anales de psicología, 2013, ol. 29, nº 3 (oc ub e), 662-673
h p://dx.doi.o g/10.6018/analesps.29.3.175801
© Copy igh 2013: Se icio de Publicaciones de la Uni e sidad de Mu cia. Mu cia (España)
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The e ec o men al wo kload on he in ensi y and
emo ional dynamics o pe cei ed exe ion
Da id Cá denas1*, José C. Pe ales2, Luis J. Chi osa1, José Conde-González3, Daniel Aguila -Ma ínez1 y Se gio A aya4
1 Depa men o Physical Educa ion and Spo . Facul y o Spo Sciences. Uni e si y o G anada. Spain
2 Depa men o Expe imen al Psychology. Facul y o Psychology. Uni e si y o G anada. Spain
3 Depa men o Physical Educa ion and Spo . Facul y o Educa ion Sciences. Uni e si y o Se illa. Spain
4 Depa men o Physical Educa ion and Spo . Uni e si y A u o P a . (Iquique) Chile
Tí ulo: El e ec o de la ca ga de abajo men al en la in ensidad y la dinámi-
ca emocional del es ue zo pe cibido.
Resumen: El es ue zo pe cibido, medido po escalas psicomé icas, ha
demos ado se una he amien a álida pa a e alua la ca ga de en ena-
mien o, que co elaciona al amen e con dimensiones isiológicas y mecáni-
cas del es ue zo ísico. Sin emba go, poco se sabe sob e los co ela os emo-
cionales del es ue zo, y cómo la pe cepción del es ue zo es in luenciada po
la ca ga de abajo men al. En los dos expe imen os desc i os, se encon ó
que la alo ación del es ue zo pe cibido (RPE) es aba signi ica i amen e in-
luenciada po la ca ga men al (gene ada po medio de una a ea cogni i a,
sin elación, pe o empo almen e supe pues a con la a ea ísica) du an e la
ecupe ación ac i a después de habe alcanzado el ago amien o du an e el
eje cicio, pe o no du an e el eje cicio inc emen al. Es impo an e des aca
que el es ue zo pe cibido co elacionó ue emen e con los alo es emocio-
nales / hedónicos de alencia, pe o no así con los alo es de la ac i ación.
Es os hallazgos e ue zan el alo mo i acional del es ue zo pe cibido y su
inculación con o os cons uc os psicológicos.
Palab as cla es: Ca ga men al; es ue zo pe cibido; es ue zo ísico; a iga;
eje cicio; mo i ación.
Abs ac : Pe cei ed exe ion, as measu ed by psychome ic scales, has
been p o en o be a alid ool o assess aining load, and o highly co e-
la e wi h physiological and mechanical dimensions o physical e o . How-
e e , li le is known abou he emo ional co ela es o exe ion, and how
pe cei ed exe ion is in luenced by men al wo kload. In he wo expe i-
men s epo ed he e, a ings o pe cei ed exe ion (RPE) we e ound o be
signi ican ly in luenced by men al wo kload (gene a ed by means o a cog-
ni i e ask, un ela ed o, bu empo ally o e lapping wi h he physical ask)
du ing ac i e eco e y a e exhaus ing exe cise, bu no du ing inc emen al
exe cise. Impo an ly, pe cei ed exe ion was ound o s ongly co ela e
wi h epo ed emo ional/hedonic alence, bu no so igh ly wi h epo ed
a ousal. These indings s eng hen he mo i a ional alue o pe cei ed ex-
e ion, and i s linkage o o he psychological cons uc s
Key wo ds: Men al wo kload; pe cei ed exe ion; physical e o ; a igue;
exe cise; mo i a ion.
In oduc ion
Pe cei ed exe ion is a key concep in he psychology o ex-
e cise, and may be de ined as he subjec i e in ensi y o e -
o , s ain, discom o , and/o a igue ha is expe ienced
du ing physical exe cise (Robe son & Noble 1997). Fo ex-
ample, le us imagine an a hle e unning a ma a hon. Du ing
he ace, he ma a hone will con inuously moni o he sense
o e o , and will decide on-line how as o un in o de o
each he inish line sho ly be o e exhaus ion. In gene al,
people use pe cei ed exe ion o decide when o s op exe -
cising. Ou ma a hone will p obably un beyond he poin
a which she would ha e s opped in ci cums ances o he
han compe i ion. Mo eo e , e o ole ance depends on
psychological ac o s such as mood (A uza, Balagué & A -
ie a, 1998), a ousal, and concomi an men al wo kload. Con-
sequen ly, unde s anding hese ac o s is c ucial o imp o e
decision making in a hle es (Schome , 1986). Un o una ely,
despi e he ac ha pe cei ed exe ion is a psychological
cons uc , li le esea ch has been done on how hese ac o s
in luence pe cei ed exe ion, o on he ela ionship be ween
pe cei ed exe ion and o he psychological cons uc s, in-
cluding hose ha de ine he subjec i e a ec i e/emo ional
s a e (e.g. Baden, McLean, Tucke , Noakes, & Hun e , 2005;
Beniscelli & To eg osa, 2010).
