In e na ional Jou nal o
En i onmen al Resea ch
and Public Heal h
A icle
Rela ionship be ween School In eg a ion, Psychosocial
Adjus men and Cybe -Agg ession among Adolescen s
Celes e León Mo eno 1,* , Gonzalo Musi u Ochoa 1, Elizabe h Cañas Pa do 2, Es e anía Es é ez López 2
and Juan E a is o Callejas Je ónimo 1


Ci a ion: León Mo eno, C.; Musi u
Ochoa, G.; Cañas Pa do, E.; Es é ez
López, E.; Callejas Je ónimo, J.E.
Rela ionship be ween School
In eg a ion, Psychosocial Adjus men
and Cybe -Agg ession among
Adolescen s. In . J. En i on. Res.
Public Heal h 2021,18, 108. h ps://
dx.doi.o g/10.3390/ije ph18010108
Recei ed: 10 No embe 2020
Accep ed: 18 Decembe 2020
Published: 26 Decembe 2020
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licenses/by/4.0/).
1Depa men o Educa ion and Social Psychology, Pablo Ola ide Uni e si y, 41013 Se ille, Spain;
[email p o ec ed] (G.M.O.); [email p o ec ed] (J.E.C.J.)
2Depa men o Heal h Psychology, Miguel He nández Uni e si y, A da. de la Uni e sidad s/n,
03202 Alican e, Spain; [email p o ec ed] (E.C.P.); [email p o ec ed] (E.E.L.)
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac :
The aim o his s udy was o analyze he ela ionships be ween sociome ic ypes in he
class oom— ejec ed, p e e ed, neglec ed, con o e sial and a e age—and psychological discom o ,
li e sa is ac ion and cybe -agg ession, based on he adolescen ’s gende . 2398 adolescen s o bo h
sexes pa icipa ed in he s udy (49.8% gi ls), aged be ween 12 and 18 yea s (M= 16.03, SD = 1.91).
Mul i a ia e analyses o a iance we e pe o med. The esul s showed signi ican ela ionships
be ween sociome ic ypes, li e sa is ac ion and cybe -agg ession. Rejec ed adolescen s also showed
less sa is ac ion wi h li e and g ea e cybe -agg ession. Fu he mo e, he boys, ega dless o hei
sociome ic ype in he class oom, displayed less psychological dis ess and less in ol emen in
cybe -agg ession. Con o e sial adolescen s also showed g ea e in ol emen in cybe -agg ession.
Finally, p og ams should be p omo ed o he p e en ion o social di icul ies in he school, based on
he p omo ion o social in eg a ion, no only in he class oom, bu also on he In e ne .
Keywo ds: school in eg a ion; psychosocial adjus men ; cybe -agg ession; adolescence
1. In oduc ion
1.1. School In eg a ion
P oblems o school in eg a ion among adolescen s ha e ecei ed special a en ion
om esea che s, eache s and school leade s due o hei se ious consequences o he emo-
ional well-being and psychosocial adjus men o s uden s [
1
,
2
]. In his sense, nume ous
s udies ha e associa ed he social in eg a ion di icul ies mani es ed by some s uden s wi h
lowe sel -es eem [
3
,
4
], g ea e likelihood o dep ession and anxie y [
5
,
6
], highe a es o
absen eeism and school d opou [
7
], se ious p oblems o iolence and agg essi e beha io s
in he class oom [8,9] and e en suicidal idea ion [10].
One o he mos used c i e ia o de e mining s uden in eg a ion in he class oom a e
sociome ic measu emen s in which he accep ance and ejec ion ela ionships be ween
classma es a e e alua ed based on a p e-es ablished c i e ion (e.g., sympa hy o g oup
wo k) [
11
]. This echnique analyzes g oup o ganiza ion and he posi ion occupied in
same by each s uden based on he choices and ejec ions made wi h espec o hei
pee s [
12
]. Fi e sociome ic ypes a e ob ained om he combina ion o hese sco es:
ejec ed, p e e ed, neglec ed, con o e sial and a e age [11,13].
Rejec ed: hese a e s uden s who a e disliked by mos o hei pee s. These ado-
lescen s a e mo e equen ly in ol ed in iolen and dis up i e beha io s, epo mo e
con lic i e ela ionships wi h pee s and wi h eache s, and show low social and academic
compe ence [
8
]. Howe e , a ious s udies ha e shown ha no all ejec ed adolescen s
pa icipa e in iolen beha io and ha iolence is he e o e no necessa ily associa ed wi h
ejec ion [
14
,
15
]. A p opo ion o ejec ed s uden s display excessi e social wi hd awal,
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2021,18, 108. h ps://dx.doi.o g/10.3390/ije ph18010108 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/ije ph
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2021,18, 108 2 o 10
dep ession and anxie y, an aspec ha can also con ibu e o he adolescen being ejec ed,
and o emaining in his sociome ic ype [9].
