Recei ed: 16 Decembe 2024
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Re ised: 16 Decembe 2024
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Accep ed: 27 Decembe 2024
DOI: 10.1002/ajcp.12798
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
The expe ience o mig an mo he s o A ican o igin in Spain:
A human igh s‐based app oach o men al heal h
Vi ginia Paloma
1
|Julia Jiménez‐Ceballos
1,2
|Ta iana Duque
1
|
Daniela E. Mi anda
1
1
Depa men o Social Psychology,
Uni e sidad de Se illa, Se ille, Spain
2
Spanish Red C oss, Alco con, Spain
Co espondence
Vi ginia Paloma, Cen e o Communi y
Resea ch and Ac ion a he Uni e sidad de
Se illa (CESPYD), Depa amen o de
Psicología Social, Facul ad de Psicología.
C/Camilo José Cela, s/n, 41018‐Se illa, Spain.
Email: [email p o ec ed]
Funding in o ma ion
MICIU/AEI/10.13039/501100011033/and
ERDF/EU; Uni e sidad de Se illa's O fice o
De elopmen Coope a ion; MICIU/AEI/
10.13039/501100011033/and ESF+
Abs ac
Mig an mo he s o A ican o igin (MMAO) ace mul iple si ua ions o ulne abili y
in ecei ing socie ies, wi h implica ions o hei igh o he highes le el o men al
heal h. This s udy examines he in e sec ing social de e minan s ha shape he ex-
pe iences o su e ing and well‐being exp essed by MMAO engaged in ansna ional
mo he hood in sou he n Spain. Six een MMAO use s o he Spanish Red C oss
pa icipa ed in indi idual in e iews and pho o oice‐based g oup sessions. The quali-
a i e esul s show he exis ence o an in e connec ed web o six key human igh s ha
a e o en iola ed, which impac he men al heal h o he MMAO. Specifically,
MMAO equen ly e e o hei igh s o (a) legal s a us, (b) access o decen wo k, (c)
amily eunifica ion wi h hei child en, (d) enjoying suppo i e social ne wo ks in
e ms o ansna ional ela ionships as well as ela ionships wi h o he MMAO in he
ecei ing socie y, (e) main aining hei cul u al and spi i ual oo s, and ( ) sel ‐
de e mina ion as a way o ensu e hei men al heal h. This p oposal con ibu es o he
li e a u e by o e ing a human igh s‐based app oach o he men al heal h o a pop-
ula ion ha is pa icula ly sensi i e o he in e sec ionali y o opp ession and by o -
e ing ecommenda ions o ensu ing he igh o he men al heal h o MMAO in
ecei ing socie ies.
KEYWORDS
A ica, human igh s, men al heal h, mig a ion, mo he hood, social de e minan s o men al heal h
Highligh s
•The igh o mig an mo he s o he highes le el o men al heal h mus be
gua an eed.
•The men al heal h o mig an mo he s depends on an in e connec ed web o six
key human igh s.
•Human igh s iola ions ha e a nega i e impac on he men al heal h o
mig an mo he s.
Immig a ion s a us a ec s men al heal h h ough many
mechanisms de i ed om coping wi h inequi able s uc u al,
social, poli ical, and economic o ces ha c ea e hie a chies
o powe in ecei ing socie ies (Cas añeda e al., 2015;
Lomax e al., 2022). This social g adien o p i ilege c ea es
dispa i ies in exposu e o isk and p o ec i e ac o s, wi h
implica ions o men al heal h (Shim e al., 2014). Thus,
people a he bo om su e disp opo iona ely om poo
men al heal h and common men al diso de s (Allen
e al., 2014). In pa icula , mig an mo he s o A ican o igin
(MMAO) ace mul iple si ua ions o ulne abili y—among
s esso s o mig a ion and mo he hood—du ing displace-
men and a e a i al a hei des ina ion (Benza &
Liampu ong, 2014). Se e al s udies ha e ound a high
Am J Communi y Psychol. 2025;75:409–420. wileyonlinelib a y.com/jou nal/ajcp
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p e alence o anxie y, dep ession, psychosoma ic diso de s,
o pos auma ic s ess diso de among hese women in
ecei ing socie ies (e.g., Kau mann e al., 2022). In his pa-
pe , men al heal h is defined as “as a eo well‐being in
which he indi idual ealizes his o he own abili ies, can
cope wi h he no mal s esses o li e, can wo k p oduc i ely
and ui ully, and is able o make a con ibu ion o his o
he communi y”(WHO, 2021,p.1).Theimpo anceg an-
ed o MMAO's men al heal h comes om i s influence on
one's physical heal h, ela ionships wi h o he s, p oduc i i y
achie ed a wo k, and social cohesion wi hin local commu-
ni ies (F iedli, 2009).
Faced wi h his si ua ion, he s a e is esponsible o
gua an eeing MMAO hei igh o he highes possible
le el o men al heal h. In his sense, he Uni ed Na ions
(2019)claims ha “s a es ha e a ipa i e obliga ion o
espec , p o ec , and ulfill he igh o men al heal h,
[…] [i ] equi es s a es o ensu e policies, laws, and
p ac ices ha do no hinde he p omo ion o men al
heal h o well‐being, pa icula ly o hose in he mos
disad an aged si ua ions”(a icle 18). The WHO
Comp ehensi e Men al Heal h Ac ion Plan 2013‐2030
also calls on s a es o p o ide comp ehensi e, in e-
g a ed, and esponsi e men al heal h and social ca e
se ices in communi y‐based se ings, using a human
igh s and in e sec o al amewo k (WHO, 2021).
Howe e , he MMAO can all h ough he c acks, as
hey a e pa o he g oup o mig an mo he s coming
om he Global Sou h who a e la gely igno ed by
men al heal h p og ams in he Global No h (T o ão
e al., 2017). In addi ion o he mul iple challenges hey
ace as mig an s (e.g., language ba ie s), he MMAO
also ace specific challenges ela ed o being mo he s,
being acialized, and ha ing low economic esou ces.
