Radia ion Physics and Chemis y 217 (2024) 111464
A ailable online 9 Decembe 2023
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Con inuous and pulsed as neu on beams a he CNA HiSPANoS acili y
M.A. Millán-Calladoa,b, C. Gue e oa,b,∗, B. Fe nándezb, J. Gómez-Camachoa,b, M. Macíasa,b,
J.M. Quesadaa
aDp . Física A ómica, Molecula y Nuclea (FAMN), Facul ad de Física. Uni e sidad de Se illa (US), 41012 Se ille, Spain
bCen o Nacional de Acele ado es (CNA) (US-Jun a de Andalucía-CSIC), 41092 Se ille, Spain
ARTICLE INFO
Keywo ds:
Fas neu ons beam
Neu on de ec ion
Time-o - ligh
2H(d,n)
Li(d,n)
Be(d,n)
ABSTRACT
The cha ac e is ics o he as neu on beams p oduced in he HiSPANoS acili y a Cen o Nacional de
Acele ado es (CNA) a e p esen ed. The neu ons a e gene a ed by deu e on beams om a 3 MV andem
accele a o in ei he con inuous (5 μA) o pulsed (2 ns wid h, 500 kHz and 4% du y cycle) mode. In his
wo k, he pulsed mode was used in a ime-o - ligh cha ac e iza ion o he p oduced neu on beams in e ms
o yield, lux, ene gy esolu ion, and backg ound. The esul s we e hen alida ed h ough hei compa ison
wi h p e iously published da a.
Quasi-monoene ge ic neu on beams be ween 2 and 6 MeV a e p oduced by means o he 2𝐻(𝑑, 𝑛)3𝐻𝑒
eac ion, ea u ing a neu on yield o 106n/s /μ𝐶a he a ge , wi h an ene gy esolu ion o abou 7%
a 150 cm. Neu on beams wi h b oad ene gy dis ibu ions a e p oduced by deu e on i adia ion o hick
be yllium and li hium a ge s, esul ing in maximum neu on ene gies o 10 and 20 MeV, espec i ely. In his
case, he neu on yields a e signi ican ly highe , eaching 1010 n/s /μ𝐶.
On he basis o hese esul s, we conside ha he HiSPANoS acili y is now ully ope a ional o he usage
o as neu ons by in e nal and ex e nal use s o CNA.
1. In oduc ion
The e is a g owing in e es in compac accele a o -based neu on
sou ces (CANS) as a complemen o majo acili ies, especially o sup-
po la ge-scale spalla ion neu on sou ces o basic esea ch, echnical
de elopmen s, ma e ial analysis, and ins umen a ion (Ande son e al.,
2016).
The ele an cha ac e is ics o neu on beams (ene gy, lux, and
esolu ion) a y signi ican ly. Howe e , di e en applica ions ha e di -
e en equi emen s in e ms o hese cha ac e is ics. Rega ding neu on
ene gy, as neu ons in he MeV ange play a ole in ission, usion,
ma e ial i adia ion, de ec o cha ac e iza ion, adia ion- o-elec onic
(R2E) s udies, adiop o ec ion, dosime y, and o he s (Ande son e al.,
2016). Rega ding he ime s uc u e o he beams, pulsed beams a e
mo e sca ce compa ed o he widesp ead con inuous neu on beams,
bu hei a ailabili y opens an addi ional b oad ange o esea ch lines
and applica ions.
To his end, neu on beams ha e o be p oduced ou o pulsed ion
beams, inhe i ing hei empo al s uc u e. This pulsed s uc u e makes
i possible o know he momen a which all he neu ons a e emi ed
om he a ge , hence enabling he possibili y o knowing hei kine ic
ene gy (which is c ucial in many cases) om he co esponding ime-
o - ligh (TOF). Fu he mo e, he ime-o - ligh echnique allows o
∗Co esponding au ho a : Dp . Física A ómica, Molecula y Nuclea (FAMN), Facul ad de Física. Uni e sidad de Se illa (US), 41012 Se ille, Spain.
E-mail add ess: [email p o ec ed] (C. Gue e o).
s udying he cha ac e is ics o he neu on beams p oduced, which is
essen ial no only o he co esponding ime-o - ligh expe imen s bu
also o planning and analyzing expe imen s wi h con inuous neu on
beams.
HiSPANoS is he i s accele a o -d i en neu on sou ce in Spain and
is capable o deli e ing bo h con inuous and pulsed neu on beams. I
is ins alled in he 3 MV Tandem accele a o sys em a Cen o Nacional
de Acele ado es (CNA, Se ille, Spain) (Gómez-Camacho e al.,2021),
a use acili y included in he Spanish ICTS ca alog (ca alog o singula
scien i ic and echnological acili ies).
P e ious expe imen s ha e been ca ied ou wi h con inuous neu-
on beams, wi h ei he he mal (see I azola e al.,2016 ela ed o
de ec o cha ac e iza ion), epi he mal (see P aena e al.,2013,2014 o
ac i a ion c oss-sec ion measu emen s), o as neu ons (see Malagón
e al.,2017;Millán-Callado e al.,2019 o neu on i adia ion and
neu on imaging s udies). In a i s commissioning campaign o he
pulsing sys em, Macías e al. (2020) comple ed he cha ac e iza ion
o pulsed epi he mal neu on beams p oduced ia he Li(p,n) eac ion
nea i s h eshold. In his con ex , he neu on ield o he named
eac ion a 1950 keV, in e es ing o BNCT (Bo on Neu on Cap u e
The apy) s udies, was expe imen ally measu ed by he ime-o - ligh
h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j. adphyschem.2023.111464
Recei ed 21 June 2023; Recei ed in e ised o m 20 Sep embe 2023; Accep ed 8 Decembe 2023
Radia ion Physics and Chemis y 217 (2024) 111464
2
M.A. Millán-Callado e al.
Fig. 1. Schema ic iew o he CNA Tandem accele a o , wi h he HiSPANoS neu on beamline a he a le end. The posi ion o he neu on de ec o s and he elec onic chain
used du ing he commissioning is also indica ed.
echnique (Macías e al.,2021). In he wo k p esen ed he ein, he puls-
ing sys em is used o cha ac e ize, ia ime-o - ligh , he wide a ie y
o as neu on beams ha can be p oduced om deu e on-induced
eac ions on D, Li, and Be a ge s.