* Di ección pa a co espondencia [Co espondence add ess]:
Da id Cá denas Vélez. Ca e e a Al aca s/n CP: 18071 G anada (Spain).
E-mail: [email p o ec ed]
In ace o he impo ance o pe cei ed exe ion, se e al
psychome ic scales ha e been de eloped o measu e i . Ac-
ually, he ela ionship be ween mechanical and physiological
measu es o e o (mainly powe ou pu , lac a e concen a-
ion, oxygen consump ion, and ca dio ascula indices), on
he one side, and subjec i ely pe cei ed exe ion, on he
o he , cons i u es a discipline by i sel : he psychophysics o e o
(Bo g, 1982; Noble & Robe son, 1996; Bo g & Bo g, 2002;
Bo g & Kaijse , 2006; see Faulkne , Pa i & Es on, 2008,
o a ecen e iew). The p ecise cha ac e iza ion o he
unc ions ha ela e he objec i e and subjec i e dimensions
o exe ion has helped spo people o be e unde s and and
o imp o e aining me hods (see, o example, Ma io &
Lamb, 1996; Swee , Fos e , McGuigan, & B ice, 2004; Fos-
e e al., 2001).
The p esen wo k is aimed a in es iga ing (1) whe he ,
and how, pe cei ed exe ion is a ec ed by men al wo kload
du ing exe cise (cycling) up o oli ional exhaus ion, and
du ing ac i e eco e y. In o he wo ds, we in end o es he
common in ui ions ha physical asks in ol ing concomi an
complex in o ma ion p ocessing (as, o example, planning
o decision-making) a e subjec i ely pe cei ed as mo e e -
o ul han plainly physical asks, and ha cogni i e e o
can hinde eco e y a e exe cise. And, (2) we explo e how
he subjec i ely es ima ed a ec i e s a e o he exe cise is
a ec ed by e o , and modula ed by men al wo kload.
In ope a ional e ms, men ally loading asks a e hose e-
qui ing he managemen o signi ican amoun s o in o ma-
ion in a non-au oma ic way. These asks ha e been claimed
o equi e a en ional esou ces and o in e e e wi h o he
The e ec o men al wo kload on he in ensi y and emo ional dynamics o pe cei ed exe ion 663
anales de psicología, 2013, ol. 29, nº 3 (oc ub e)
cogni i e asks (Kahneman, 1973), o mobilize cen al e-
sou ces (Wickens, 1984), o o equi e he in ol emen o
he cen al execu i e sys em (Baddeley, 2003) – he cogni i e
mechanism necessa y o planning ac i i ies when he ask
canno be au oma ized, o gene a es esponse con lic (Mi-
yake & Shah, 1999) –. In addi ion, cogni i e wo kload has
emo ional co ela es: he e o associa ed wi h cogni i e
wo kload is hedonically nega i e, and inc eases a ousal
(Baumeis e , Vohs & Tice, 2007; Wallace & Baumeis e ,
2002).
The in e es on he in e ac ion be ween cogni ion and
physical e o is no new. A ew s udies ha e in es iga ed
he ole o men al a igue12on pe cei ed exe ion, in con-
secu i e men al-physical asks (Ma co a, S aiano, & Man-
ning, 2009). Rela edly, some s udies ha e ocused on he
opposi e causal di ec ion, ha is, on he e ec o physical e -
o and a igue on cogni i e pe o mance (Sanab ia e al.,
2011). To ou knowledge, howe e , ou s udy is he i s o
expe imen ally manipula e he magni ude o men al wo k-
load du ing and a e exe cise, and o check i s e ec on
pe cei ed exe ion (and ela ed emo ional dimensions).
To sum up, ou aims a e: (1) o quan i y he deg ee o
which men al wo kload con ibu es o pe cei ed exe ion
du ing exe cise and eco e y; and (2) o analyse he emo-
ional dynamics esul ing om he combined e ec s o
physical and cogni i e load. In Expe imen 1, men al wo k-
load was manipula ed by p esen ing pa icipan s wi h cogni-
i e asks du ing exe cise, un il exhaus ion, and du ing e-
co e y. N-back and Go/No-go asks we e used o gene a e ei-
he high o low men al wo kload. Load was manipula ed
ac oss sessions, and compa ed o a con ol session wi hou
any concomi an men al ask. Ra ings o pe cei ed exe ion
we e egis e ed du ing each session, and compa ed ac oss
sessions wi h di e en men al wo kload le els. In Expe i-
men 2, wo men al wo kload condi ions, and one condi ion
wi hou men al wo kload we e compa ed. This second ex-
pe imen was ca ied ou o dissocia e he po en ial e ec o
men al wo kload om he e ec o cogni i e pe o mance
eedback. Simul aneously o RPE (Ra ing o Pe cei ed Exe -
ion; Bo g, 1982), we eco ded wo emo ional dimensions
(a ousal and hedonic alence) du ing he whole o each ses-
sion, wi h he aim o in es iga ing he emo ional ea u es o
concomi an physical and men al wo kload.