P e e ed: hese a e s uden s who a e liked by mos o he g oup. Compa ed o o he
adolescen s, p e e ed s uden s end o show g ea e social compe ence and cogni i e
skills (e.g., companionship, sympa hy, good cha ac e ) [
3
] and lowe le els o agg essi e
and ansg essi e beha io s [
16
]. S uden s p e e ed by hei pee s end o ha e g ea e
social skills o achie ing in e pe sonal goals and a he same ime main ain posi i e social
ela ionships, compa ed o he o he sociome ic ypes [17].
Neglec ed: hese a e s uden s who a e subjec o indi e ence om hei pee g oup,
ecei e li le a en ion om hei pee s and a e no well known. These adolescen s a e quie ,
shy and ese ed, bu hey do no necessa ily ha e o be socially isola ed like some ejec ed
adolescen s [
18
]. Al hough hey display less sociabili y han a e age pee s, hey espec
he ules and a e engaged in socially accep ed ac i i ies, albei o a lesse deg ee han mo e
accep ed child en and in a mo e isola ed manne [19].
Con o e sial: hese s uden s a e cha ac e ized by ha ing high le els o accep ance
and ejec ion, i.e., hey a e liked by many, bu also disliked by many. This sociome ic ype
also p esen s beha io s common o bo h g oups (p e e ed and ejec ed), since hey a e
highly in ol ed in bo h p osocial and an isocial beha io s [18].
A e age: hese a e s uden s who, compa ed o hei pee g oup, do no s and ou o
being especially accep ed o ejec ed by hei pee s. These adolescen s do no seem o s and
ou , al hough hey a e mo e isible han neglec ed s uden s, so hey do no epo e y
high sco es wi h espec o ei he he posi i e ai s cha ac e is ic o p e e ed adolescen s
o he nega i e ai s ha cha ac e ize ejec ed eens [18].
1.2. Psychosocial Adjus men and School In eg a ion
The deg ee o social accep ance and ejec ion expe ienced by adolescen s a e key
aspec s o psychosocial adjus men a his s age o li e. S uden s wi h class oom in eg a-
ion p oblems o en epo low le els o emo ional well-being [
5
,
20
]. Nume ous indings
sugges ha he lack o social accep ance by pee s is a auma ic expe ience, associa ed wi h
a nega i e assessmen o one’s li e [
21
,
22
] and wi h g ea e emo ional dis ess [
4
,
23
]. The
lack o social accep ance by pee s has also been linked o ex e nalizing p oblems in adoles-
cence [
24
,
25
], highe le els o anxie y [
26
], ange and hos ili y [
6
]. Some au ho s also epo
ha adolescen s who a e less in eg a ed in he class oom a e p ecisely he ones mo e e-
quen ly in ol ed in iolen beha io owa ds hei pee s in he school
en i onmen [27,28]
.
Howe e , and despi e empi ical e idence showing ha online adolescen s pe pe ua e he
social ela ions ha al eady exis in he class oom [
29
], he numbe o s udies speci ically
linking sociome ic ypes wi h cybe -agg ession is s ill small.
1.3. Cybe -Agg ession and School In eg a ion
Cybe -agg ession is de ined as an agg essi e, in en ional ac ca ied ou by a g oup o
an indi idual, using elec onic o ms o con ac , epea edly and o e ime agains a ic im
who canno easily de end him o he sel [
10
,
30
]. In many cases, he e is a con inui y be ween
agg ession a school and cybe -agg ession. Thus, an adolescen ’s p oblems in school a e
ans e ed o and con inue on he In e ne [
31
]. P e ious s udies ha e epo ed ha
ejec ed s uden s use agg essi e s a egies when in e ac ing wi h hei pee s online [
32
,
33
],
ans o ming hem in u n in o adolescen s wi h low social suppo [28].