In he p esen wo k, he acili y and he expe imen al se -up a e
desc ibed in Sec ion 2. The esul s and hei compa ison o he ex-
pec a ions and da a om li e a u e o quasi-monoene ge ic and b oad
ene gy neu on beams a e p esen ed in Sec ions 3and 4, espec i ely.
Finally, in Sec ion 5 he esul s a e summa ized and he ou look o he
esea ch wi h as neu on beams a HiSPANoS is p esen ed.
2. Expe imen al se up
2.1. The 3 MV andem accele a o
The accele a o sys em a CNA is a 3 MV 9SDH-2 Pelle on om
Na ional Elec os a ics Co p. (NEC) capable o accele a ing di e en ion
species by making use o i s h ee di e en ion sou ces. In pa icula ,
SNICS-II is a Cs spu e ing sou ce capable o p oducing bo h p o on and
deu e on beams wi h cu en s up o se e al ens o μA. The ion sou ce
is connec ed o an injec ion magne ha de lec s he desi ed nega i e
ions owa d he en ance o he 3 MV andem. In he HV e minal
(in he middle o he accele a ion ank), he ion cha ge changes in o
posi i e due o he elec on s ipping p ocess ha occu s in he N2gas,
allowing he ions o be accele a ed h ough he same high po en ial
wice, eaching a maximum o 6 MeV, in he case o p o ons and
deu e ons, when e minal ol age is se o i s nominal maximum o
3 MV. A he exi o he accele a o ank, a Wien il e and a 90-deg ee
analyzing magne selec he equi ed ion species. The beamline can
ei he be de lec ed by he magne o he 90-deg ee expe imen al lines
o passed di ec ly o a 0-deg ee beamline, whe e he HiSPANoS neu on
beamline is loca ed (Fig. 1).
2.1.1. HiSPANoS neu on beamline
The HiSPANoS neu on beamline is placed a 0 deg ees om he
accele a o ank. The line is equipped wi h elemen s o s ee ing and
moni o ing he beam such as Fa aday cups (FC) and beam p o ile
moni o s (BPM). A as pickup, nea he e y end o he line, allows
moni o ing he passage o pulsed ion beams. To shape he ion beam, Ta
sli s and a 350 μm Al collima o wi h a a iable opening a e a ailable
(Fig. 1).
The a ge s o p oducing neu ons a e held a he end o he
beamline, a ∼15 cm om he collima o , and elec ically isola ed om
Fig. 2. Pic u e o he expe imen al se -up a HiSPANoS.
he es o he beamline by a ce amic piece, hus allowing beam cu en
moni o ing. A ol age o −300 V is applied o he collima o in o de
o p e en he loss o seconda y elec ons emi ed in he beam– a ge
in e ac ion, which would cause an o e es ima ion o he beam cu en .
The neu on p oduc ion a ge is hen connec ed o an ORTEC 439
Digi al Cu en In eg a o module, which p oduces a logic signal when
a o al cha ge o choice (usually se o 0.1 nC) is accumula ed (Fig. 1).
2.1.2. HiSPANoS pulsing sys em and expe imen al a ea
The accele a o , as desc ibed abo e, allows o con inuous ope a-
ion, p oducing con inuous neu on beams. Howe e , a ecen upg ade
allows o pulsed ion beams, hence opening he doo o ime-o - ligh
expe imen s.
This sys em, om NEC as well, is ins alled a he low ene gy s age
o he accele a o , be ween he ion sou ces and he accele a o ank
(Fig. 1, see de ails in Fe nández e al.). I consis s o a choppe and
a bunche . The i s elemen , he choppe , elec os a ically de lec s he
ion beam ou o he beamline wi h a equency o choice ( om 32.2 kHz
o 2 MHz), p oducing ion pulses wi h a a iable wid h om 40 o
250 ns. Then, he pulsed ion beam is comp essed by he bunche , so
ha he ini ial pulse wid h o ens o ns is educed o abou 2 ns by
he ime i eaches he neu on p oduc ion a ge , a he end o he
beamline.
The HiSPANoS expe imen al a ea is in a co ne o he accele a o
hall (see Fig. 2). The a ge lies a 125 cm om he loo , wi h he wo
nea es walls a 4 m and he u hes ones a 16 m. This allows o
a maximum ligh pa h o up o 3 m in he o wa d di ec ion. Longe
Radia ion Physics and Chemis y 217 (2024) 111464
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M.A. Millán-Callado e al.
Table 1
Summa y o he main eac ions and a ge s used o as neu on p oduc ion a HiSPANoS.
Reac ion Q- alue E𝑡ℎ Ta ge
(MeV) (MeV) Ma e ial Thickness Diame e
2𝐻(𝑑, 𝑛)3𝐻𝑒 3.27 0.0 D/Ti 546 μg/cm230 mm
9𝐵𝑒(𝑝, 𝑛)9𝐵−1.85 2.06 Be 500 μm 25 mm
9𝐵𝑒(𝑑, 𝑛)10𝐵4.36 0.0
7𝐿𝑖(𝑝, 𝑛)7𝐵𝑒 −1.64 1.88 Li 500 μm 25 mm
7𝐿𝑖(𝑑, 𝑛)8𝐵𝑒 15.03 0.0
ligh pa hs a e a ailable a o he angles, o ins ance, measu emen s
a up o 4 m ha e been pe o med a 60 deg ees.
2.2. Neu on p oduc ion eac ions and a ge s
The e a e many nuclea eac ions ha esul in he emission o neu-
ons. Conside ing he cha ac e is ics o he CNA’s andem accele a o ,
he mos p oli ic neu on p oduc ion co esponds o deu e ons impac -
ing on a hick a ge o ei he Li o Be. In addi ion, i is o en needed
o make i adia ion o de ec o calib a ions wi h quasi-monoene ge ic
neu on beams, which can be achie ed wi h deu e ons impinging on
ei he 2H o 3H hin a ge s; howe e , he use o he la e a CNA is
no cu en ly easible due o adiop o ec ion issues.