12Cogni i e wo kload is di ec ly p opo ional o he amoun o in o ma ion
o be managed, and he complexi y o he ope a ions pe o med on i . We
assume ha subjec i ely pe cei ed cogni i e e o pa allels cogni i e wo k-
load, in a way simila o how pe cei ed exe ion pa allels physical load. Fol-
lowing he analogy, we dis inguish be ween men al a igue (namely, a educ-
ion in men al pe o mance, mainly, bu no only, a ibu able o sus ained
cogni i e e o ) and cogni i e e o . Recen s udies ha e ac ually dissoci-
a ed men al e o om men al a igue, by measu ing hei di e en ial e -
ec s on eye mo ili y (Di S asi, An olí, & Cañas, 2011; Di S asi, Renne ,
S aeh , Helme , Velichko sky, Cañas, Ca ena, & Pannasch, 2010).
Expe imen 1
Two al e na ing execu i e unc ion asks we e used o di-
ec ly manipula e cogni i e wo kload, a h ee le els (High
load, Low load, No load), du ing exe cise. Pe cei ed exe -
ion and oxygen consump ion we e moni o ed du ing
moun ing exe cise, a oli ional exhaus ion, and du ing ac-
i e eco e y. The main wo king hypo hesis was ha he
sense o physical e o (RPE) du ing exe ion and/o e-
co e y would be di ec ly modula ed by he le el o cogni i e
wo kload.
Me hod
Pa icipan s
18 pa icipan s (4 women and 14 men; a e age age 21.17
yea s; age ange 19-26 yea s) ook pa in Expe imen 1. All
o hem we e Spo Sciences s uden s a he Uni e si y o
G anada. In acco dance wi h e hical s anda ds, all o hem
we e in o med o he expe imen ’s aims and condi ions, and
signed an in o med consen o m. In addi ion, a medical
doc o was a ailable in he building du ing he whole du a-
ion o each expe imen al session, and was in o med when
such an expe imen al session was being ca ied ou . A de i-
b illa ion de ice was also a each.
Two pa icipan s did no epo eaching 18 poin s in he
epo ed exe ion scale and we e excluded om u he
analyses (as his was a maximum e o es , we conside ed
ha no eaching a pe cei ed exe ed e o close o he
maximum implied no ha ing unde s ood he logic o he
scale, o no ha ing exe ed he maximum possible e o
du ing he es ).
Appa a us and s imuli
A Ca dioline® x 100 cycloe gome e was used o he
physical e o ask. The s imuli o he cogni i e load asks
we e p ojec ed on a sc een loca ed app oxima ely wo me-
es in on o he pa icipan . S imuli p esen a ion was con-
olled om a lap op loca ed on he le o he pa icipan .
Responses o he cogni i e ask we e eco ded by using a
wi eless nume ic keyboa d a ached o he cycloe gome e
handle, and connec ed o he lap op con olling he ask.
The pa icipan could espond by p essing any key o he
keyboa d wi h he humb, while g asping he handle. Each
s imulus was a numbe o le e (depending on he ask), and
he pa icipan was asked o espond o by p essing/no
p essing any key o he keyboa d. A dis inc i e sound was
used as eedback o each esponse.
P ocedu e and design
Physical e o ask. Each session consis ed o h ee s ages (see
Figu e 1). In he wa ming up s age, pa icipan s cycled on
he cycloe gome e wi hou esis ance o 5 minu es. In he
664 Da id Cá denas Vélez e . al.
anales de psicología, 2013, ol. 29, nº 3 (oc ub e)
second s age, pa icipan s we e asked o cycle in inc emen al
2-minu e-long exe cise in ensi y le els (hence o h, e o
le els) un il oli ional exhaus ion. Du ing his s age, pa ici-
pan s we e asked o cycle a a pace o 70 pm. When pace
de ia ed om ha e e ence, one o he expe imen e s
wa ned he pa icipan o inc ease o dec ease he pace. In
he i s e o le el in his s age, he le el o physical e o
was se a a numbe o wa s calcula ed as hal he pa ici-
pan ’s weigh (measu ed in kilog ams). In o he wo ds, a
pe son weigh ing 70 kilog ams s a ed he e o s age mobi-
lizing 35 wa s. In each successi e le el, he e o was in-
c eased bodyweigh /2 wa s. Following he same example, a
pe son weigh ing 70 kg mobilized 70 wa s in he second
le el, 105 in he hi d one, and so on. A e exhaus ion, e-
sis ance was emo ed, bu he pa icipan was asked o keep
he pace a 70 pm du ing 8 minu es mo e ( eco e y s age).