In e ms o gende -based di e ences, i has been obse ed ha gi ls end o es ablish
iendships wi h ewe pee s [
34
]. They es ablish mo e in ense and in ima e iendships,
while boys p e e o es ablish ela ionships wi h a la ge numbe o pee s [
35
]. Boys also
s a e ha hei iendships a e cha ac e ized by less exp ession o pe sonal eelings and
g ea e di icul ies in con lic esolu ion [
36
,
37
]. Likewise, i has been obse ed ha ejec ed
and neglec ed s uden s a e mos ly male, while a e age and p e e ed s uden s a e mainly
emale [
7
]. I has also been obse ed ha gi ls a e mo e likely o expe ience emo ional well-
being p oblems [38,39], al hough some s udies ha e epo ed a simila end in bo h boys
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2021,18, 108 3 o 10
and gi ls [
40
–
42
]. One con o e sial aspec conce ns he p e alence o cybe -agg ession
acco ding o gende . Some au ho s ha e obse ed ha cybe -agg ession is mo e common
in boys [
43
], while o he s ha e ound ha i is a mo e equen beha io in gi ls [
44
]. O he
au ho s ha e e en concluded ha in ol emen in cybe -agg ession is simila in boys and
gi ls [45,46].
Despi e he ele ance o he p e iously desc ibed a iables, e y ew s udies ha e
analyzed he ole played by di e en sociome ic ypes o s uden in he class oom in
he ela ionship be ween psychosocial adjus men , li e sa is ac ion and cybe -agg ession.
Mos esea ch in his ield ocuses on he psychological and social consequences o school
ejec ion [
3
,
4
,
6
]. This s udy aims o analyze he ela ionships be ween sociome ic ypes in
he class oom, ejec ed, p e e ed, neglec ed, con o e sial and a e age, wi h psychosocial
adjus men , li e sa is ac ion and cybe -agg ession based on he adolescen ’s gende . Based
on his objec i e, he ollowing hypo heses we e conside ed: (H1) S uden s wi h school
in eg a ion p oblems ( ejec ed and neglec ed) will show g ea e psychological dis ess and
less sa is ac ion wi h li e, (H2) S uden s wi h school in eg a ion p oblems ( ejec ed and
neglec ed) will ob ain highe sco es in cybe -agg ession; (H3) The ejec ed and neglec ed
sociome ic ypes will be associa ed wi h g ea e psychological dis ess and in ol emen
in cybe -agg ession, and less sa is ac ion wi h li e in boys, compa ed o gi ls.
2. Ma e ials and Me hods
2.1. Pa icipan s
The sample comp ised 2398 adolescen s o bo h sexes (49.8% gi ls) aged be ween 12
and 18 yea s (M = 16.03, SD = 1.91) who we e s udying Compulso y Seconda y Educa ion
(ESO) in nine cen e s in Andalusia (Spain). The pa icipan s a ended public (56.4%) and
semi-p i a e schools (43.5%). The pa icipan s we e selec ed by means o s a i ied andom
sampling. The sampling uni s we e geog aphic a ea (u ban o u al) and school owne ship
(public o p i a e). The size equi ed o his sample wi h a sampling e o o
±
2%, a
con idence le el o 95% and a popula ion a iance o 0.50, was 2398 adolescen s. Los
da a by scales o sub-scales, p o ided hey did no exceed 15%, we e p ocessed using he
mul iple linea eg ession impu a ion model [
47
]. Uni a ia e a ypical da a we e de ec ed
by he explo a ion o s anda dized sco es [48].
2.2. P ocedu e
A e ob aining pe mission om he schools and he ac i e consen o he amilies o
ca y ou he esea ch, he ba e y o ins umen s was adminis e ed unde he supe ision
o he esea ch s a in wo di e en sessions o app oxima ely 45 min in school hou s.
To comple e he sociome ic ques ionnai e, he s uden s we e gi en a numbe ed class
lis o w i e down he numbe s assigned o hei classma es. Each s uden was gi en a
lis and ins uc ed no o disclose hei esponses. The s udy complied wi h he e hical
p inciples es ablished by he Helsinki Decla a ion (1964): p o ec ion o pe sonal da a and
gua an ees o con iden iali y, in o med consen and he igh o in o ma ion, ee consen ,
non-disc imina ion, and he possibili y o abandoning he s udy in any o he phases.
2.3. Ins umen s
Sociome ic ype. The sociome ic ques ionnai e was used [
49
]. This ques ionnai e
consis s o 4 i ems ha , based on he “classma e” c i e ion, allowed he ollowing aspec s o
be measu ed: (a) posi i e choices (“Who would you choose as classma es?”); (b) nega i e
choices (“Who would you NOT choose as classma es?”); (c) posi i e pe cep ions (“Who
do you hink would choose you as a classma e?”); and (d) nega i e pe cep ions (“ Who
do you hink would NOT choose you as a classma e?”). The choices we e limi ed o h ee
s uden s and he o de o p e e ence was weigh ed.