Thus, he MMAO ace addi ional s esso s such as he
lack o suppo ne wo ks o pa en ing, he di ficul y o
accessing decen wo k ha allows hem o balance
amily li e, he lack o access o communi y esou ces
ha mee hei and hei child en's specific needs, o he
di ficul y o accessing housing ha allows hem o
p o ide a s able and sa e home o hei amilies (Aubé
e al., 2019; Oluko un e al., 2023). The e o e, i is
necessa y o p ope ly unde s and he MMAO's psy-
chological expe ience and gua an ee hei igh o
men al heal h in ecei ing socie ies.
Al hough men al heal h needs o be unde s ood less in
e ms o indi idual pa hology and mo e as a esponse o
social injus ice (F iedli, 2009), men al heal h s udies and
in e en ions ha e adi ionally placed s ess on indi idual‐
ocused issues. This na ow ision “depoli icizes he expe i-
ence o emo ional su e ing and ails o add ess how acism,
disc imina ion, po e y, and inequali y p o oundly con ib-
u e o he de elopmen o men al heal h condi ions”
(He awi e al., 2021,p.52‐53). To o e come his and o e
e idence on he benefi s o aking a human igh s‐based
app oach o men al heal h, his s udy aims o examine (a)
he expe iences o su e ing and well‐being exp essed by
MMAO and (b) he in e sec ing social de e minan s o
men al heal h ha shape hei expe iences o su e ing and
well‐being as displaced mo he s engaged in ansna ional
mo he hood in sou he n Spain. Nex , a human igh s‐based
app oach o men al heal h is in oduced, and he li e a u e
linking mig an mo he hood wi h men al heal h is e iewed.
Then, he quali a i e me hod used o achie e objec i es is
desc ibed. Finally, he esul s a e p esen ed, and he scien ific
con ibu ions and social implica ions o ensu e he men al
heal h o MMAO om a human igh s‐based app oach a e
discussed.
A human igh s‐based app oach o men al heal h
The dominance o he biomedical model and he in-
dus y's influence on he men al heal h field ha e led o
an o e ‐emphasis on in a‐indi idual ea men s a he
expense o he social de e minan s o men al heal h
(Cosg o e & Shaughnessy, 2020). In he cu en con ex
o neolibe al policies, He awi e al. (2021) a gue ha
“ad oca ing mainly o he inc eased p o ision o psy-
chological se ices and/o psycho opic medica ions in
esponse o he dehumanizing condi ions ha immi-
g an s ace is an insu ficien esponse”(p. 56). Unde -
s anding he men al heal h o MMAO h ough a bio-
medical model igno es he mul iple challenges and
inequi able condi ions hey ace a di e en poin s in
hei jou ney and hei des ina ions, placing he espon-
sibili y o hei men al heal h s a us on he mig an
mo he s hemsel es. Based on he abo e, some au ho s
call o a new app oach o add ess he social de e mi-
nan s o men al heal h and men al heal h inequi ies
(Woods‐Jaege e al., 2020).
The social de e minan s o men al heal h a e “ hose
condi ions in which we a e bo n, g ow, li e, wo k, and
age ha ha e an impac on ou men al heal h and a e
shaped by he dis ibu ion o money, powe , and esou ces
in socie y”(Shim e al., 2014,p.18).Fo example,disc im-
ina ion, esiden ial seg ega ion, ood insecu i y, po e y,
unemploymen , lack o social ne wo ks, and poo access o
heal hca e o educa ion ha e been iden ified in he li e a u e
as social de e minan s ha need o be add essed o gua an ee
he human igh o men al heal h (Lomax e al., 2022;
Make & McShe y, 2023; Shim & Comp on, 2020). Mos
social de e minan s a e also iden ified as ma e s o human
igh s, including he igh o ood, housing, wo k, educa ion,
pa icipa ion, nondisc imina ion, p i acy, access o in o -
ma ion, o eedom o mo emen (D ew e al., 2005;Make
& McShe y, 2023). Failu e o ulfill hese human igh s has
a de imen al impac on men al heal h—as a human igh in
i sel , wi h men al heal h depending on mul iple ac o s
wi hin an in e connec ed sys em (D ew e al., 2005; Sa che
&Shim,2014). Mahomed (2020) concludes ha a human
igh s‐based app oach o men al heal h is bo h e ec i e and
necessa y o add ess s uc u al iolence in ecei ing socie ies
and i s impac on men al heal h.
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Mig an mo he s' men al heal h in ecei ing
socie ies
Se e al s udies ha e ound ha mig an mo he s a e a
high isk o men al heal h p oblems, wi h dep ession,
anxie y, psychosoma ic diso de s, and pos auma ic
s ess diso de being he main men al heal h challenges
hey ace in ecei ing socie ies (Kau mann e al., 2022;
Maye e al., 2020; Roze e al., 2020; S ewa e al., 2017;
T o ão e al., 2017). In he case o ansna ional mo h-
e hood, he li e a u e has ound high le els o guil ,
dep essi e symp oms, and emo ional dis ess among
mig an mo he s who ace long‐ e m sepa a ion om
hei child en, unde mining hei men al heal h (Li, 2023;
Pine os‐Leano e al., 2021). In addi ion, he e is e idence
o how he psychological well‐being o mig an women
has dec eased mo e han ha o men since he s a o
he measu es adop ed o comba he sp ead o he
COVID‐19 pandemic (e.g., closu e o schools), which
imposed a men al bu den specifically on mig an mo he s
(Ga ido e al., 2023). We a gue ha he nega i e psy-
chological symp oms ound in hese s udies mus be
seen as “no mal”consequences o li ing in challenging
ecei ing con ex s cha ac e ized by mul iple human
igh s iola ions (Ma ín‐Ba ó, 1986).
Fo example, mig an mo he s om Hai i who se -
led in Chile exp essed how hey su e disc imina ion,
economic ad e si y, language ba ie s, loss o signifi-
can ne wo ks o pa en ing, and lack o knowledge
abou he unc ioning o he Chilean heal h sys em. This
a ec s hei men al heal h as mo he s, which is agg a-
a ed by he ac ha hey eel challenged by he ex-
pec a ions ha he exis ing model o mo he hood in he
des ina ion coun y—di e en om ha o hei coun-
y o o igin—imposes on hem (Ca eño e al., 2022).