Figu e 1. The h ee s ages o he session.
Cogni i e load asks. In he load condi ions, du ing inc emen al
e o and eco e y, pa icipan s pe o med wo cogni i e
load asks in an al e na ing ashion. The i s one is known
as he N-back ask (see Owen, McMillan, Lai d, & Bullmo e,
2005). In ou e sion o he ask a se ies o digi s appea ed
successi ely on he sc een, a a a e o one digi e e y 2500
miliseconds (wi h a s imulus du a ion o 2000 ms), and he
pa icipan was asked o epo whe he he numbe on
sc een was he same as he one p esen ed N posi ions ea -
lie . Once he esponse was made (“p ess i yes, wi hhold e-
sponse i no”) and he ollowing digi appea ed, he p e ious
compa ison digi had o be disca ded and he con en o he
wo king memo y upda ed wi h he new one. Only digi s 1 o
4 we e used in he p esen e sion o he ask. The digi ap-
pea ing in each ial was andomly selec ed, which means
ha , on a e age, he p esen digi was he same as he one N
posi ions ea lie , and hus p essing was co ec , in 25% o
he ials.
The second ask is called he Go-No go ask (see Gómez,
Ra cli , & Pe ea, 2007; Pe ales, Ve dejo-Ga cía, Moya,
Lozano, & Pé ez-Ga cía, 2009). In his ask he pa icipan is
p esen ed wi h one o wo s imuli in each ial ( o example,
one o wo le e s), and is simply asked o espond when one
o hem appea s on sc een (one o he le e s) and o wi h-
hold he esponse in p esence o he o he . The i s s imu-
lus is called he Go s imulus, and appea s in 3 ou o 4 ials;
he o he one is he No-go s imulus and appea s in 1 ou o
4 ials. The a e o appea ance o s imuli and he du a ion
o each ial we e he same in he wo asks.
Bo h he N-back and he Go/No-go ask equi e he in-
ol emen o he cen al execu i e sys em and hus gene a e
signi ican cogni i e wo kload. Howe e , he deg ee o
wo kload can be easily adjus ed o he expe imen e ’s needs.
In he case o he N-back ask, he la ge N, he mo e de-
manding he ask. No e ha N de e mines how many digi s
he pa icipan needs o keep in wo king memo y and ope -
a e wi h. 1-back asks a e subjec i ely pe cei ed as e y easy,
2-back ask as mode a ely demanding, and 3-back asks as
e y di icul . Two le els o wo kload we e used in he p e-
sen expe imen : 1-back (low load), and 3-back (high load).
Simila ly, he wo kload gene a ed by Go/No-go asks
can be a ied by manipula ing he complexi y o he e-
sponse c i e ion in each ial. In he simple c i e ion (low
load) e sion, he pa icipan is jus asked o espond o one
le e and no o espond o he o he . In he double c i e-
ion (high load) e sion, each o he wo le e s can appea
wi hin a squa e o wi hou any o he s imulus p esen . In-
s uc ions demand a esponse o one o he le e s when i
appea s alone, bu no i ha same le e appea s wi hin he
squa e; simila ly, he pa icipan is ins uc ed no o espond
o he o he le e alone, bu o espond i ha le e appea s
wi hin a squa e. Thus, he disc imina ion be ween he go
and he no-go s imuli canno be made on he basis o one
ea u e alone ( he iden i y o he le e o he p esence o he
squa e), bu only on he basis o he combina ion o bo h.
In he p esen expe imen , each pa icipan did he
whole ask h ee imes (one o each cogni i e load condi-
ion, wi h a sepa a ion o , a leas , 72 hou s be ween wo
consecu i e ones). In one o hem, he e o es was ca ied
ou wi hou any concomi an men al wo kload ask (No load
condi ion); in ano he one wi h he low load asks (Low load
condi ion); and, in he emaining one, wi h he high load
asks (High load condi ion). The o de o condi ions was
coun e balanced. Load was he main independen a iable.
In he wo load condi ions, he ype o ask (N-back,
Go/No-go) al e na ed be ween blocks. The du a ion o each
cogni i e load ask block coincided wi h he du a ion o each
inc emen al e o block (2’). Du ing eco e y (8’), blocks
we e sepa a ed only by pe cei ed exe ion assessmen s, and
he cogni i e asks kep on al e na ing e e y wo minu es.
The e ec o men al wo kload on he in ensi y and emo ional dynamics o pe cei ed exe ion 665
anales de psicología, 2013, ol. 29, nº 3 (oc ub e)
Reco ding o pe cei ed exe ion. App oxima ely ou seconds we e
equi ed o ep og am he cycloe gome e be ween e o
le els. While one expe imen e did his, a second one ques-
ioned he pa icipan abou his/he le el o pe cei ed exe -
ion ( his one also checked ha he pedalling pace emained
a 70 pm). The RPE 6-20 scale23(Bo g, 1998) was used o
collec local, cen al, and o al sco es o pe cei ed exe ion.