Psychological dis ess. The Psychological Dis ess Scale was used [
50
]. The scale
consis s o 10 Like - ype i ems wi h i e esponse op ions (1 = ne e , 5 = always) ha
assess dep essi e and anxie y symp oms (e.g., “How o en did you eel dep essed”),
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2021,18, 108 4 o 10
Ω= 0.91
,
α= 0.87
. The con i ma o y ac o analysis (CFA) showed a good i o he model
o he SB (Sa o a-Ben le ) da a
χ2
= 309.7391, d = 30, p< 0.001, CFI = 0.960, RMSEA = 0.062,
I.C. 90 (0.056, 0.069).
Sa is ac ion wi h li e. The Sa is ac ion wi h Li e Scale [
51
], adap ed o Spanish by
A ienza e al. (2000), was used [
52
]. This scale consis s o 5 i ems wi h ou esponse op ions
(1 = s ongly disag ee and 5 = s ongly ag ee) ha p o ide a gene al index o sa is ac ion
wi h li e ela ing o he subjec i e well-being pe cei ed by he adolescen (e.g., “In mos
ways, my li e is close o my ideal”),
Ω
= 0.83,
α
= 0.76. The con i ma o y ac o analysis
(CFA) showed a good i o he model o he SB (Sa o a-Ben le ) da a
χ2
= 30.4954,
d = 5
,
p< 0.001, CFI = 0.988, RMSEA = 0.046, I.C. 90 (0.031, 0.062).
Cybe -agg ession. The Adolescen Agg ession h ough Mobile Phone and In e ne
Scale (CYB-AG: [
53
]) was used. This scale consis s o 10 i ems wi h i e esponse op ions
(
1 = ne e
and 5 = o en) ha assess he equency o pa icipa ion in agg essi e beha -
io s h ough new echnologies in he las 12 mon hs (e.g., “I ha e sen o ampe ed wi h
someone’s pho os o ideos wi hou hei pe mission”),
Ω
= 0.83,
α
= 0.81. The con i -
ma o y ac o analysis (CFA) showed a good i o he model o he SB (Sa o a-Ben le )
da aχ2= 53.8750, d = 33, p< 0.05, CFI = 0.978, RMSEA = 0.016, I.C. 90 (0.008, 0.024).
2.4. Da a Analysis
Fi s , he basic s uc u e o ela ionships in he class oom g oup was analyzed wi h
he SOCIOMET p og am [
54
]. This so wa e analyzes g oup o ganiza ion and he posi ion
occupied in same by each s uden based on he choices and ejec ions made wi h espec
o hei pee s. The i e sociome ic ypes we e ob ained om he combina ion o hese
sco es [
3
]: (1) ejec ed ( hey ecei e a signi ican ly high numbe o ejec ions),
n= 273
; (2)
p e e ed ( hey ecei e a signi ican ly high numbe o choices om hei pee s),
n= 188
;
(3) neglec ed ( he numbe o choices and ejec ions a e signi ican ly low), n= 291; (4)
con o e sial ( hey ecei e a high numbe o elec ions, bu also ejec ions), n= 86; (5)
a e age (cases no assigned o any o he p e ious ca ego ies), n= 1560 (see Table 1).
Table 1. Numbe o cases in sociome ic ype g oups.
To al Sample Rejec ed P e e ed Neglec ed Con o e sial A e age χ2
n= 273 n= 188 n= 291 n= 86 n= 1560
Gende
Boys 1203 174 78 142 58 751
χ2(4) =
38.815 ***
(50.2%) (63.7%) (41.5%) (48.8%) (67.4%) (48.1%)
Gi ls 1195 99 110 149 28 809
(49.8%) (36.3%) (58.5%) (51.2%) (32.6%) (51.9%)
No e: χ2: Chi-squa e. *** p< 0.001.
Subsequen ly, a mul i a ia e ac o ial design (MANOVA, 5
×
2) was ca ied ou wi h
he SPSS s a is ical analysis p og am ( e sion 20) conside ing he sociome ic ypes ( ejec ed,
p e e ed, neglec ed, con o e sial and a e age) and gende (boys e sus gi ls) as ixed
ac o s o analyze po en ial in e ac ion e ec s. Psychological dis ess, li e sa is ac ion and
cybe -agg ession we e ea ed as dependen a iables. Then, uni a ia e es s (ANOVAS)
we e pe o med o analyze he s a is ically-signi ican di e ences in he a iables and he
Bon e oni pos -hoc es was applied (α= 0.05).
