e sa u a ion o walls
and unde g ound s uc u es.
•
Condensa ion o mois u e on unde g ound s uc u es occu s due o inadequa e oom
en ila ion, a ec ing he su aces o hese s uc u es.
•
Ope a ional impac s on s uc u es include mechanical damage, unau ho ized open-
ings, exposu e o agg essi e en i onmen s, and mo e.
•
Addi ionally, damage du ing epai wo k, such as mis akenly emo ing agmen s o
load-bea ing s uc u es (walls), mis aking hem o pa i ions, o excessi ely inc easing
he load on s uc u es, ounda ions, and bases (e.g., du ing econs uc ion), can ha m
load-bea ing s uc u es.
•De ec s ha occu ed du ing cons uc ion should also be conside ed.
Analyzing he damage and de ec s in he unde g ound pa s o buildings, hei oun-
da ions, and he causes and ac o s leading o he pa ial o comple e ailu e o he sys em
“na u al soil base– ounda ion–unde g ound pa o he building–abo e-g ound s uc u es”
allows o he selec ion o a ional o e all measu es o b ing he s uc u es back o an
ope a ional s a e. This includes he manda o y es o a ion o e ical and ho izon al wa-
e p oo ing o he building’s walls and o ganizing p ope en ila ion and d ying o he
basemen . I possible, g oundwa e lowe ing should be pe o med. Addi ionally, es o ing
he clay lock and blind a ea and main aining wa e -bea ing u ili ies in wo king condi ion
a e highly bene icial measu es. Gi en he dual pu pose o unde g ound spaces, including
use as p o ec i e shel e s, insula ing he ounda ion zone is also ad isable when possible.
The analysis o cha ac e is ic de ec s and damages, as well as hei causes, can be
aken in o accoun when planning cu en and majo epai s, econs uc ion, and new
cons uc ion, he eby imp o ing he main ainabili y o unde g ound building s uc u es.
S anda d e ical and ho izon al wa e p oo ing solu ions, such as ilms and mas ics, a e
no main ainable. Once hei sealing p ope ies a e los , hey lead o damage no only
o he p o ec ed s uc u es bu also o o he building elemen s. The applica ion o wa e -
impe meable ma e ials will help elimina e associa ed ad e se e ec s and damages, such as
high indoo humidi y, sal deposi s on enclosing s uc u es, and co osion o ein o cemen
in ein o ced conc e e elemen s ha a e no in di ec con ac wi h he soil bu s ill su e om
co osion due o high humidi y in unde g ound spaces. When designing new buildings, i is
essen ial o inco po a e wa e -impe meable ma e ials o unde g ound enclosu e s uc u es.
While his may ini ially inc ease cons uc ion cos s, conside ing he expenses o e he en i e
li e cycle, i will ha e a posi i e economic e ec .
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 2264 17 o 19
5. Conclusions
Based on he assessmen o he echnical condi ion o unde g ound building s uc u es
and ounda ions wi h a se ice li e o 60–130 yea s, he mos un a o able ac o s a ec ing
hese s uc u es ha e been iden i ied. These ac o s include he ise in g oundwa e le els
due o looding caused by soil mass sa u a ion om abo e (household leaks om wa e
supply sys ems and a mosphe ic wa e om non-d aining a eas a ound buildings) and
om below (gene al g oundwa e le el ise in u ban a eas), imp ope building ope a ion,
such as uncon olled leaks om wa e supply sys ems, unadd essed non-d aining a eas
nea building walls, damaged o absen pa emen a ound ounda ions, closely plan ed
ees, and lack o p ope en ila ion. The o ma ion o non-d aining a eas a ound buildings
and he des uc ion o pa emen a e consequences o he subsidence o wa e -sa u a ed
loess soils, which ha e e ec i ely deg aded, wi h some classi ied as highly comp essible.
These ac o s a e p ima ily esponsible o he co osion o ein o cemen in ein o ced
conc e e s uc u es, sal deposi s on wall su aces, os -induced des uc ion o b ick walls,
and leaching o he lime ma ix in b ick mason y join s. Elimina ing he consequences o
such damages is possible bu is a labo -in ensi e and inancially cos ly p ocedu e. The
analyzed cases p o ide s ong e idence ha when designing new buildings, i is necessa y
o inco po a e wa e p oo ma e ials o he enclosing s uc u es o unde g ound spaces.
Al hough his will ini ially inc ease cons uc ion cos s, conside ing he expenses o e
he en i e li e cycle, i will yield a posi i e economic e ec . Using s anda d e ical and
ho izon al wa e p oo ing solu ions in he shape o ilms and coa ings is no epai able. Once
hei in eg i y is comp omised, hey lead o damage no only o he p o ec ed s uc u es
bu also o o he pa s o he building. The applica ion o wa e p oo ma e ials will help
elimina e associa ed ad e se e ec s and damages, such as high indoo humidi y, sal
deposi s on enclosing s uc u es, and he co osion o ein o cemen in ein o ced conc e e
elemen s. E en wi hou di ec con ac wi h he soil, hese elemen s su e om co osion
due o excessi e mois u e in unde g ound spaces.
Au ho Con ibu ions: Concep ualiza ion and me hodology, O.S., Y.V., O.F., L.B. and V.S.; in es iga-
ion, and esou ces, O.Y., T.I., O.H., A.S., R.M., N.M. and R.R.; w i ing—o iginal d a p epa a ion,
O.S., Y.V., O.F., N.M. and V.S.; w i ing— e iew and edi ing, N.M., V.S. and R.R.; isualiza ion, O.S.,
Y.V., O.F., O.Y. and N.M.; supe ision, O.S. and Y.V.; p ojec adminis a ion, O.S., R.R., A.S. and N.M.
All au ho s ha e ead and ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding: The APC was pa ly unded by he Slo ak Science G an Agency wi hin he p ojec no.
VEGA 1/0322/23 and pa ly by he Slo ak Go e nmen g an no. 09I03-03-V01-00036.
Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d S a emen : No applicable.
In o med Consen S a emen : No applicable.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen : The da a p esen ed in his s udy a e a ailable on eques om he
co esponding au ho .
Acknowledgmen s: Luís B agança, Rica do Ma eus, Ad iana Salles, Volodymy Semko, and Na aliia
Mahas would like o hank he Eu opean Union o unding and COST (Eu opean Coope a ion
in Science and Technology) o suppo ing he COST Ac ion Ci cula B CA21103 www.ci cula b.
eu (accessed on 2 Ma ch 2025). Volodymy Semko was suppo ed by he Poznan Uni e si y o
Technology, g an numbe 0412/SBAD/0081. Roman Rabensei e was suppo ed by he Slo ak
Na ional Resea ch g an VEGA 1/0322/23 o he Scien i ic G an Agency o he Minis y o Educa ion,
Science, Resea ch and Spo o he Slo ak Republic and he Slo ak Academy o Sciences. Na aliia
Mahas was unded by he EU Nex Gene a ionEU h ough he Reco e y and Resilience Plan o
Slo akia unde p ojec No. 09I03-03-V01-00036.
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic s o in e es .
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 2264 18 o 19
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