Simila findings we e epo ed by Del Villa ‐To ibio
e al. (2024) in Spain, whe e Senegalese mig an mo he s
exp essed how child‐ ea ing has a s onge collec i is
componen wi h ex ended amily ca e ne wo ks in he
coun y o o igin compa ed o i s mo e indi idualis ic
na u e in he des ina ion coun y. This loss o in ol e-
men in suppo ne wo ks is also accompanied by a loss
o social s a us, as hey a e no longe ecognized as
ca e s o o he child en, wi h he au ho i y ha his
implies in hei communi y. By con as , in he ecei ing
socie y, hey ha e o ace alone an o e load o ca e ha
is di ficul o econcile wi h he p eca iousness o hei
wo k. All his has a nega i e impac on MMAO's
men al heal h. In any case, mig an mo he s o en
de elop esilience in coping wi h his ad e si y by
building hei own suppo i e ne wo ks o amily and
iends, bo h locally and back a home; main aining
hei cul u al and spi i ual oo s o p ese e hei sense
o iden i y; cul i a ing hei indi idual s eng hs (e.g.,
agency, hope); and d awing mo i a ion and inspi a ion
om hei child en o main ain hei men al heal h
s a us (Aubé e al., 2019).
Based on he abo e, his s udy aims o iden i y he
in e sec ing social de e minan s ha shape he expe i-
ences o su e ing and well‐being o MMAO who ha e
le hei child en behind and who expe ience amily
sepa a ion in sou he n Spain om a human igh s‐based
app oach.
METHODS
Con ex ualiza ion
In 2023, almos 52000 mig an s—4% o hem women—
en e ed Spanish e i o y i egula ly h ough i s coas s
wi h cayucos o pa e as, an inc ease o 86% o e he
p e ious yea (Minis e io del In e io , 2024). The mig a-
ion o women o A ican o igin o Spain by sea—mainly
om Senegal, Gambia, I o y Coas , Mo occo, and
Alge ia—is mo i a ed by he desi e o access he Eu -
opean labo ma ke and imp o e he li ing condi ions o
hei amilies. Women may also mig a e o Spain o access
in e na ional p o ec ion sys ems because hey ha e su -
e ed a ious o ms o gende ‐based iolence in hei
coun ies o o igin (CEAR, 2024). They may also be ic-
ims o human a ficking, which o ces hem o mig a e in
condi ions o ex eme ulne abili y and abuse, in one o
he main a ficking ou es ac oss Sub‐Saha an A ica o
Mo occo and hen o Spain (UNODC, 2022). Once in
Spanish e i o y, hese women a e cha ac e ized by a lack
o documen a ion ha would allow hem o be iden ified,
o documen a ion ha would allow hem o eside in
Spain egula ly; a low le el o educa ion, many o hem
illi e a e; a lack o knowledge o he language o he
des ina ion coun y; a lack o social suppo ne wo ks o
assis hem; and low sel ‐es eem and di ficul y in ecog-
nizing hei own s eng hs (Spanish Red C oss, 2024).
Mo eo e , many o hese women a e p egnan , ca ing o
child en, o engaged in ansna ional mo he hood.
Spanish socie y has his o ically been open o cul u al
di e si y, bu ecen ly, an ex eme igh ‐wing pa y wi h
a clea an i‐immig a ion discou se has appea ed on he
poli ical scene and ep esen s 12.4% o he Spanish
go e nmen (Iglesias‐Pascual e al., 2021). Despi e his,
he Go e nmen o Spain suppo s a Humani a ian Ca e
P og am o p o ide fi s aid o mig an s en e ing Spanish
e i o y by sea (Minis e io de Inclusión, Segu idad
Social y Mig aciones, 2024). As pa o his Humani-
a ian Ca e P og am, he Spanish Red C oss manages
ecep ion cen e s specifically designed o mig an
women who a i e h ough he coas in a si ua ion o
high social ulne abili y. These ecep ion cen e s, loca ed
in he sou h o Spain, ca y ou a se ies o ac ions o o e
hem a fi s humani a ian esponse: (a) housing, p o-
iding hem wi h a sa e space in a ecep ion cen e whe e
hey can empo a ily eside; (b) ood, ensu ing basic
nu i ional needs; (c) basic necessi ies, such as clo hing,
blanke s, pe sonal hygiene ki s, o cleaning p oduc s;
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(d) medical ca e, acili a ing access o heal hca e o ea
possible illnesses o inju ies; (e) psychosocial suppo ,
p o iding psychological suppo o accompany he p o-
cess o auma and o he men al heal h condi ions; and
( ) educa ion, p omo ing o ma i e lea ning and pe sonal
de elopmen (Spanish Red C oss, 2024).
Pa icipan s
Ou esea ch g oup es ablished a collabo a ion ag eemen
wi h he Spanish Red C oss o his s udy. This communi y
pa ne was key in co‐c ea ing a cul u ally esponsi e,
communi y‐based da a collec ion p ocess and gaining access
o pa icipan s. Six een MMAO pa icipa ed in his s udy
h ough hei in ol emen in in‐dep h in e iews and
pho o oice‐based g oup sessions. Ou communi y pa ne
selec ed pa icipan s based on he ollowing inclusion c i e-
ia: (a) being a mig an woman om A ica, (b) being a
mo he , and (c) being a use o one o he ecep ion cen e s
managed by he Spanish Red C oss in sou he n Spain. Six
mig an mo he s we e om Senegal, h ee om I o y Coas ,
wo om Mo occo, wo om Gambia, wo om Nige ia,
and one om Alge ia. Thei ages anged om 21 o 52 yea s
old (M= 34). Fou een o he pa icipan s epo ed ha ing
been ic ims o some o m o gende ‐based iolence: se en
had su e ed iolence a he hands o hei ex‐pa ne s, ou
had su e ed emale geni al mu ila ion, one had su e ed
o ced ma iage, one had su e ed ica ious iolence, and
one had su e ed pe secu ion. All had le be ween one and
ou child en in hei coun y o o igin and we e cu en ly
engaged in ansna ional mo he hood. When hey pa ici-
pa ed in his s udy, hey had been esiding in he ecep ion
cen e o one o 5 mon hs. To p o ec he pa icipan s'
iden i ies, hei names we e eplaced by pseudonyms wi h he
names o A ican gems ones.