Be o e each session, each pa icipan was amilia ised wi h
he scale. S anda dised ins uc ions we e p o ided on how o
epo eelings o exe ion du ing exe cise in he h ee di -
e en subscales, ollowing he p ocedu e desc ibed by
Swank, S einel, and Moo e (2003).
Pe cei ed exe ion a ings we e collec ed a e e e y wo
minu es (a e e e y cogni i e ask block, and so exac ly be-
o e he e o le el was inc eased), a exhaus ion, and a e
e e y wo minu es du ing eco e y. The numbe o measu -
ing poin s du ing exe cise a ied om one pa icipan o an-
o he , as he numbe o e o le els pe o med be o e ex-
haus ion depended on hei i ness le el.
Reco ding o oxygen consump ion and hea a e. Oxygen consump-
ion was eco ded o all pa icipan s du ing he e o and
eco e y s ages. A K4 b2 ® gas composi ion analyze was
used. The gas analyze was submi ed o he manu ac u e ’s
o ices o echnical e ision be o e he expe imen began
( echnical e isions a e ecommended o his model e e y 6
mon hs), and was indi idually calib a ed o each session,
ollowing he manu ac u e ’s ins uc ion manual. The in-
s umen gene a es an obse a ion poin o each inhal-
ing/exhaling cycle in ml/min·kg, compu ed om he di e -
ence be ween concen a ions o oxygen in inhaled and ex-
haled ai .
Hea a e was moni o ed by using a Pola ® w is de-
ice. BPM measu es as eco ded by his de ice, and oxygen
consump ion measu es nea exhaus ion, we e used o con-
di ion compa abili y checks only. Online eco dings o
comple e sessions, be o e and a e exhaus ion can be p o-
ided by he co esponding au ho on demand.
Resul s
Condi ion compa abili y checks
E o le el escala ed un il he pa icipan epo ed being
unable o exe cise any longe a he same le el. As no ed
abo e, only he pa icipan s who eached 18 poin s o mo e
in he RPE-To al subscale we e conside ed o u he
analyses.
Mean RPE a he exhaus ion poin did no a y ac oss
condi ions, which ensu es ha , a his poin , he h ee condi-
23The RPE 6-20 scale (Noble & Robe son, 1996) has been cus oma ily used
in he las decades o assess pe cei ed exe ion. Al hough some ecen e i-
dence has shown a ce ain supe io i y o CR10 scales (Bo g, & Kaijse , 2006)
o e he RPE 6-20 scale, such a po en ial supe io i y has mo e o do wi h
he unc ions ela ing pe iphe al physiological indexes o pe cei ed exe ion,
han wi h sensi i i y o he ool o i s cons uc a iable.
ions we e equa ed in subjec i ely pe cei ed exe ion. A 3
(Load: high load, low load, no load) x 3 (RPE subscale: local,
cen al, o al) wi hin-subjec ANOVA did no yield any sig-
ni ican e ec . Mean (SE) RPE sco es o he high-load, he
low-load, and he no-load condi ions we e 19.48 (.30), 19.56
(.25), and 19.54 (.27) [F<1]. The Subscale x Load in e ac ion
was no signi ican ei he [F(4, 60)=2.03; MSE=.17, p=.10].
Howe e , he e ec o he subscale was a he close o sig-
ni icance. Mean (SE) sco es o he local, cen al, and o al
scales we e 19.60 (.15), 19.42 (.19), and 19.56 (.13) [F(2,
30)=3.02; MSE=.15; p=.064].
On he o he hand, hea a e was moni o ed du ing e -
o and eco e y. A exhaus ion, mean (SE) pe cen ages
o e he indi idually es ima ed maximum hea a e (com-
pu ed as 220 minus age) o he h ee condi ions we e
92.44% (1.54), 95.11% (1.00), and 93.90% (1.74) [F(2,
30)=2.29, MSE=12.50; p=.12]. This ensu es, i s , ha pa -
icipan s we e ac ually close o exhaus ion when hey e-
po ed being exhaus ed, and, second, ha he h ee condi-
ions we e equa ed in ha momen . As will be discussed
la e , any di e ence ound om ha poin beyond could be
a ibu ed o he men al load manipula ion.