The eac ions employed o as neu on p oduc ion a HiSPANoS
and he de ails o he co esponding a ge s a e summa ized in Table 1:
•The Be and Li a ge s a e sel -sus ained oils in which he deu e on
beam is ully s opped. They a e a ached o a 500 μm hick coppe
backing ha closes he beamline, keeping i in acuum. In he
case o Li, a esh disk is p oduced o each expe imen due o he
e y apid oxida ion o me allic Li. The a ge holde , designed
as desc ibed in (P aena e al.,2013) bu made o Al ins ead o
Cu, allows o ei he ai o wa e cooling, he la e necessa y o
con inuous i adia ion o he Li a ge (which mel s a 180 ◦C)
wi h high cu en .
•The hin deu e ium a ge is a comme cially a ailable design
by SODERN (see Monning e al.,2002 o de ails) in which he
deu e ium is deposi ed in a i anium mesh o 30 mm in diame e
a ached o a 3 mm hick aluminum backing (D/Ti = 1.6). In
his case, he beam a e ses he hin D/Ti mesh and, depending
on he beam ene gy, can p oduce spu ious neu ons h ough
eac ions in bo h Ti and Al. To sub ac hose om he 2H(d,n)
neu ons, a blank ‘‘dummy’’ a ge has been used.
2.3. De ec ion sys em
Among he di e en ypes o as neu on de ec o s a ailable, liquid
scin illa o s o 2‘‘x2’’ by SCIONIX ha e been chosen o commissioning
HiSPANoS. In compa ison o ission chambe s, hese de ec o s a e
comme cially a ailable, ea u e la ge e iciencies ( hickness can be
chosen on demand), a e easy o ope a e, and allow implemen ing a ays
co e ing simul aneously se e al angles and ligh pa h dis ances. In his
case, a o al o h ee scin illa o s, one EJ-301 (Tadeo-1) and wo EJ-309
(Tadeo-2 and Tadeo-3), all coupled o as pho omul iplie s Model No.
9214 om ET En e p ises, ha e been used a di e en dis ances and
angles om he neu on sou ce.
The mos ele an cha ac e is ics o a neu on de ec o used in
neu on lux measu emen s a e i s neu on de ec ion e iciency and i s
capaci y o dis inguish be ween neu on and 𝛾- ay signals using Pulse
Shape Disc imina ion (PSD).
2.3.1. De ec o e iciency
The o ganic liquid scin illa o s used in his wo k a e based on he
de ec ion o he signal p oduced mainly by he nuclea ecoils when a
Fig. 3. Neu on e iciency o an EJ-309 2‘‘x2’’ o ganic liquid de ec o om Pino e al.
(2014) (wi h 7% accu acy), o he wo ene gy h esholds used (200 and 300 keVee).
The solid lines co espond o analy ical i s wi h 9 h deg ee polynomials.
neu on unde goes elas ic sca e ing wi h he H o C nuclei o he ma-
e ial. As he signal ampli ude depends on he ene gy o he incoming
neu on, so does he de ec ion e iciency, which is signi ican ly a ec ed
by he de ec ion h eshold applied. Since he de ec o s ha e no been
absolu ely calib a ed in a e e ence labo a o y, he e iciency epo ed
by Pino e al. Pino e al. (2014) o a simila de ec o wi h a epo ed
accu acy o 7% has been assumed. The e iciency cu es o 200 and
300 keVee h esholds a e displayed in Fig. 3, oge he wi h he 9 h
deg ee polynomial unc ions used o he in e pola ion. In he analysis,
he 200 keVee h eshold was used o he monoene ge ic neu on beams
meanwhile he 300 keVee was applied o b oad neu on beams.
2.3.2. Acquisi ion sys em and PSD
The de ec o s, he clock signal om he choppe , and he ou pu
o he cu en in eg a o a e connec ed di ec ly o he da a acquisi ion
sys em, wi hou u he elec onic manipula ion o he signal. This
da a acquisi ion sys em consis s o a CAEN V1751 digi ize ea u ing
8 channels wi h a 10 bi s esolu ion and a sampling a e o 1 GS/s.
The CAEN so wa e CoMPASS was used o con igu ing he di e en
channels and o ope a ing he DAQ in coincidence mode: he sys em
analyzes he de ec o signals only when hey a e wi hin a ime coinci-
dence window wi h espec o a e e ence channel, which is he choppe
clock. Fo each signal, he DAQ e u ns a imes amp (co esponding o
signals ising poin abo e 25% o he maximum ampli ude, i.e., a digi al
Cons an F ac ion Disc imina o , CFD) and wo alues co esponding o
he o al (Q𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 ) o pa ial (Q𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡) in eg als o he signal. The s a ime
o bo h in eg als is well be o e he signal s a s, hen he pa ial in eg al
(Q𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡) s ops sligh ly a e he signal maximum, beyond which he 𝛾-
ays and neu on signal shapes become di e en . This is illus a ed in
Fig. 4, whe e he men ioned imes amp and he in eg a ion in e als
a e depic ed. The ela i e di e ence be ween he wo in eg als, called
PSD and gi en by Eq. (1), p o ides he means o di e en ia e be ween
neu on and 𝛾- ay signals by Pulse Shape Disc imina ion (PSD) (B ook,
1979), a capabili y o some scin illa o s ela ed o he di e en linea
Radia ion Physics and Chemis y 217 (2024) 111464
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M.A. Millán-Callado e al.
Fig. 4. Di e ence be ween neu on and 𝛾- ay signals in he EJ-301 de ec o and
de ini ion o he signal pa ame e s e u ned by he DAQ.
Fig. 5. Measu ed dis ibu ion o he PSD alues ob ained as a unc ion o he signal
ene gy measu ed o he 2H(d,n) eac ion wi h 𝐸𝑑= 1.5 MeV. The solid line ep esen s
he analy ical unc ion sepa a ing bo h pa icle ypes.
ene gy ans e (LET) o he nuclea ecoils and elec ons esul ing om
he neu on and 𝛾- ay in e ac ions, espec i ely.
𝑃 𝑆𝐷 =𝑄𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 −𝑄𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡
𝑄𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔
(1)
The dis ibu ion o he PSD alues eco ded om 2H(d,n) eac ions
wi h a 1.5 MeV deu e on beam is ep esen ed in Fig. 5 as a unc ion
o he signal ene gy (in ligh equi alen keVee uni s, ob ained om he
calib a ion wi h 137Cs, 22Na and 60Co sou ces). The da a a e clea ly dis-
ibu ed along wo b anches, co esponding o neu ons (uppe b anch)
and 𝛾- ay (lowe b anch) signals. The sepa a ion be ween he wo ypes
o signals has been modeled by he 4 h-deg ee polynomial, shown as a
solid line. A low deposi ed ene gy, below ∼200 keVee, he small size o
he signals combined wi h he limi ed esolu ion o he digi ize and he
non-negligible noise le el p e en s a e y clea pa icle disc imina ion.