Ins umen
The da a collec ion o his s udy was based on wo com-
plemen a y quali a i e echniques o app oach he men al
heal h o he MMAO du ing he exe cise o hei ans-
na ional mo he hood in he ecei ing socie y. Fi s , an in‐
dep h indi idual in e iew was conduc ed wi h each pa ic-
ipan , las ing app oxima ely 1 h. The in e iew explo ed
aspec s ela ed o (a) he pa icipan s' men al heal h (e.g.,
How do you eel?), (b) he social de e minan s o hei
men al heal h (e.g., Wha di ficul ies do you encoun e in
ha ing a sa is ying mo he hood? Wha do you ely on o
cope wi h ad e si y, wha helps you o keep going as a
mo he ?), and (c) hei p oposals o imp o emen (e.g.,
Wha could be done o make you eel be e as a woman and
as a mo he ?). Second, 8 weekly pho o oice‐based g oup
sessions we e held wi h all he pa icipan s (each las ing wo
o 3 h). The fi s six pho o oice‐based g oup sessions s a ed
wi h a e e ence ques ion: (a) Wha does i mean o you o be
a mo he ? (b) Wha a e he bigges challenges o aising you
child en as you wan ? (c) Wha do you ely on in you day‐
o‐day li e o make you eel be e as a mo he ? (d) How
would you desc ibe you men al heal h? (e) Wha u u e do
you wan o you sel and you child en? and ( ) Wha
would help you aise you child en and eel be e ? Pa ici-
pan s hen ook pho os o answe he ques ion based on
hei own expe iences. Back in he g oup, each pa icipan
sha ed he pe sonal s o y h ough he pho os she had aken.
Finally, an exe cise was conduc ed o selec he pho os ha
bes ep esen ed he eelings o he g oup, c ea ing a space
o g oup dialogue on he issues aised. Thus, pho o oice
allowed us o s imula e g oup dialogue based on pho o-
g aphs aken by he pa icipan s hemsel es (Pea ce
e al., 2017;Wang&Bu is,1997). The las wo pho o oice‐
based g oup sessions we e dedica ed o he cop oduc ion o
an in o ma i e ideo led by he pa icipan s o make hei
si ua ion isible. Bo h echniques—in‐dep h indi idual in-
e iews and pho o oice‐based g oup sessions—we e acili-
a ed by A abic, F ench, English, and Wolo in e p e e s as
needed. The p esence o in e p e e s was pa icula ly
impo an o ensu e an adequa e dialogue among he pa -
icipan s in he pho o oice‐based g oup sessions, as hey
communica ed in di e en na i e languages.
P ocedu e
In‐dep h in e iews and pho o oice‐based g oup sessions
we e conduc ed in a psychologically sa e and confiden ial
space wi hin one o he ecep ion cen e s managed by he
Spanish Red C oss, whe e he pa icipan s eside. Pa i-
cipan s we e in o med o he s udy's objec i e, he ol-
un a y na u e o hei pa icipa ion, and hei igh o
wi hd aw whene e hey wished, wi hou any epe cus-
sions o hem. In o med consen was ob ained om all
pa icipan s. E hical app o al o his s udy was
ob ained om he Human Resea ch E hics Commi ee o
he Uni e si y o Se ille (0568‐N‐23).
This s udy ocuses on cap u ing he na a i es ha
eme ged in he con ex o he in‐dep h indi idual in e -
iews and pho o oice‐based g oup sessions— ocusing
specifically on he na a i es sha ed by he pa icipan s
a he han he pho os hey ook. Indi idual in e iews
and g oup dialogues we e eco ded and la e ansc ibed
in hei en i e y. To analyze he na a i es ha eme ged
om hese wo quali a i e echniques, we pe o med a
hyb id hema ic analysis. This analysis combines induc-
i e coding and deduc i e hema iza ion, allowing us o
apply heo y‐d i en concep s o da a‐d i en hemes
(Fe eday & Mui ‐Coch ane, 2006). Fo his pu pose, we
fi s ollowed he phases B aun and Cla ke (2006) sug-
ges ed o analyze he na a i es induc i ely. In his way,
h ough a p ocess o i e a i e coding o he ansc ibed
ma e ial and by g ouping na a i es in o simila hemes,
afinal lis o hemes was gene a ed ha cap u ed he
mos ep esen a i e con en s exp essed by he MMAO
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conce ning hei men al heal h, hei social de e minan s,
and he connec ions be ween hem. We hen ollowed a
deduc i e app oach o place he p e iously iden ified
hemes unde he umb ella o a heo e ical amewo k
o easons o concep ual adjus men . Specifically, he
hemes iden ified we e embedded in h ee p e‐exis ing
ca ego ies (i.e., s uc u al in eg a ion, social and cul u al
inclusion, and indi idual s eng hs). These ca ego ies
we e adap ed om he p oposals o he Eu opean
Founda ion o he Imp o emen o Li ing and Wo king
Condi ions (Bosswick & Heckmann, 2006) and he
Eu opean Commission (Huddles on e al., 2013) and
ha e been used success ully o s udy he men al heal h o
mig an s (Paloma e al., 2021).
Resea ch eam posi ionali y
This esea ch was based in he Cen e o Communi y
Resea ch and Ac ion a he Uni e si y o Se ille
(CESPYD, www.cespyd.es/en), which seeks o imp o e
he heal h and well‐being o mino i ized communi ies in
sou he n Spain. The esea ch eam includes ou women,
wo o hem mo he s (V.P. and J.J.). Two esea che s
we e bo n in Spain, in an en i onmen cha ac e ized by
in ellec ual es lessness and conce n o people in socially
ulne able si ua ions (V.P. and J.J.), while wo e-
sea che s a e o La in Ame ican o igin and ha e ex-
pe ienced mig a ion phenomena hemsel es (T.D. and
D.M.). Du ing he las decade, he esea ch eam has
played an ac i e ole in suppo ing communi y‐d i en
ini ia i es and de ending he well‐being and social jus ice
o mino i ized g oups in Colombia, he Uni ed S a es,
and Spain. This expe ience has p omo ed esea che s'
empa hy wi h MMAO, o posi ion hemsel es as allies in
hei libe a ion p ocesses, and o de elop a c i ical
app oach o men al heal h as a human igh . This may
ha e influenced how his s udy was designed and hus,
he findings gene a ed and p esen ed in his manusc ip .