Fo each pa icipan and each condi ion, we a e aged
VO2 measu es o consecu i e 30 s. in e als, co esponding
o app oxima ely 10 minu es ( he las 30 second in e al is
incomple e o some pa icipan s who exhaus ed du ing ha
in e al; a e aging was used o s abilize he measu e). Oxy-
gen consump ion g adually inc eased du ing exe cise, almos
linea ly wi h espec o he physical e o exe ed du ing he
ask. Only he e ec o in e al was signi ican , F(19,
285)=316.78, MSE=9.00, p<.001. Nei he he e ec o Load
no he Block x Load in e ac ion was close o signi icance
(F<1 in bo h cases)3.4
And inally, we also collec ed oxygen consump ion, a e -
aged o he las 30 seconds p io o exhaus ion. Mean (SE)
VO2 alues, measu ed in ml/kg·min we e 43.15 (2.85), 44.97
(2.65), and 44.83 (2.98), o he high-load, he low-load, and
he no load condi ions, espec i ely. These alues did no
di e signi ican ly among hem (F<1). Th ee eco dings
om wo pa icipan s seemed clea ly anomalous (VO2<25),
so we also ca ied ou he same analysis disca ding hose
pa icipan s. Mean (SE) VO2 alues, we e hen 44.51 (2.76),
47.12 (2.50), and 48.38 (2.00). The e ec o Cogni i e load
emained non-signi ican [F(2, 26)=1.08, MSE=50.58,
p=.36].
Cogni i e in ol emen check
In bo h he N-back and he Go/No-go asks, a ge
s imuli a e hose o which a esponse is igh , and dis ac-
34Ou cycloe gome e does no p o ide an independen es ima e o powe
ou pu . Howe e , gi en he close in a-indi idual ela ionship be ween
powe ou pu and oxygen consump ion, compa able cu es o oxygen con-
sump ion ac oss condi ions ensu e ha he absence o di e ences among
condi ions in RPE du ing moun ing e o is no due o di e ences in objec-
i e physical e o .
666 Da id Cá denas Vélez e . al.
anales de psicología, 2013, ol. 29, nº 3 (oc ub e)
o s a e hose no mee ing he c i e ion o esponding. I
he pa icipan succeeds o some deg ee in he cogni i e
ask, he a e o esponding mus be highe o a ge s han
o dis ac o s. The hi a e (h) is cus oma ily de ined as he
a e o esponding o a ge s, whe eas he alse ala m a e ( ) is
he a e o esponding o dis ac o s. The e a e a numbe o
disc iminabil y measu es based on he di e ence be ween hi
and alse ala m a es; he e, we will use a cus oma ily ac-
cep ed non-pa ame ic sco e (see Pe ales, Ca ena, Shanks, &
González, 2005): he di e ence o a csines [DA=acos( )-acos(h)].
We compu ed disc iminabili y (DA) o 30-second in e -
als ac oss he whole ask. Gi en ha all pa icipan s in all
condi ions comple ed a leas 5 e o le els, we ha e 20 dis-
c iminabili y sco es o all o hem, plus ano he 16 o he
8-minu e eco e y s age. Fo he sake o simplici y, and in
o de o s abilize measu emen , we a e aged disc iminabili y
sco es o he ou 30-second in e als wi hin each 2-minu e
e o le el. In addi ion, we analyzed Go/No-go and N-back
oge he . The same disc iminabili y analysis can be applied
o he wo asks, so he ype o ask mus be conside ed a
coun e balanced ac o . Figu e 2 displays a e aged dis-
c iminabili y le els o each 2-minu e le el du ing e o ( op
panel) and eco e y (bo om panel), o he wo Load condi-
ions (high-load and low-load; ob iously he e was no cogni-
i e ask o check in he no-load condi ion). Du ing inc e-
men al e o , he Cogni i e load (high, low) x Le el (1-5)
ANOVA yielded a signi ican e ec o Load [F(1,
30)=102.09, MSE=.20, p<.01]. Nei he he e ec o Le el
no he Load x Le el in e ac ion we e signi ican [F(4,
120)=1.70, MSE=.08, p=.15, and F(4, 120)=1.62, MSE=.08,
p=.17, espec i ely].
Du ing eco e y, he e was again a main e ec o Cogni-
i e Load [F(1, 30)=67.33, MSE=.21, p<.01], wi h he ex-
pec ed be e pe o mance in he low-load condi ion. Addi-
ionally, pe o mance mode a ely imp o ed wi h p og essi e
eco e y [F(3, 90)=3.08, MSE=.09, p=.03]. The Cogni i e
load x Reco e y le el in e ac ion did no each signi icance
[F(3, 90)=1.58, MSE=.09, p=.20].
In summa y, disc iminabili y in he wo le els was well
abo e ze o o all measu emen poin s, which is in e p e -
able as a signi ican in ol emen o pa icipan s wi h he ask
du ing exe cise. Addi ionally, as expec ed, pe o mance was
signi ican ly be e o he low-load ask. In nei he o he
wo load condi ions did pe o mance wo sen wi h inc e-
men al exe ion al hough in bo h o hem, i mode a ely im-
p o ed du ing eco e y.
Time o exhaus ion
Mean ime o exhaus ion did no di e ac oss Cogni i e
load condi ions. Pa icipan s exe cised du ing 774 (23.02),
752 (28.45), and 765 (36.44) seconds, in he high-, low-, and
no-load condi ions, espec i ely [F<1]. In o he wo ds, cog-
ni i e wo kload did no accele a e exhaus ion.