3. Resul s
In he MANOVA, s a is ically signi ican di e ences we e ound in he main sociome -
ic e ec s (
Λ
= 0.985, F(12, 6313) = 1801, p< 0.001,
η2
p = 0.005) and gende (
Λ
= 0.981, F(3,
2386) = 15,339, p< 0.001,
η2
p = 0.019). A s a is ically signi ican in e ac ion e ec was also
obse ed be ween sociome ic ype and gende (
Λ
= 0.991,
F(12, 6313) = 1.801
,
p< 0.05
,
η2p = 0.003) (see Table 2).
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2021,18, 108 5 o 10
Table 2. MANOVA esul s o all he s udied a iables (5 a×2b).
Va iables Sou ce o Va ia ion
ΛF d be ween d e o pη2p
(A) Sociome ic Type a0.985 1801 12 6313 <0.001 *** 0.005
(B) Gende b0.981 15,339 3 2386 <0.001 *** 0.019
A×B 0.991 1801 12 6313 <0.05 * 0.003
No e: a: Rejec ed, P e e ed, Neglec ed, Con o e sial, A e age; b: Male, Female;
*** p< 0.001
;
*p< 0.05.
3.1. Sociome ic Type
The ANOVA showed signi ican di e ences in sa is ac ion wi h li e F(3, 2393) = 5760,
p< 0.001,
η2
p = 0.010 and cybe -agg ession F(3, 2393) = 4.644, p< 0.001,
η2
p = 0.008 (see
Table 3). The Bon e oni es s (
α
= 0.05) indica ed ha ejec ed s uden s had lowe li e
sa is ac ion sco es han p e e ed, a e age and neglec ed s uden s. Rejec ed s uden s also
epo ed g ea e in ol emen in cybe -agg ession han p e e ed, con o e sial and a e age
s uden s.
Table 3.
Means (S anda d De ia ions) o Sociome ic Type, and Main Uni a ia e FValues o Psychological Dis ess, Li e
Sa is ac ion, Cybe -agg ession, and Gende .
Sociome ic Types Gende
Va iables R P N C A F(3, 793) η2pGi ls Boys F(3, 793) η2p
P.D. 2.46
(0.70)
2.36
(0.66)
2.38
(0.64)
2.36
(0.63)
2.39
(0.71) 0.78 n.s. 0.001 2.22
(0.65)
2.56
(0.70) 152.748 *** 0.060
L.S. 3.13
(0.78) b
3.41
(0.68) a
3.33
(0.75) a
3.19
(0.76)
3.33
(0.75) a5.760 *** 0.010 3.33
(0.73)
3.28
(0.77) 1.952 n.s. 0.001
C1.22
(0.32) a
1.14
(0.21) b
1.16
(0.22)
1.22
(0.27) b
1.16
(0.26) b4.644 ** 0.008 1.16
(0.25)
1.18
(0.27) 3.878 * 0.002
No e: P.D. = Psychological Dis ess; L.S. = Li e Sa is ac ion; C = Cybe -agg ession; R = Rejec ed; P = P e e ed;
N = Neglec ed
;
C = Con o e sial
;
A = A e age
; a: Rejec ed, P e e ed, Neglec ed, Con o e sial, A e age; b: Male, Female; *** p< 0.001; ** p< 0.01;
*p< 0.05; a > b.
3.2. Gende
The ANOVA showed signi ican di e ences wi h espec o gende in he a iables
psychological dis ess (F(1, 2397) = 152,748, p< 0.001,
η2
p = 0.060) and cybe -agg ession
(F(1,2397) = 3.878, p< 0.05,
η2
p = 0.002). As shown in Table 3, he gi ls p esen ed highe
sco es han boys o psychological dis ess and in ol emen in cybe -agg ession.
3.3. Sociome ic Type, Cybe -Agg ession and Gende
A s a is ically signi ican in e ac ion e ec was ob ained be ween sociome ic ype and
gende in he cybe -agg ession a iable F (4, 2388) = 2.569, p< 0.05,
η2
p = 0.004. As shown
in Table 4, he esul s o he pos -hoc con as s pe o med wi h he Bon e oni es (
α
= 0.05)
indica ed ha he con o e sial boys ob ained he highes sco es in cybe -agg ession (see
Figu e 1).
Table 4. Means (S anda d De ia ions), and pos -hoc compa isons be ween sociome ic ypes, cybe -agg ession and gende .