RESULTS
Expe iences o su e ing and well‐being
exp essed by MMAO
In gene al, he na a i es s a e ha being a mo he is
associa ed wi h expe iencing eelings o well‐being. As
one pa icipan exp essed, “I'm happy o be a mo he ,
e y happy. I lo e child en; I lea ned o lo e hem when I
ook ca e o my siblings' child en. I el good when I
became a mo he ”(Tu quesa, 35 yea s old, one child in
Nige ia, 1 mon h in Spain; indi idual in e iew). How-
e e , he pa icipan s show how hese posi i e eelings
a e al e ed by mul iple ac o s ela ed o he lack o
gua an eed igh s in socie y. This has a nega i e impac
on he well‐being o MMAO:
The change o coun y has a ec ed me a lo .
I'm sca ed, and I eel sad. I ha e p oblems in
Mo occo, and I can' go back o see my
daugh e , bu I can' ha e he he e wi h me
ei he . Righ now, I'm e y upse inside,
hinking I don' ha e he means o pay o
my daugh e 's s udies and he educa ion.
(Zafi o, 31 yea s old, one child in Mo occo,
3 mon hs in Spain; indi idual in e iew)
In many cases, he nega i e e ec s on hei well‐being
a e so p o ound ha hey canno find he wo ds o define
wha hey eel, as Rubí says: “I can' exp ess wha I eel, I
ha e no wo ds o ell you wha I eel abou he dis ance
and sepa a ion om my child en. I eel de as a ed”
(52 yea s old, wo child en in Alge ia, 5 mon hs in Spain;
indi idual in e iew). Thus, ansna ional mo he hood
e okes mixed emo ions in he MMAO. On he one hand,
he mo he s exp ess some sense o well‐being ela ed o
eaching hei des ina ion, whe e hey expec o ha e
access o be e li ing condi ions o hemsel es and hei
child en. On he o he hand, hey a e o e whelmed by
he sadness o no being able o sha e his des iny wi h
hei child en. This is how Ópalo pu s i : “I'm happy o
be he e and ha e a di e en li e, bu knowing ha [my
son] isn' he e is e y di ficul . I eel sad ha I don' ha e
him wi h me”(33 yea s old, one child in Gambia,
1 mon h in Spain; indi idual in e iew). Simila ly, his
ambi alen expe ience linked o hei own men al heal h
as mo he s can be seen in he ollowing agmen : “Being
a mom is di ficul , bu i 's also ende o swee ; i 's wo
hings inside. On he one hand, i 's ha d because i 's a lo
o s ess, bu on he o he hand, i 's eally lo ely o be a
mom”(Ci ino, 32 yea s old, one child in Nige ia,
4 mon hs in Spain; indi idual in e iew).
This pe cep ion o ambi alence—be ween expe iences
o su e ing and well‐being—is compounded when consid-
e ing how MMAO mus na iga e ecei ing socie ies whe e
mul iple social de e minan s con e ge o impac he ex-
e cise o hei mo he hood. Specifically, he esul s show he
exis ence o an in e connec ed web o six key human igh s,
placed a h ee di e en le els o analysis, ha impac he
men al heal h o he MMAO (see Figu e 1): s uc u al
in eg a ion (legal s a us and decen wo k), social and cul-
u al inclusion ( amily eunifica ion and suppo i e social
ne wo ks), and indi idual s eng hs (cul u al and spi i ual
oo s and sel ‐de e mina ion). These esul s a e explained in
de ail below.
In e sec ing social de e minan s o he men al
heal h o MMAO
S uc u al in eg a ion
This ca ego y e e s o he social de e minan s o men al
heal h ela ed o acqui ing igh s as ci izens in he
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ecei ing socie y. Pa icipan s' na a i es o en e e o
hei igh o (a) legal s a us and (b) access o decen
wo k in he ecei ing socie y as ways o ensu e hei
men al heal h.
Re e ences o enjoying legal s a us in he ecei ing
socie y as a p e equisi e o ha ing a highe le el o
men al heal h a e e y common. As s a ed by Rubí:
My si ua ion is e y di ficul a he admin-
is a i e le el; I don' ha e pape s; o me,
he main hing is o fix my legal si ua ion, o
be able o a el o see my child en, o lea e
he coun y; I ha e los my son on he way,
bu wi hou pape s, I can' do any hing.
(52 yea s old, wo child en in Alge ia,
5 mon hs in Spain; indi idual in e iew)
I should be no ed ha mos o he pa icipan s a e in
he p ocess o o malizing hei adminis a i e si ua ion,
ha ing applied o a esidence isa o in e na ional p o-
ec ion wi h he legal assis ance o he Spanish Red C oss
(in he la e case, i hey can claim a well‐ ounded ea o
pe secu ion in hei coun ies o o igin). In he fi s case,
he compe en au ho i ies ca y ou a p ocess o e ifi-
ca ion o he in o ma ion p o ided; in he second case,
indi idual in e iews a e also conduc ed o assess he
c edibili y o he applican 's accoun . Bo h p ocesses a e
complex and can ake mo e han a yea o comple e. This
means ha du ing his wai ing pe iod, hese women
could no access o he communi y esou ces o mee hei
needs and/o en e scena ios (such as he labo ma ke )
ha would allow hem o de elop hei au onomy. Fo
his eason, access o legal s a us becomes a key objec i e
o MMAO, which would also allow hem o access o he
igh s (such as housing) and imp o e hei men al heal h:
“I I had my documen s, [my child en and I] could ha e a
house and do hings o ou sel es and no [ ecei e] e -
e y hing om he go e nmen . Tha would make me
happy and help me eel be e ”(Ci ino, 32 yea s old, one
child in Nige ia, 4 mon hs in Spain; indi idual in e iew).