Figu e 2. A e aged disc iminabili y le els o each 2-minu e le el du ing e -
o ( op panel) and eco e y (bo om panel), o he wo Load condi ions
(high-load and low-load).
RPE du ing inc emen al e o
As no ed abo e, all pa icipan s in all condi ions comple ed
a leas i e e o le els. Consequen ly, we ha e i e RPE
measu emen poin s du ing e o (plus he ini ial measu emen
aken be ween he end o he wa ming up s age and he inc e-
men al e o s age). An E o le el (0-5) x Cogni i e load
(high-load, low-load, no-load) x RPE subscale (Local, Cen al,
To al) wi hin-subjec ANOVA was ca ied ou on he ou i s
RPE measu emen s o all pa icipan s.
Figu e 3 shows how RPE escala es wi h e o o he h ee
cogni i e load condi ions and he h ee subscales. The e ec o
E o le el was ob iously s ongly signi ican , wi h RPE g adu-
ally inc easing wi h physical e o , F(5, 75)=212.72, MSE=9.1,
p<.01. Cogni i e load, howe e , did no ha e any di ec o in-
e ac i e e ec on RPE [F<1; F(4, 60)=1.04; MSE=.70; p=.39;
F(10, 150)=1.53; MSE=2.60; p=.13; and F(20, 300)=1.51,
MSE=.20; p=.08, o he ma ginal Load e ec , he Load x Le el
in e ac ion, he Load x Subscale in e ac ion, and he 3-way in-
e ac ion, espec i ely].

The e ec o men al wo kload on he in ensi y and emo ional dynamics o pe cei ed exe ion 667
anales de psicología, 2013, ol. 29, nº 3 (oc ub e)
Figu e 3. RPE o he h ee cogni i e load condi ions and he h ee subscales.
RPE sco es di e ed be ween subscales [F(2, 30)=5.95,
MSE=1.50, p=.01], wi h local and o al subscales yielding
highe sco es han he cen al one. Mean (SE) sco es o he
local, cen al, and o al subscales we e 11.41 (1.29), 11.06
(1.43), and 11.27 (1.47), espec i ely. Planned compa isons
yielded a signi ican di e ence be ween he local and he
cen al sco e (p=.02), as well as be ween he cen al and he
o al sco e (p<.01), bu no be ween he local and he o al
sco e (p=.16). In addi ion, Subscale in e ac ed wi h E o
le el [F(10, 150)=3.00; MSE=.30; p<.01]. As can be seen in
Figu e 3, pe cei ed exe ion accumula ed as e locally han
cen ally, and o al e o seems o be based mo e di ec ly on
local e o han in ca dio- espi a o y dis ess.
RPE du ing eco e y
A 3 (Load) x 5 (Le el: exhaus ion, eco e y 1, eco e y
2, eco e y 3, eco e y 4) x 3 (Subscale) wi hin-subjec
ANOVA on RPE sco es yielded a signi ican e ec o Load,
F(2, 30)=3.25, MSE=19.6, p=.05. Planned compa isons
showed a signi ican di e ence be ween high and no-load
(p=.03). As can be seen in Figu e 4 ( op panel), low load
mean RPE was be ween he high- and he low-load condi-
ions, and was no signi ican ly di e en om any o he
wo. Mean (SE) RPE alues we e 12.49 (2.31), 12.07 (1.90),
and 11.47 (1.65) o he high-load, low-load, and no-load
condi ions espec i ely. T end analyses showed ha he e -
ec o Load on RPE was exclusi ely linea (p=.03; F<1 o
he o he componen s).
Ob iously, he e ec o E o le el was s ongly signi i-
can , F(4, 60)=222.73; MSE=13.2; p<.01. Mo e in e es ing
a e he e ec s o Subscale, F(2, 30)=12.31; MSE=2.60;
p<.01, and he Le el x Subscale in e ac ion, F(8, 120)=2.70,
MSE=1.00; p<.01. Mean (SE) RPEs we e 12.40 (1.87), 11.68
(1.74), and 11.94 (1.77) o he local, cen al, and o al sub-
scales, espec i ely. Planned compa isons yielded signi ican
di e ences be ween he local and he cen al subscales
(p<.01), and be ween he cen al and he o al subscale
(p<.01), bu also be ween he local and he o al subscale
(p<.01). As i can be seen in Figu e 4 (bo om panel), he lo-
cal and o al subscales we e he ones mos a ec ed by e o ;
howe e he in e ac ion is due o he ac ha local RPE e-
mained highe han cen al RPE, om exhaus ion o he end
o eco e y, whe eas he o al RPE dec eased mo e apidly
and ma ched cen al RPE by he end o eco e y ( o he
sake o b e i y, we do no analyze his in e ac ion in de ail).