The upwa d bending o he wo dis ibu ions abo e 1300 keVee is
ela ed o he non-linea beha io o he ol age di ide o la ge
signals, which a ec s mo e he pa ial (𝑄𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡) han he o al (𝑄𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔)
signal in eg als. This limi s he PSD capabili ies o a maximum o
2500 keVee.
O e all, 𝛾- ay and neu on signals a e e y well sepa a ed, as illus-
a ed in Fig. 6. The PSD ea u es a igu e-o -me i (FoM) o 1.5, whe e
FoM is de ined by Eq. (2), as in Gue e o e al. (2008).
𝐹 𝑜𝑀 =𝐷𝑛∕𝛾
𝐹 𝑊 𝐻𝑀𝑛+𝐹 𝑊 𝐻𝑀𝛾
(2)
Fig. 6. PSD dis ibu ion o signals be ween 200 and 2500 keVee (p ojec ed om
Fig. 5). The g een line co esponds o a i o wo Gaussian dis ibu ions.
2.4. Beam, a ge , and de ec o con igu a ions employed in he commission-
ing
The expe imen s ca ied ou o he beam commissioning and he
co esponding esul s a e di ided in o wo ca ego ies: 2H(d,n) eac ions
yielding quasi-monoene ge ic neu ons and hick a ge expe imen s
yielding b oad ene gy neu on beams.
The s udy o he ene gies and luxes o quasi-monoene ge ic neu-
ons ha can be p oduced a HiSPANoS by means o he 2H(d,n)
eac ion is in e es ing o u u e expe imen s equi ing such beams, bu
also a e y aluable ool o cha ac e izing he ene gy esolu ion o he
acili y, as well as o s udying he sca e ing neu on backg ound inhe -
en o a non-collima ed acili y such as HiSPANoS. Lea ing he moni o
de ec o (Tadeo-1) ixed a an angle o −30 deg ees a a dis ance o
100 cm om he neu on sou ce, he o he wo de ec o s (Tadeo-2
and Tadeo-3) we e placed a a dis ance be ween 1 and 4 m and a
angles be ween 0 and 120 deg ees. The deu e ium beam ene gy was
changed be ween 750 and 3000 keV, p oducing quasi-monoene ge ic
beams be ween 2 and 6 MeV.
On he o he hand, he eac ions om deu e ium beams impac ing
on he hick Li and Be a ge s, which p oduce neu on beams wi h a
b oad ene gy dis ibu ion, we e only s udied wi h Tadeo-2 placed in
o wa d di ec ion a a ixed ligh pa h o 150 cm. This is conside ed
a e e ence posi ion ha p o ides a easonable ene gy esolu ion while
keeping he wall e ec s negligible.
Addi ional measu emen s we e pe o med o he backg ound es i-
ma ion. In pa icula , a shadow ba (10 cm o Pb ollowed by 50 cm o
polye hylene, bo h wi h a diame e o 20 cm) was used o es ima e he
neu on sca e ing backg ound in all con igu a ions. In he case o he
2H(d,n) eac ion, he men ioned dummy a ge was used o s udy he
neu ons p oduced in he Ti and Al p esen in he D/Ti a ge assembly.
3. Quasi-monoene ge ic neu on beams
3.1. Time-o - ligh (TOF) spec a
In each expe imen , he ou pu e u ned by he DAQ is a lis o
signals cha ac e ized by hei ime, 𝑄𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡 and 𝑄𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 . The co esponding
ime-o - ligh (𝑇 𝑂𝐹 ) his og ams a e p oduced by aking he choppe
clock signal as a e e ence s a ime. The measu ed 𝑇 𝑂𝐹 is calib a ed
so ha he 𝛾- lash (a p onounced peak co esponding o he a i al
o p omp 𝛾- ays p oduced in he in e ac ion o he pulsed ion beam
wi h he a ge ) is se o he ime equi ed by pho ons o a el he
co esponding ligh pa h, i.e. 𝑡𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑠ℎ =𝐿𝑇 𝑂𝐹 ∕𝑐, whe e 𝐿𝑇 𝑂𝐹 is de ined
as he dis ance be ween he neu on p oduc ion a ge and he cen e
o he de ec o ac i e olume (no he on ace).
Radia ion Physics and Chemis y 217 (2024) 111464
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M.A. Millán-Callado e al.
Fig. 7. TOF spec a o he 2H(d,n) eac ion a 1.0 MeV beam ene gy measu ed a
150 cm in he o wa d di ec ion. The blue line co esponds o neu on signals (see
Sec ion 2.3.2).
Fig. 7 displays he esul o he con igu a ion o a 1.0 MeV deu e on
beam hi ing he D/Ti a ge , measu ed wi h Tadeo-2 a 150 cm dis-
ance in he o wa d di ec ion. The wo his og ams co espond o all
( ed) and neu on only (blue) signals, illus a ing he excellen PSD
capabili ies achie ed. The 𝛾- ay 𝑇 𝑂𝐹 dis ibu ion (g een) ea u es a
cons an le el (en i onmen al backg ound) and he peak co esponding
o he 𝛾- lash. The 𝛾- lash has a wid h o 2.35 ns co esponding o he
ime sp ead o he ion beam and, as men ioned abo e, se es as an
accu a e e e ence o he neu on p oduc ion ime. The neu on 𝑇 𝑂𝐹
dis ibu ion ea u es a p onounced peak co esponding o neu ons o
e y well-de ined ene gy, i.e. he quasi-monoene ge ic neu ons esul -
ing om he 2H(d,n) eac ion on he hin D a ge . The ail obse ed a
longe 𝑇 𝑂𝐹 alues, wo o de s o magni ude below he main neu on
peak, is ela ed o he deu e ium di usion in o he backing (Nol e and
Thomas,2011).