Responden s also men ioned he impo ance o hei
men al heal h o ha ing access o decen wo k ha allows
hem o suppo hemsel es in he des ina ion coun y
and o con ibu e financially o aising hei child en in
hei coun y o o igin. In his ega d, Tanzani a ex-
p esses: “While I'm he e, I only hink abou ge ing a job
so I can ea n money, and wi h ha money, I can suppo
my child en in Senegal”(43 yea s old, h ee child en in
Senegal, 2 mon hs in Spain; pho o oice‐based g oup
session). Tu quesa also men ions: “All I need is o ge a
job. I I ha e a job, I can eed hem and buy hem he
hings hey need. I I ea , hey ea . I I d ink, hey d ink”
(35 yea s old, one child in Nige ia, 1 mon h in Spain;
indi idual in e iew). The pa icipan s ag ee ha his
would help o inc ease hei well‐being: “I hink I could
eel calme , easie , i I could imp o e my wo k si ua ion
o e ime”(Zafi o, 31 yea s old, one child in Mo occo,
3 mon hs in Spain; indi idual in e iew). In he same
line, Aga e also men ions:
The s ep I wan o ake o eel be e as a
mo he and a woman is o s a wo king and
cooking, wo king in he ki chen as a che o
cooking o o he s, and hen I will be able o
p o ide a home and a house o my amily
and ea n money o i . (26 yea s old, one
child in Gambia, 4 mon hs in Spain;
pho o oice‐based g oup session)
FIGURE 1 A human igh s‐based app oach o men al heal h o mig an mo he s o A ican o igin in Spain.
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Social and cul u al inclusion
This ca ego y co esponds o he social de e minan s o
men al heal h associa ed wi h suppo i e communi y
se ings in he ecei ing socie y. In he pa icipan s' na -
a i es, common e e ences a e linked o hei igh s o
(a) amily eunifica ion wi h hei child en and (b) he
enjoymen o suppo i e social ne wo ks as ways o en-
su e hei men al heal h.
Being able o enjoy amily eunifica ion in he ecei ing
socie y is a igh equen ly ci ed by pa icipan s as a p e-
equisi e o hei men al heal h. The nega i e impac o
sepa a ion om child en on mo he s' well‐being is e idenced
by he ac ha many mo he s bu s in o ea s o became
silen o a ew minu es o calm hemsel es when e-
membe ing hei child en du ing he da a collec ion p ocess.
The ollowing exce p cap u es some o hese emo ions:
The dis ance is ha d [ o bea ] because hey
a e a away om me, and I can' ake ca e
o hem. I hink abou how o b ing hem
o e all he ime. I'm wo ied, and I'm always
aking sleeping pills. […] They only ha e me,
and I hink a lo abou when I can b ing my
child en he e o Spain. (Tanzani a, 43 yea s
old, h ee child en in Senegal, 2 mon hs in
Spain; indi idual in e iew)
Du ing he g oup sessions, one o he pa icipan s also
men ioned: “Wha would make me eel good is o ha e my
child en oge he and ake ca e o hem. Tha 's wha would
make me happy”(Ama an a, 34 yea s old, h ee child en in
Senegal, 4 mon hs in Spain; pho o oice‐based g oup ses-
sion). While ha ing legal s a us and a decen job is
impo an and meaning ul, o mos pa icipan s, i is only
a p econdi ion o mo ing in he di ec ion hey eally wan
o go: euni ing wi h hei child en and immedia e amily. I
is impo an o emphasize ha he MMAO's s a egy o
mig a ing wi hou hei child en is based on ca e ul amily
planning ha allows hem o: (a) fi s se le mo e easily in
he ecei ing socie y, ensu ing he sending o egula
emi ances ha imp o e hei child en's li ing condi ions
be o e hey can join hem; (b) minimize he isks associa ed
wi h a dange ous, complex, and cos ly mig a ion ou e; and
(c) amilia ize hemsel es wi h he no ms o he ecei ing
socie y, es ablishing suppo ne wo ks and esou ces be o e
acing he challenges o in eg a ing hei child en in o a new
cul u al and educa ional en i onmen . The ollowing ex-
ce p summa izes his desi e o he pa icipan s o exe cise
hei igh o amily eunifica ion, linking i o he igh s
men ioned ea lie —legal s a us and access o decen
wo k—as a way o imp o e hei men al heal h:
Ob iously, i 's a si ua ion ha wo ies me a
lo . I makes me sad because hey [my
daugh e s] a e no wi h me. Someday, we'll
mee again. I wan o eel like I ha e a amily
and eel he wa m h o my amily. The only
solu ion I'm hinking abou is o wo k, eg-
ula ize my pape s, and be able o eg oup
hem he e wi h me. (Co al, 34 yea s old, wo
child en in Mo occo, 4 mon hs in Spain;
indi idual in e iew).
Ano he pa icipan exp essed his same idea in hese
e ms: “I canno sleep some days hinking abou my
child en; i hu s me no o ha e hem wi h me […] The
p oblem is ha I don' ha e he documen s, and I can'
b ing my son he e o educa e him”(Espinela, 43 yea s
old, ou child en in Senegal, 4 mon hs in Spain; indi-
idual in e iew).
In addi ion, suppo i e social ne wo ks a e e y impo -
an o he pa icipan s' men al heal h, especially in e ms
o main aining a ansna ional ela ionship wi h hei chil-
d en's ca egi e s in he coun y o o igin, as well as es ab-
lishing ela ionships wi h o he MMAO in he ecei ing
socie y. Fi s , he na a i es epea edly men ion he
impo ance o hei men al heal h—as a bu e —o eeling
ha hei child en a e ca ed o by hei own mo he s—o
o he close ela i es—in hei coun ies o o igin. This is
how Jade exp esses i : “I eel eassu ed because my mo he
is aking ca e o my son. I'm happy because I know he's
well ca ed o . He goes o school wi h my siblings and li es
a good li e”(29 yea s old, one child in I o y Coas ,
4 mon hs in Spain; indi idual in e iew). On he o he
hand, i is also a sou ce o conce n when hey canno send
financial suppo o hei child en and hei ca egi e s in
he coun y o o igin:
Bu I ha e o keep helping by sending money
o hei educa ion and ood. Tha 's my
p oblem now. My daugh e and my mo he
need money o li e on, and I can' a o d i .
My mo he is he one who pays o e e y-
hing. And now I'm ying o figu e ou wha
I can do. I'm wo ied abou hem.