Sociome ic Type
Va iables Gende R P N C A F(4, 2388) η2pPos Hoc
C
Boys 1.22
(0.32) 1
1.16
(0.27) 2
1.13
(0.19) 3
1.26
(0.29) 4
1.14
(0.23) 5
2.569 * 0.004
4 > 2; 9; 10
1;4;6>7
1; 4; 6; 10> 3; 5
8>3
Gi ls 1.23
(0.33) 6
1.13
(0.17) 7
1.19
(0.24) 8
1.14
(0.20) 9
1.18
(0.28) 10
No e: C = Cybe -agg ession; R = Rejec ed; P = P e e ed; N = Neglec ed; C = Con o e sial; A = A e age. * p< 0.05.

In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2021,18, 108 6 o 10
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2021, 18, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 o 11
C
Boys
1.22
(0.32)1
1.16
(0.27)2
1.13
(0.19)3
1.26
(0.29)4
1.14
(0.23)5
2.569 *
0.004
4 > 2; 9; 10
1; 4; 6 > 7
1; 4; 6; 10> 3; 5
8 > 3
Gi ls
1.23
(0.33)6
1.13
(0.17)7
1.19
(0.24)8
1.14
(0.20)9
1.18
(0.28)10
No e: C = Cybe -agg ession; R = Rejec ed; P = P e e ed; N = Neglec ed; C = Con o e sial; A = A e age. * p < 0.05.
Figu e 1. In e ac ion e ec o sociome ic ypes by gende and cybe -agg ession.
4. Discussion
The gene al aim o his s udy was o analyze he ela ionships be ween sociome ic
ypes in school ( ejec ed, p e e ed, neglec ed, con o e sial and a e age) and psycholog-
ical discom o , li e sa is ac ion and cybe -agg ession, based on he adolescen ’s gende .
The esul s showed ha sa is ac ion wi h li e and cybe -agg ession a e signi ican ly e-
la ed o he sociome ic ype. A s a is ically signi ican in e ac ion e ec was also ob ained
o he cybe -agg ession a iable.
Fi s ly, as expec ed, he s uden s wi h school in eg a ion p oblems ( ejec ed and ne-
glec ed) showed g ea e psychological dis ess and less sa is ac ion wi h li e compa ed o
he p e e ed, a e age and neglec ed s uden s. Howe e , no signi ican di e ences we e
ound o he psychological dis ess a iable, which was ound o be equi alen in he i e
sociome ic ypes. P e ious esea ch has linked ejec ion in school o emo ional p oblems
such as anxie y symp oms [26], dep ession, eelings o loneliness and s ess [55], and low
sa is ac ion wi h li e [21,22]. I is impo an o highligh ha his s udy analyzes g oup
o ganiza ion and he posi ion occupied in same by each s uden based on he choices and
ejec ions made wi h espec o hei pee s acco ding o he c i e ion o g oup wo k in
school [9]. In o he wo ds, ejec ion in school was p obably a ibu ed in his s udy o
academic easons and was no necessa ily a ibu ed o emo ional and o he aspec s e-
la ed o hei ela ionships in he g oup (e.g., companionship o sympa hy). In ou opin-
ion, his esul is in e es ing and dese es u he explo a ion, di e en ia ing ejec ion
caused by p oblems o di icul ies in in e pe sonal ela ionships om ejec ion ela ed o
academic issues.
Secondly, i was obse ed ha ejec ed s uden s we e mo e in ol ed in cybe -agg es-
sion han p e e ed, con o e sial and a e age s uden s. These esul s coincide wi h hose
desc ibed in p e ious esea ch epo ing ha cybe -bullies ha e ewe iends and ha
suppo om iends and colleagues is an impo an p o ec o agains in ol emen in
1.22
1.16
1.13
1.26
1.14
1.23
1.13
1.19
1.14
1.18
1.1
1.12
1.14
1.16
1.18
1.2
1.22
1.24
1.26
1.28
1.3
Rejec ed P e e ed Neglec ed Con o e sial A e age
Cybe -agg ession
Boys
Gi ls
Figu e 1. In e ac ion e ec o sociome ic ypes by gende and cybe -agg ession.
4. Discussion
The gene al aim o his s udy was o analyze he ela ionships be ween sociome ic
ypes in school ( ejec ed, p e e ed, neglec ed, con o e sial and a e age) and psychological
discom o , li e sa is ac ion and cybe -agg ession, based on he adolescen ’s gende . The
esul s showed ha sa is ac ion wi h li e and cybe -agg ession a e signi ican ly ela ed o
he sociome ic ype. A s a is ically signi ican in e ac ion e ec was also ob ained o he
cybe -agg ession a iable.