3.2. Ene gy dis ibu ions
Due o he limi ed eloci y o he neu ons (𝑣≪𝑐), he 𝑇 𝑂𝐹
dis ibu ions can be ans o med in o neu on ene gy (𝐸𝑛) dis ibu ions
using he non- ela i is ic exp ession (3):
𝐸𝑛(𝑀𝑒𝑉 ) = 1
2𝑚𝑛𝑣2=(72.293 ⋅𝐿𝑇 𝑂𝐹 (𝑚)
𝑇 𝑂𝐹 (𝑛𝑠))2
(3)
Applying his ans o ma ion o he TOF dis ibu ion om Fig. 7 (E𝑑
= 1.0 MeV) esul s in he neu on ene gy dis ibu ion displayed in he
op panel o Fig. 8. I ea u es a e y well-de ined quasi-monoene ge ic
neu on beam cen e ed a 4 MeV wi h a esolu ion o jus 7%. The ad-
di ional spec a shown in Fig. 8 ( op) co espond o he measu emen s
o he dummy a ge and he sca e ed backg ound measu ed using a
shadow ba . The bo om panel illus a es he si ua ion o a highe en-
e gy deu e on beam o 3.0 MeV, which is enough o p oduce neu ons
in he hin Ti subs a e, he Al backing, he Al collima o , and he e y
hin C con amina ion laye buil up on he su ace o he a ge (Bö ge
e al.,1989). I mus be conside ed ha he ∼11 MeV neu ons emi ed
in he Al collima o a el a longe dis ance (15 cm mo e) o each he
de ec o , he e o e appea ing a a lowe econs uc ed neu on ene gy
o ∼9 MeV. Ano he backg ound con ibu ion is gene a ed by neu ons
sca e ed ac oss he oom and hen a i ing a he de ec o , measu ed
using he p e iously men ioned shadow ba . The sub ac ion o he
dummy a ge and shadow ba con ibu ions p o ides he aimed clean
quasi-monoene ge ic neu on beam. Howe e , his is only easible up
o he maximum neu on ene gy o 6 MeV shown in he igu e, since a
highe beam ene gies, neu ons om o he deu e on-induced eac ions
in he a ge ep esen he dominan con ibu ion. In any case, e en
i ano he ype o a ge was used, he quasi-monoene ge ic neu on
Fig. 8. Recons uc ed neu on ene gy spec a measu ed wi h he D/Ti (wi h and
wi hou shadow ba ) and dummy a ge s o 𝐸𝑑= 1.0 MeV ( op) and 𝐸𝑑= 3.0 MeV
(bo om). The aimed quasi-monoene ge ic con ibu ion om he 2H(d,n) eac ion is
ob ained a e he backg ound sub ac ion. The con ibu ion o di e en eac ions is
labeled in he igu e.
p oduc ion hough he 2H(d,n) eac ions canno be pushed beyond
∼7 MeV because he neu on emission om deu e on b eak-up becomes
impo an a beam ene gies abo e ∼3.7 MeV.
The ene gy o he neu ons emi ed in he 2𝐻(𝑑, 𝑛) eac ion depends
on bo h he ion beam ene gy and he angle o emission. In o de o illus-
a e he quasi-monoene ge ic neu on beams ha can be p oduced a
HiSPANoS, he angle o he de ec o s was changed be ween 0 and 120
deg ees o a deu e ium ene gy o 1.5 MeV, and he beam ene gy was
changed be ween 0.75 and 3.0 MeV o h ee selec ed angles: 0, 30 and
120 deg ees. The esul s a e displayed in Fig. 9: as expec ed, he ene gy
o he neu ons inc eases wi h he ion beam ene gy and dec eases wi h
he angle. This shows ha HiSPANoS can p o ide neu on beams wi h
well-de ined ene gies om 2 o 6 MeV and ha he wide ange o angles
a ailable a he labo a o y allows o mul iple simul aneous neu on
ene gy expe imen s wi hou he need o changing he ol age o he
accele a o .
The da a om HiSPANoS in Fig. 9 was compa ed wi h he e e ence
da a o Liskien and Paulsen (1973), e ie ed h ough he code NeuS-
Desc (Bi ge sson e al.,2009) de eloped a JRC-Geel. NeuSDesc esul s
include he e ec o a ini e-size D/Ti a ge on he ene gy o he ou -
going neu ons (dashed lines in he plo ). The good ag eemen se es
as alida ion o he beam ene gy alue, de ec o posi ioning (dis ance
and angle), 𝑇 𝑂𝐹 ime calib a ion and neu on ene gy calcula ions
p esen ed he ein.

Radia ion Physics and Chemis y 217 (2024) 111464
6
M.A. Millán-Callado e al.
Fig. 9. Dependence o he neu on ene gy on he ion beam ene gy ( op) and angle
(bo om, 𝐸𝑑= 1.5 MeV). The lines co espond o he da a o Liskien and Paulsen
(1973), e ie ed wi h NeuSDesc (Bi ge sson e al.,2009) (which also p o ides an
es ima ion o he unce ain y). The unce ain ies o he expe imen al da a co espond o
he measu ed esolu ion in Y and o he de ec o posi ioning (bo om) o he accele a o
calib a ion ( op) in X.
3.3. Ene gy esolu ion
Ene gy esolu ion is a key ea u e o a ime-o - ligh acili y, and
he a ailabili y o quasi-monoene ge ic beams allows s udying i ac-
cu a ely. Bea ing in mind Eq. (3) and conside ing he p opaga ion o
unce ain ies, he ene gy esolu ion can be calcula ed in Eq. (4):
𝑅(𝐸𝑛, 𝐿) = 𝛥𝐸𝑛
𝐸𝑛
=√
√
√
√(2𝛥𝑡
𝑡)2
+(2𝛥𝐿
𝐿)2
+(𝛥𝐸𝑛
𝐸𝑛)2
𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑡
,(4)
Hence, he esolu ion has con ibu ions om he ligh dis ance (𝐿
and 𝛥𝐿), mainly he ini e size o he de ec o ; he ime-o - ligh (𝑡and
𝛥𝑡), mainly he du a ion o he pulsed deu e on beam; and he ene gy
sp ead o he neu ons due o he ene gy loss o he beam in he D/Ti
a ge .
Expe imen ally, he neu on ene gy esolu ion o HiSPANoS has
been de e mined om he ene gy and sp ead o he quasi-monoene g-
e ic neu on peak a 3.6 MeV, p oduced by deu e ons wi h 1.5 MeV a
60 deg ees. This esolu ion has been s udied as a unc ion o he ligh
pa h up o 4 m.