(Tu quesa, 35 yea s old, one child in Nige ia,
1 mon h in Spain; indi idual in e iew)
Second, he oppo uni y o in e ac wi h o he MMAO
in he ecei ing communi y p o ides pa icipan s wi h an
impo an sou ce o emo ional suppo ha posi i ely
impac s hei men al heal h. As G ana e says: “When I eel
lonely and sad, and I hink abou my son, my oomma es
a home alk ome ogi emead ice, hey ellme ha
1 day, all his will end and ha I ha e hei suppo ”
(21 yea s old, one child in Senegal, 2 mon hs in Spain;
indi idual in e iew). In his sense, some MMAO men-
ioned he impo ance o pa icipa ing in he pho o oice‐
based g oup sessions o hei men al heal h by connec ing
wi h o he mo he s in he same si ua ion:
On F idays, when we mee wi h o he
mo he s, i helps me ealize ha I am no he
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only mo he going h ough hese si ua ions
alone. Be o e, I always hough abou all
he bad hings I had, and now I y o see he
good hings I ha e, like his cen e and he
mee ings. So I'm be e o han be o e, and I
eally app ecia e F idays because I eel ha
[ he mee ings] help me a lo . (Ama an a,
34 yea s old, h ee child en in Senegal,
4 mon hs in Spain; indi idual in e iew).
In some cases, building ela ionships wi h o he
MMAO has led o o ming mu ual suppo ne wo ks in
esponse o he s uc u al opp essions ha hinde eal-
izing hei igh s. These ne wo ks ha e s eng hened he
women's sel ‐de e mina ion and imp o ed hei men al
heal h. As he ollowing exce p illus a es:
Being a mo he has gi en me esponsibili y.
I' e always been able o mee my kids' needs.
Tha mo i a ed me o be pa o a women's
associa ion. I 's a suppo ne wo k made up
o mo he s o sa e money. E e y en days,
we sa e an amoun o money, and we ake
u ns dis ibu ing i among he associa es.
(Espinela, 43 yea s old, ou child en in
Senegal, 4 mon hs in Spain; indi idual
in e iew)
Indi idual s eng hs
This ca ego y e e s o mig an s' pe sonal esou ces o
coping wi h ad e si ies in he new socie y ha a ec hei
men al heal h. The pa icipan s' na a i es con ain
common e e ences o hei igh o (a) main ain hei
cul u al and spi i ual oo s and (b) sel ‐de e mina ion.
The pa icipan s s a e ha i is e y impo an o
hei men al heal h o be able o main ain hei cul u al
and spi i ual oo s in a non‐disc imina o y ecei ing
socie y. Thus, he possibili y o deploying hei cul u al
and spi i ual p ac ices in he des ina ion coun y is a
ac o ha posi i ely a ec s he men al heal h o he
MMAO. In he na a i es, his elemen is p esen ed as an
impo an coping s a egy:
When I'm anxious and s essed, I y o go
ou , go o a walk, and, because I'm a
Muslim, I p ay and medi a e o find he ai h
I need. When I'm no eeling well, I do hose
li le hings ha I know can change ha
inne pain. (Rodoli a, 42 yea s old, wo
child en in I o y Coas , 3 mon hs in Spain;
indi idual in e iew)
Pa icipan s ecognize ha he spi i ual educa ion
ecei ed a home p o ides hem wi h some ools o ace
he challenging si ua ions hey expe ience in he ecei ing
socie y: “My s eng h is my ai h. I was bo n in o a
amily o belie e s, so belie ing in God makes you
s ong”(Ama an a, 34 yea s old, h ee child en in Sen-
egal, 4 mon hs in Spain; indi idual in e iew). A he
same ime, hese spi i ual oo s help hem o unde s and
and make sense o wha is happening o hem, as
G ana e men ions: “Wha s eng hens me nowadays is
ha I ha e ai h, I belie e in God. E e y hing ha
happens in my li e is o some pu pose”(21 yea s old,
one child in Senegal, 2 mon hs in Spain; indi idual
in e iew). This p ac ice is also ansmi ed ansna ion-
ally o hei child en, which makes hem eel psycho-
logically good by main aining an ac i e pa en ing ole
despi e he dis ance and p o iding hem wi h spi i ual
guidance: “I makes me eel good ha my child en ha e a
good eligious o ien a ion […] Wha I do om he e is
call hem up in he mo nings, and we p ay o e he
phone”(Espinela, 43 yea s old, ou child en in Senegal,
4 mon hs in Spain; indi idual in e iew).
In addi ion, he pe cep ion o being able—o no — o
exe cise hei igh o sel ‐de e mina ion a ec s he pa -
icipan s' men al heal h. Some MMAO demons a e a
high capaci y o sel ‐de e mina ion, clea ly a icula ing
wha hey wan o achie e o hemsel es and hei
child en, which helps hem o esis opp ession and figh
o he ulfillmen o hei igh s: “Yes, I don' jus hink
[ ha my kids and I will ha e a good u u e], I know i . I'll
make ha happen; hey' e e y sma . I jus need o wo k
ha d o hem o make ha happen”(Tu quesa, 35 yea s
old, one child in Nige ia, 1 mon h in Spain; indi idual
in e iew). In he same di ec ion, Zafi o exp esses:
The u u e I wan o my daugh e is o he
o be g ea , o flou ish, and o be a lawye in
he u u e. I am going o wo k ha d o
achie e he d eams and mine because I
belie e ha I ha e he s eng h o do so.
(31 yea s old, one child in Mo occo,
3 mon hs in Spain; pho o oice‐based g oup
session)
Howe e , pa icipan s o en find hei igh o sel ‐
de e mina ion limi ed o e ime, as i is closely linked o
he iola ion o o he igh s, such as lack o access o
legal s a us,decen wo k,o amily eunifica ion. These
condi ions lead MMAO o eel apped in an in e -
connec ed web o human igh s iola ions and unable o
ac o imp o e hei cu en si ua ion and ha o hei
child en, which nega i ely impac s hei men al heal h.
As Rubí s a es:
I 's jus ha my si ua ion [lack o legal s a-
us] doesn' allow me o con ibu e any hing
o imp o e any hing. On he con a y, [my
child en] a e he ones who a e ying o help
me; hey a e e y wo ied abou me. I wish I
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had my pape s o gi e hem a hand […]I
can' do any hing o ake ca e o hem […],
and ha a ec s me because I'm he mo he .