Fi s ly, as expec ed, he s uden s wi h school in eg a ion p oblems ( ejec ed and
neglec ed) showed g ea e psychological dis ess and less sa is ac ion wi h li e compa ed
o he p e e ed, a e age and neglec ed s uden s. Howe e , no signi ican di e ences we e
ound o he psychological dis ess a iable, which was ound o be equi alen in he i e
sociome ic ypes. P e ious esea ch has linked ejec ion in school o emo ional p oblems
such as anxie y symp oms [
26
], dep ession, eelings o loneliness and s ess [
55
], and low
sa is ac ion wi h li e [
21
,
22
]. I is impo an o highligh ha his s udy analyzes g oup
o ganiza ion and he posi ion occupied in same by each s uden based on he choices and
ejec ions made wi h espec o hei pee s acco ding o he c i e ion o g oup wo k in
school [
9
]. In o he wo ds, ejec ion in school was p obably a ibu ed in his s udy o
academic easons and was no necessa ily a ibu ed o emo ional and o he aspec s ela ed
o hei ela ionships in he g oup (e.g., companionship o sympa hy). In ou opinion, his
esul is in e es ing and dese es u he explo a ion, di e en ia ing ejec ion caused by
p oblems o di icul ies in in e pe sonal ela ionships om ejec ion ela ed o academic
issues.
Secondly, i was obse ed ha ejec ed s uden s we e mo e in ol ed in cybe -agg ession
han p e e ed, con o e sial and a e age s uden s. These esul s coincide wi h hose de-
sc ibed in p e ious esea ch epo ing ha cybe -bullies ha e ewe iends and ha
suppo om iends and colleagues is an impo an p o ec o agains in ol emen in
cybe -agg ession [
16
,
28
]. In his sense, an in e es ing s udy pe o med by W igh & Li
(2013) [
56
] epo s ha pee ejec ion could in ensi y nega i e eelings and an accumula ion
o ange and ension, hus inc easing he isk o in ol emen in cybe -agg ession. Howe e ,
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2021,18, 108 7 o 10
and con a y o expec a ions, no signi ican di e ences we e obse ed in neglec ed s uden s.
This esul may be due o he ac ha al hough hese adolescen s a e neglec ed in hei
pee g oup ( hey ecei e li le a en ion om he la e and a e no well known), hey do
no necessa ily ha e o be socially isola ed as occu s wi h ce ain ejec ed adolescen s [
9
,
17
]
and, consequen ly, hey mos likely end o a oid po en ially iolen si ua ions o a oid
unde mining hei social ne wo k o si ua ions o ic imiza ion.
In e ms o he e ec o in e ac ion be ween sociome ic ypes and gende , he esul s
pa ially con i med he hi d hypo hesis, since only one in e ac ion e ec was ob ained.
The esul s showed ha con o e sial boys had he highes sco es in cybe -agg ession,
bu in si ua ions o ejec ion gi ls and boys showed high and simila in ol emen in his
p oblema ic beha io . P e ious s udies ha e emphasized ha , al hough bo h con o e sial
and ejec ed s uden s end o be in ol ed in iolen beha io [
57
,
58
], con o e sial s uden s
a e gene ally cha ac e ized by ha ing g ea e academic skills [
15
]. Likewise, i has been
obse ed ha gi ls epo highe expec a ions o school success, academic pe o mance,
and ob ain be e e alua ions om hei pee s in academic coope a ion [
36
,
59
]. The e o e,
i is plausible o hink ha gi ls who ecei e social suppo in school a oid becoming
in ol ed in iolence o a g ea e ex en and comply wi h he no ms and ules o coexis ence
due o hei desi e o con inue o be seen and chosen as “good g oup companions” [
58
],
and due o hei in e es in and mo i a ion owa ds school [42,60].