The expe imen al and calcula ed ene gy esolu ions a e displayed
in Fig. 10, showing a good ag eemen and illus a ing how i imp o es
wi h he ligh pa h. The pa ial con ibu ions o he esolu ion, also
displayed in he igu e, e idence ha he dominan ac o is he 2 ns
wid h o he beam pulse.
Fig. 10. Dependence o he neu on ene gy esolu ion on he ligh pa h dis ance,
measu ed a 60 deg ees o 3.6 MeV neu ons. The expec ed beha iou is shown as a
solid line, wi h he dashed lines co esponding o he pa ial con ibu ions.
Fig. 11. Recons uc ed neu on ene gy dis ibu ion o 𝐸𝑑= 1.5 MeV in o wa d
di ec ion, illus a ing he wall e ec (neu on sca e ing backg ound) depending on
he ligh pa h. The spec a a e no malized by L−2in me e s.
3.4. Neu on sca e ing: wall e ec s
Despi e he neu on ene gy esolu ion being imp o ed by he in-
c easing ligh pa h, he limi ed size o he expe imen al a ea is s ill an
impo an ac o o conside . Geome ically speaking, he dimensions
o he andem hall allow o a ligh pa h o up o 3.5 m a 0 deg ees
and mo e han 4 m a 60 deg ees. Howe e , when he de ec o is close
o he walls, s uc u es s a o appea in he measu ed spec a due o
sca e ed neu ons, as shown in Fig. 11. The co esponding neu on
ene gy dis ibu ions o wo di e en ligh pa h dis ances in o wa d
di ec ion o 𝐸𝑑= 1.5 MeV a e ep esen ed in he igu e. A 3 m,
he de ec o is only 75 cm om he wall and hus a sizeable neu on
sca e ed s uc u e appea s in he egion be ween 1 and 2 MeV (in
his example). A simila bu much smalle s uc u e appea s when he
de ec o is a only 1.5 m om he sou ce, hence u he om he wall.
3.5. A ailable beams
In o de o de e mine he neu on lux emi ed om he D/Ti sou ce,
he peaks obse ed in he clean neu on ene gy spec a (like hose
shown in Fig. 8) ha e been in eg a ed and di ided by he de ec ion
e iciency o he de ec o (see Fig. 3), he a ea o he de ec o ’s on
su ace and he ime-in eg a ed beam cu en . In his way, he neu on
sou ce lux is exp essed in he usual uni s o n/cm2/s a a gi en
Radia ion Physics and Chemis y 217 (2024) 111464
7
M.A. Millán-Callado e al.
Fig. 12. Neu on lux measu ed a di e en dis ances (a 0 and 60 deg ees) and
angles (a 150 cm) wi h a deu e on beam o 1.5 MeV impac ing on he D/Ti a ge .
The solid lines co espond o he da a o Liskien and Paulsen (1973) e ie ed wi h
NeuSDesc (Bi ge sson e al.,2009). The expe imen al da a shows e o ba s on bo h
axes.
dis ance. The neu on lux can hen be easily ans o med in o n/s /μC,
as emi ed a he sou ce.
In he case o he 2H(d,n) eac ions, he neu on lux has been
i s s udied o a ixed 𝐸𝑑= 1.5 MeV as a unc ion o he ligh
pa h dis ance, in o de o make su e ha i ollows he expec ed
1/𝐿𝑇 𝑂𝐹 2dependence. This is shown in Fig. 12 ( op), whe e he alues
co esponding o Liskien and Paulsen (1973), e ie ed again h ough
NeuSDesc (Bi ge sson e al.,2009), a e shown o alida ion. Since
he expe imen al alues ollow he a o emen ioned dependence on he
squa e o he dis ance, he sub ac ion o he backg ound, which has
been shown o inc ease wi h he dis ance om he neu on sou ce, is
hus alida ed. The igu e also shows a a ia ion up o a ac o o six o
he neu on lux wi h he angle (bo om). This is ano he p oo o he
co ec backg ound sub ac ion, since he neu ons sca e ed lose he
angula in o ma ion om he sou ce and he expe imen al alues a e
in e y good ag eemen wi h he e e ence da a.
O e all, Table 2 summa izes he con igu a ions (beam ene gy and
angle) a ailable and he co esponding luxes o quasi-monoene ge ic
neu on beams be ween 2 and 6 MeV. The beam ene gy o 𝐸𝑑=
1.5 MeV has been chosen o p oducing low-ene gy beams because,
al hough neu on p oduc ion is la ge a highe ene gies, he back-
g ound con ibu ion om he a ge assembly is s ill negligible a his
ene gy. In o de o ease he beam ime and coun ing a e es ima ion
o po en ial use s o he acili y, he neu on lux in e ms o n/cm2/s
o bo h con inuous and pulsed beams is gi en, conside ing a e e ence
dis ance o 150 cm, a 5 μA cu en and a 4% du y cycle. The co e-
sponding neu on yield in n/s /μC is also included in he able. The
unce ain y in he lux is abou 10%, conside ing he unce ain ies in
he de ec o e iciency (7% (Pino e al.,2014)), he ini e hickness o
he de ec o s a his dis ance (3%), and he ep oducibili y o he esul s
om he neu on moni o (7%), which also includes a 3% accu acy in
he beam cu en measu emen . O he e o sou ces ha e been deemed
negligible.
4. B oad neu on beams
As opposed o he na ow ene gy beams p oduced in he in e ac ion
o he deu e on beam wi h he hin 2H a ge , when he same beam
impinges on a hick a ge i p oduces a b oad ene gy neu on beam
wi h much highe lux.
Gi en he ene gy ange o he deu e on beam a ailable a HiS-
PANoS, he eac ions on hick Li and Be a ge s yield he highes
neu on p oduc ion. The neu on ene gies, acco ding o he posi i e Q-
alues epo ed in Table 1, a e up o 10 MeV o he Be a ge and
exceeding 15 MeV o Li. Rega ding he la e , a p ac ical aspec o be
conside ed is ha while he mel ing poin o Be is 986 ◦C, ha o Li is
only 180 ◦C, hus equi ing o ced cooling when high beam cu en s a e
applied. A HiSPANoS, his is achie ed by means o he wa e -cooled
a ge holde men ioned in Sec ion 2.2.