I 's e y ha d [c ying]. (52 yea s old, wo
child en in Alge ia, 5 mon hs in Spain;
indi idual in e iew)
DISCUSSION
This s udy aimed o examine he men al heal h expe i-
enced by he MMAO and he in e sec ing social de-
e minan s ha shape hei expe iences o su e ing and
well‐being as mig an mo he s engaged in ansna ional
mo he hood in sou he n Spain. The MMAO in ou s udy
expe ienced an ambi alen pe cep ion o su e ing and
well‐being, o en shaped by being be ween wo places a
once—li ing in a ecei ing con ex s uggling o ulfill
hei basic human igh s, bu wi h he expec a ion o
being able o access be e li ing condi ions o hem-
sel es and hei child en, along wi h he pain o being
physically sepa a ed om hei child en and hei coun-
y o o igin. This aligns wi h o he s udies finding sig-
nifican emo ional dis ess—sadness, hopelessness, di fi-
cul y sleeping, and sense o loss—among mig an
mo he s in ecei ing socie ies (e.g., Pine os‐Leano
e al., 2021). Despi e he di e si y o mo he hood ex-
pe iences, we ound common pa e ns ha allow us o
iden i y an in e connec ed web o six key human igh s
ha a e o en iola ed and ha help explain he expe i-
ences o su e ing and well‐being ound in he MMAO in
sou he n Spain: s uc u al in eg a ion (legal s a us and
decen wo k), social and cul u al inclusion ( amily
eunifica ion and suppo i e social ne wo ks), and indi-
idual s eng hs (cul u al and spi i ual oo s and sel ‐
de e mina ion). Unde s anding he men al heal h o he
MMAO h ough his human igh s‐based app oach allows
us o iden i y he mul iple challenges and inequi able con-
di ions hey ace a hei des ina ions and o highligh he
esponsibili ies o ecei ing socie ies conce ning hei men-
al heal h s a us. Thus, his s udy p o ides e idence o how
he le el o social (in)jus ice o ecei ing socie ies is closely
ela ed o he men al heal h o MMAO, highligh ing he
undamen al ole o social de e minan s in men al heal h
(Paloma e al., 2014,2021).
F om his app oach, ou findings also ecognize he
ac i e ole ha MMAO de elop in hei ela ionship wi h
he challenging en i onmen , especially in cul i a ing
hei suppo i e social ne wo ks and cul u al and spi i-
ual oo s. These ac o s appea in he li e a u e as
impo an s a egies o esis ance o opp ession among
mig an s in ecei ing socie ies (Buckingham e al., 2021;
Del Villa ‐To ibio e al., 2024). The na u e o MMAO
ne wo ks p o ides hem wi h a sou ce o psychological
well‐being by sha ing hei indi idual s uggles and
aspi a ions wi h pee s who find solace in mu ual
ecogni ion and a sou ce o s eng h in imagining a be e
li e o hei child en, which jus ifies hei mig an jou -
ney. The impo ance o ha ing ansna ional amily ies
o MMAO's men al heal h, along wi h suppo i e con-
nec ions wi h o he mig an women in he ecei ing
socie y, was also ound in he con ex o La ina mo he s
in he Uni ed S a es (Rios‐Casas e al., 2020) and mig an
mo he s wi h di e se cul u al backg ounds in Aus alia
(Renzaho & Old oyd, 2014). O he s udies also e ealed
hese suppo i e spaces' ole as “a ec i e sanc ua ies”in
he ecei ing socie y (Biglin, 2021). Rega ding cul u al
and spi i ual oo s, ou findings a e consis en wi h o he
s udies, such as ha o T o ão e al. (2017), which em-
phasizes ha mos mig an mo he s mobilize hei own
spi i ual coping esou ces o add ess hei high le els o
psychological dis ess in he ecei ing socie y, a he han
u ning o men al heal h p o essionals.
The esul s ound in his s udy sugges ha guidelines
o p omo ing he posi i e men al heal h o MMAO
equi e mul ile el, sys emic, inno a i e s a egies o
o e come he dominan indi idualis ic iew in men al
heal h ca e and o add ess he non ulfillmen o human
igh s closely linked o men al heal h. Tha is, i is
impo an o conside he s uc u al ac o s ha a e he
oo causes o su e ing among he MMAO, adop ing
“an in eg a ed app oach o men al heal h ca e ha
mo es away om psychia ic ca e only”(Ca a
e al., 2005, p. 12). In pa icula , he adequa e p o ision
o se ices aimed a imp o ing he MMAO's men al
heal h equi es he de elopmen o flexible communi y‐
based ca e models ha maximize he s eng hs,
esou ces, and ad ocacy capaci y o he MMAO hem-
sel es o figh o hei igh s and he igh s o hei
child en. In ou s udy, he Spanish Red C oss has played
an impo an media ing ole in c ea ing spaces o he
MMAO o enhance hei indi idual s eng hs and sup-
po i e social ne wo ks o e iew hei cu en ci cum-
s ances in he ecei ing con ex s, ex ending o a b oade
igh s‐based scena io—as his s udy e idence. Fu u e
conside a ions should explo e he o ganiza ion's ole in
connec ing MMAO use s o o he empowe ing commu-
ni y se ings in ecei ing con ex s, as his can suppo
hei igh o men al heal h.
In addi ion, suppo o ealizing ci il, poli ical,
economic, social, and cul u al igh s mus be conside ed
a men al heal h in e en ion (Mahomed, 2020). This
equi es es ablishing a collabo a i e in e sec o al pa -
ne ship o he sus ainable p omo ion o men al heal h in
socie y (Walke e al., 2005; WHO, 2022). In e sec o al
pa ne ships ha ins iga e p ocesses ha coc ea e e i-
dence o ad oca e o a jus ecei ing con ex can add ess
he mul i ace ed, in e connec ed na u e o he MMAO's
expe iences as he exis ing s uc u es become inc easingly
esponsi e o hei needs (Mi anda e al., 2020).
S eng hening mu ual ecogni ion among pee s, e-
sea che s, and ca e p o ide s can suppo he cop o-
duc ion o dissemina ion ma e ials o p omo e he igh
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