In e ms o in e ac ion, he indings also showed ha neglec ed gi ls had highe sco es
han neglec ed boys in cybe -agg ession, while neglec ed s uden s did no di e , ega dless
o gende , so i ollows ha he nega i e impac o his pain ul and s ess ul si ua ion is
g ea e in neglec ed gi ls. In p e ious s udies, i has been obse ed ha boys a e mo e
likely han gi ls o engage in a ious o ms o di ec agg ession, ac ions di ec ly a ge ed a
he ic im (e.g., physical iolence o sending ha m ul messages and images wi hou he
need o conceal iden i y) [
32
,
60
]. Howe e , gi ls a e mo e likely han boys o ca y ou
a ious o ms o indi ec agg ession, ac ions ha allow he agg esso o hide his o he
iden i y om he ic im, some imes e en making i di icul o he ic im o know ha he
o she has been he objec o any in en ional ha m [
61
,
62
]. These ac ions include sp eading
umo s o elling o he s no o associa e wi h he ic im. I is plausible o hink ha such
g ea e in ol emen among neglec ed gi ls may s em om ange and impo ence when
aced wi h indi e ence and lack o a en ion om hei pee s; his esponse is acili a ed by
he anonymi y ha exis s in he i ual en i onmen [
63
]. Fu u e esea ch should con inue
o s udy he ole o gende and sociome ic ype in cybe iolence, aking in o accoun
whe he i is di ec o indi ec and whe he neglec ed gi ls use online agg ession as a
de ense mechanism o o espond o p e ious agg ession.
Finally, i is impo an o highligh ha he esul s ob ained in his esea ch should
be in e p e ed wi h cau ion, due o he c oss-sec ional and co ela ional na u e o he da a.
Fu u e esea ch inco po a ing he ime dimension would allow us o cla i y he di e ences
ob ained be ween he g oups. Mo eo e , he measu emen o psychological dis ess,
sa is ac ion wi h li e and cybe -agg ession a iables, as sel - epo ing measu emen s, may
en ail a ce ain bias and he e ec s o social desi abili y. This limi a ion could be esol ed
h ough he inco po a ion o di e en sou ces o in o ma ion (pee g oup, eache s, amily).
Fu u e esea ch and p e en ion and in e en ion p og ams should ake hese a iables in o
accoun while also conside ing a mul idimensional pe spec i e in eg a ing he di e en
ypes o cybe -agg esso s, hei in eg a ion in school and he di e en ial ole ha gende
socializa ion plays in s uden s.
5. Conclusions
The indings o his esea ch show ha school in eg a ion is undamen al in he
emo ional well-being and psychosocial adjus men o adolescen s. Thus, social accep ance
enhances sa is ac ion wi h li e, p obably because ha ing iends can inc ease sel -es eem
and sel -concep and hus b oaden one’s sphe e o ela ionships bo h o line and online. In
u n, ha ing mo e suppo esou ces is associa ed wi h g ea e psychosocial well-being
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2021,18, 108 8 o 10
and adjus men . In his sense, p og ams should be p omo ed o p e en social di icul ies
in he school, based on he enhancemen o social in eg a ion, no only in he class oom,
bu also online, in o de o p o ide adolescen s wi h he necessa y esou ces o help
hem educe he likelihood o in ol emen in ac s o school iolence, while p omo ing
he de elopmen o a mo e sa is ac o y school expe ience. Finally, he use o sociome y
in educa ion p o essionals is ecommended. This echnique would p o ide in o ma ion
abou each s uden , highligh ing he asc ip ion o each indi idual o a ce ain sociome ic
ype and hei dis ance om each o hei classma es, and would p o ide highly ele an
in o ma ion abou he g oup as a whole, he in e nal con igu a ion o hei ela ionships,
and hei deg ee o cohesion and cohe ence.
Au ho Con ibu ions:
Concep ualiza ion, G.M.O. and C.L.M.; me hodology, J.E.C.J.; so wa e,
J.E.C.J.; alida ion, G.M.O., E.C.P. and E.E.L.; o mal analysis, G.M.O.; in es iga ion, C.L.M.; da a
cu a ion, G.M.O.; w i ing—o iginal d a p epa a ion C.L.M.; w i ing— e iew and edi ing, G.M.O.;
isualiza ion, E.C.P. and E.E.L. supe ision, G.M.O. All au ho s ha e ead and ag eed o he published
e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding:
This s udy was unded by he p ojec “P oblema ic use o social ne wo king si es and
con inui ies be ween adi ional bullying and cybe bullying om a gende pe spec i e”- Re e ence:
UPO-1265142 [UPO/FEDER,UE].
Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d S a emen :
The s udy complied wi h he e hical p inciples es ablished
by he Helsinki Decla a ion (1964): p o ec ion o pe sonal da a and gua an ees o con iden iali y,
in o med consen and he igh o in o ma ion, ee consen , non-disc imina ion, and he possibili y
o abandoning he s udy in any o he phases.
In o med Consen S a emen :
In o med consen was ob ained om all subjec s in ol ed in he
s udy.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen : Da a sha ing is no applicable o his a icle.
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic o in e es .
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