4.1. TOF/E𝑛spec a and sca e ing backg ound
The ime-o - ligh spec a co esponding o he Li and Be a -
ge s when bomba ded wi h he highes ene gy a ailable (5.75 MeV)
deu e on beams a e displayed in Fig. 13.
In con as o he case o he hin D/Ti a ge , he hick a ge s s op
he ions comple ely, a oiding neu on p oduc ion elsewhe e and hus
making a dummy a ge backg ound sub ac ion unnecessa y. Hence,
only he backg ound om sca e ed neu ons needs o be measu ed,
wi h he help o he a o emen ioned shadow ba . This con ibu ion
o he ime-o - ligh and neu on ene gy dis ibu ions measu ed is
illus a ed in Fig. 13, in he o m o ligh dashed lines. The neu on
sca e ing backg ound is especially ele an a long TOF (>110 ns),
co esponding o low neu on ene gy (<1 MeV), as he de ec ion e i-
ciency o di ec neu ons is smalle and e en ually null, bu sca e ed
neu ons wi h high ene gies a i ing o he de ec o a longe imes
can s ill be de ec ed. Howe e , he shadow ba me hod wo ks well and
allows an accu a e sub ac ion o he neu on sca e ing backg ound.
The ime-o - ligh and neu on ene gy dis ibu ions (displayed in
Fig. 13) ea u e s uc u es ha a e wo h being discussed. Al hough all
neu ons a e p oduced by means o (d,n) eac ions, when he deu e on
b ings enough ene gy o he sys em, he esidual nucleus (8Be in he
case o Li and 10B in he case o Be) can each di e en exci ed s a es,
which lea es less ene gy a ailable o he emi ed neu ons. Hence, he e
is a co espondence be ween he s uc u es obse ed and he ene gy o
hese exci ed s a es, as illus a ed in he bo om panel o Fig. 13. In
his igu e, he neu on ene gy (𝐸𝑛) is sub ac ed om he o al ene gy
a ailable (𝐸𝑑+𝑄). The esul demons a es he co espondence be ween
he obse ed s uc u es and he well-known nuclea le els (labeled in
he igu e) in 8Be and 10B (IAEA - Nuclea Da a Sec ion,2023).
4.2. A ailable beams
The backg ound-sub ac ed neu on ene gy dis ibu ions co espo-
nding o (d,n) eac ions on Li and Be ha e been di ided by he
e iciency, he solid angle co e ed by he de ec o , and he in e-
g a ed cu en in o de o be ans o med in o uni s o neu on lux
(n/s /MeV/μC).
The esul is displayed in Fig. 14, wi h he unce ain y in he
neu on ene gy calcula ed om Eq. (4) and he 10% unce ain y in he
neu on lux discussed in Sec ion 3.5. The igu e also includes a line
Radia ion Physics and Chemis y 217 (2024) 111464
8
M.A. Millán-Callado e al.
Table 2
Summa y o he quasi-monoene ge ic neu on beams a ailable a HiSPANoS (in e media e ene gy con igu-
a ions a e also a ailable). The neu on yield is gi en in n/s /μC. The neu on lux a a dis ance o 150 cm
o bo h con inuous and pulsed neu on beams, conside ing a 5 μA cu en and a 4% du y cycle, is gi en
in n/cm2/s.
𝐸𝑑𝜃 𝐸𝑛𝛥E/E 𝑌 𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 Flux (n/cm2/s)
(MeV) (deg) (MeV) (𝑛∕𝑠𝑟∕μ𝐶)𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑃 𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒𝑑
1.5 120 2.2 5% 4.5(4)⋅105100(10) 4.0(4)
1.5 90 2.8 7% 2.7(3)⋅10560(6) 2.4(2)
1.5 60 3.5 8% 4.1(4)⋅10590(9) 3.6(4)
1.5 30 4.2 7% 1.2(1)⋅106270(30) 11(1)
1.5 0 4.5 7% 2.6(2)⋅106590(20) 23(2)
2.0 0 5.1 8% 3.1(3)⋅106680(30) 27(3)
3.0 0 6.1 7% 3.7(4)⋅106830(30) 33(3)
Fig. 13. Time-o - ligh ( op), neu on ene gy (middle) and 𝐸𝑑+𝑄−𝐸𝑛(bo om) spec a
o 𝐸𝑑= 5.75 MeV on he hick Li and Be a ge s measu ed o wa d a 150 cm. See
ex o de ails.
Fig. 14. Neu on yields a 𝐸𝑑= 5.75 MeV and a ligh pa h o 150 cm in he o wa d
di ec ion o he Li and Be hick a ge s. The blue line co esponds o he da a om
Meadows (Meadows,1993) o 5.8 MeV deu e on beams a 0◦and he yellow line
co esponds o he da a om Wea e (Wea e e al.,1973) a 5.0 MeV and 3.5◦
( e ie ed om EXFOR (O uka e al.,2014) F0218.015).
co esponding o he da a epo ed by Meadows (Meadows,1993) o
a 5.8 MeV deu e on beam impinging on a hick Be a ge , e e ed o
he o wa d di ec ion; and also he da a om Wea e (Wea e e al.,
1973) wi h a deu e on beam o 5.0 MeV impinging on a hick Li a ge
and measu ed a 3.5◦. The e is indeed an excellen ag eemen be ween
he HiSPANoS and Meadows da a in e ms o bo h ene gy dis ibu ion
and neu on lux and, in he case o Wea e , he neu on lux om
HiSPANoS is sligh ly highe in he ene gy egion om 3 o 10 MeV,
which is expec ed due o he di e ence in he deu e on ene gy and he
measu ing angle. The compa ison a low ene gy (<2 MeV) be ween his
wo k and Meadows e idences he limi a ions when measu ing neu ons
below 1–2 MeV wi h liquid scin illa o s, as in his wo k, compa ed
o measu emen s wi h ission chambe s, as in Meadows. The d op in
he e iciency (see Fig. 3) and he co esponding highe unce ain y is
esponsible o he disc epancies nea he ene gy h eshold. Then, he
be e ene gy esolu ion o Meadows and Wea e , ela ed o he longe
ligh pa h used (3.75 and 11 m espec i ely agains 1.5 m), is only
and ba ely isible a he all-o a ound 10 MeV in he case o Be, and
15 MeV in he case o Li. The ene gy esolu ion is also esponsible o
showing neu on ene gies beyond 20 MeV, which is he physical limi
acco ding o he Q- alue and he beam ene gy.
The b oad ene gy neu on beams a ailable a HiSPANoS a e summa-
ized in Table 3. In eg al neu on p oduc ion e e s o neu ons abo e
1.3 MeV, which is he lowe ene gy limi in he de ec ion e iciency
o he liquid scin illa o s used o neu on de ec ion. As in he case
o he quasi-monoene ge ic neu on beams, he neu on luxes o he
con inuous and pulsed beam con igu a ion a a dis ance o 150 cm a e
gi en in uni s o n/cm2/s, and he neu on yield a he a ge is gi en
in n/s /μ𝐶.
Radia ion Physics and Chemis y 217 (2024) 111464
9
M.A. Millán-Callado e al.
Table 3
Summa y o he b oad ene gy neu on beams a ailable a HiSPANoS (in e media e ene gy con igu a ions
a e also a ailable). The neu on yield is gi en in n/s /μC, and he neu on lux a a dis ance o 150 cm o
bo h con inuous and pulsed neu on beams is gi en in n/cm2/s.
Reac ion 𝐸𝑑Max. 𝐸𝑛Yield Flux (n/cm2/s)
(MeV) (MeV) (𝑛∕𝑠𝑟∕μ𝐶)𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑃 𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒𝑑
Li(d,n) 5.75 20.6 2.2(2)⋅1010 5.0(5)⋅1062.0(2)⋅105
Be(d,n) 5.75 10.1 2.5(3)⋅1010 5.4(5)⋅1062.2(2)⋅105
Fig. 15. Neu on yields a 150 cm o he main as neu on beams a ailable a
HiSPANoS. In e media e quasi-monoene ge ic neu on beams and e o ba s ha e been
omi ed o cla i y.
5. Summa y and ou look
Since 2013, he HiSPANoS acili y a CNA has ope a ed in con in-
uous mode as he i s accele a o -based neu on sou ce in Spain. In
2018, he se up was upg aded wi h a pulsing sys em p oducing ∼2 ns
pulses ha enable new ields o esea ch and applica ions using ime-o -
ligh echniques. While he capabili y o HiSPANoS o p oduce pulsed
epi he mal neu on beams has al eady been assessed (Macías e al.,
2020,2021), his wo k is de o ed o he commissioning o he as
neu on beams.
Con inuous and pulsed as neu on beams a e p oduced a HiS-
PANoS by making a deu e on beam o up o 6 MeV and ∼5μA
in e ac wi h he di e en a ge s a ailable. While a hin deu e a ed
i anium (D/Ti) a ge p oduces quasi-monoene ge ic beams be ween
2 and 6 MeV, he use o hick Be and Li a ge s p oduces neu on
beams wi h a b oad ene gy dis ibu ion up o 10 MeV and o e 15 MeV,
espec i ely.
In his wo k, he neu on ene gy, esolu ion, backg ound, and neu-
on lux o he di e en beams a ailable a HiSPANoS ( o di e en
a ge s, beam ene gies, angles, and dis ances) ha e been cha ac e ized
and shown o be in ag eemen wi h he expec a ions om exis ing
e e ence da a. As a summa y, Fig. 15 shows some o he neu on beams
a ailable in uni s o n∕s ∕μC∕MeV in he o wa d di ec ion (excep
o he lowes ene gy quasi-monoene ge ic neu on beam o 2.2 MeV,
which co esponds o 120 deg ees). The co esponding neu on yields
a he a ge a e in he o de o 106and 1010 n/s /μC o quasi-
monoene ge ic and b oad ene gy neu on beams, espec i ely (see
de ails in Tables 2 and 3). The epo ed 10% accu acy in he neu on
luxes desc ibed in his wo k is domina ed by a 7% con ibu ion om
de ec o e iciency (which could be educed by using an absolu ely
calib a ed neu on de ec o ) and ano he 7% om he ep oducibili y
o he esul s. The e is ongoing wo k a CNA aimed o educe he la e .
CRediT au ho ship con ibu ion s a emen
M.A. Millán-Callado: Me hodology, So wa e, Valida ion, Fo mal
analysis, In es iga ion, W i ing – o iginal d a . C. Gue e o: Con-
cep ualiza ion, Me hodology, Fo mal analysis, In es iga ion, Resou ces,
W i ing – e iew & edi ing, Supe ision, P ojec adminis a ion. B.
Fe nández: Concep ualiza ion, Me hodology, Fo mal analysis, In es i-
ga ion, W i ing – e iew & edi ing, Supe ision. J. Gómez-Camacho:
Resou ces, Supe ision, Funding acquisi ion. M. Macías: In es iga ion.
J.M. Quesada: Resou ces, Supe ision, Funding acquisi ion.
Decla a ion o compe ing in e es
The au ho s decla e he ollowing inancial in e es s/pe sonal ela-
ionships which may be conside ed as po en ial compe ing in e es s:
Begona Fe nandez epo s inancial suppo was p o ided by Go e n-
men o Andalusia. Jose Manuel Quesada epo s inancial suppo was
p o ided by Spain Minis y o Science and Inno a ion. Ca los Gue e o
epo s inancial suppo was p o ided by Spain Minis y o Science
and Inno a ion. Jose Manuel Quesada epo s inancial suppo was
p o ided by Eu opean Commission.
Da a a ailabili y
Da a will be made a ailable on eques and published in he IAEA
EXFOR compila ion o expe imen al nuclea eac ion da a (O uka e al.,
2014).
Acknowledgmen s
The au ho s hank he ope a o s o he CNA Tandem accele a o
(J.A. Lab ado , D. Pascual-Ál a ez, A. J. Rome o and M. A. Selle ) o
hei dedica ion and help in he commissioning o he pulsed neu on
beams.
This wo k has ecei ed unding om he Eu a om esea ch and
aining p og am 2014–2018 unde he g an ag eemen No 847594
(H2020-Eu a om-ARIEL), he Ma ie Cu ie ac ions o he 7 h F ame-
wo k P og am unde he g an ag eemen No 334315 (FP7-PEOPLE-
Neu ANdalus), he Spanish na ional p ojec s FPA2016-77689-C2-1-R,
RTI2018-098117-B-C21, and PID2021-123879OB-C21; and he FEDER
Andalucía unds unde he p ojec US-1261006.
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