Expe imen 2
Expe imen 1 showed a limi ed bu ele an e ec o cogni-
i e wo kload on pe cei ed exe ion. This e ec did no
each signi icance du ing inc emen al e o , bu did each i
du ing eco e y. Visually, he high-load condi ion seemed o
boos pe cei ed exe ion a he beginning o he ask, bu
ha di e ence anished as exe cise con inued. Impo an ly,
i clea ly eappea ed (and eached signi icance) du ing eco -
e y. On he o he hand, men al wo kload did no in e ac
wi h he ype o subscale. In o he wo ds, al hough he h ee
subscales showed sligh ly di e en dynamics, hese emained
una ec ed by he cogni i e wo kload manipula ion.
Ne e heless, he e ec o cogni i e wo kload can be
explained in an al e na i e way. Highly loading cogni i e
asks a e no only mo e cogni i ely demanding, bu hey also
elici mo e e o s, which make hem e en mo e a ousing
and, po en ially, hedonically nega i e. In Expe imen 2 we
ied o eplica e he pa e n o e ec s ound in Expe imen
1, bu a i icially manipula ed he balance be ween posi i e
and nega i e eedback o esponses in he cogni i e ask,
wi hou ac ually manipula ing he di icul y o he ask. Ad-
di ionally, he emo ional s a e o he pa icipan du ing he
whole ask was moni o ed.
668 Da id Cá denas Vélez e . al.
anales de psicología, 2013, ol. 29, nº 3 (oc ub e)
Figu e 4. Mean RPE sco es du ing exe cise and eco e y.
Me hod
Pa icipan s, appa a us and asks
18 pa icipan s (9 women and 9 men; a e age age 21.72
yea s; age ange 18-26 yea s) ook pa in he expe imen .
Pa icipan ec ui ing and appa a us we e iden ical o he
ones in Expe imen 1.
The cogni i e ask was a alse sequence- acking es .
Pa icipan s we e p esen ed wi h a se ies o digi s, one pe
ial (wi h du a ion and in e -s imuli in e als iden ical o he
ones in Expe imen 1). They we e old ha digi gene a ion
ollowed a hidden pa e n, and hei ask was o disco e
ha pa e n. They we e also old ha no all he digi s, bu
only a high p opo ion o hem ollowed he pa e n, so o
each ial, hey we e asked o indica e whe he he cu en
digi ollowed he pa e n o no (“p ess i yes, wi hhold
you esponse i no”). In ac , he e was no pa e n o dis-
co e , and he eedback was p og ammed depending on he
expe imen al condi ion. In he Load/Nega i e eedback
condi ion, pa icipan s we e gi en alse posi i e eedback (a
dis inc i e sound) in one ou h o he ials, and nega i e
eedback in he o he h ee ou hs. In he Load/Posi i e
eedback condi ion, on he o he hand, hey we e gi en posi-
i e eedback in h ee ou hs o he ials, and nega i e
eedback in he o he ou h. Du ing he ask, none o he
pa icipan s epo ed ha ing disco e ed ha eedback was
ac ually un ela ed o he ask. In he con ol no-load condi-
ion, no cogni i e ask was p esen ed concomi an ly o he
physical ask.
Apa om he a iables desc ibed in Expe imen 1
(RPE subscales, ime o exhaus ion, hea a e, and oxygen
consump ion), we also collec ed sco es o emo ional s a e.
The Sel -assessmen manikin (SAM-Spanish e sion, Mol ó e
al., 1999) is a sel - epo scale in which pa icipan s a e asked
o assess hei own emo ional s a e, elici ed by some en i-
onmen al e en , in h ee dimensions: Valence, A ousal, and
Dominance. Only he alence and a ousal scales we e used
in his expe imen . The esponse is gi en by choosing one o
5 icons displayed ho izon ally on a shee (o he in e media e
poin be ween wo o hem). The icons ep esen p og es-
si e emo ional s a es ( om low o high a ousal, and om
nega i e o posi i e alence). The esponse is coded as a
alue be ween 1 and 9. Pa icipan s we e asked o epo
hei emo ional s a e in he wo dimensions a e each wo-
minu e e o le el.
Condi ion compa abili y checks
As desc ibed o Expe imen 1, only hose pa icipan s
who epo ed o al pe cei ed exe ion sco es close o he
maximum (RPE-To al >= 18) we e aken in o accoun ,
which le 12 pa icipan s o all u he analyses.
Again, we checked o possible di e ences be ween
Load condi ions a he exhaus ion poin . Mean (SE) RPE
alues we e 19.61 (.27), 18.97 (.55), and 19.41 (.26) o he
High Load, he Low Load, and he No Load condi ions, e-
spec i ely. As happened in Expe imen 1, hese alues we e
close o he maximum (20) and did no di e be ween hem
F(2, 22)=2.73, MSE=1.41, p=.09. RPEs o he h ee sub-
scales di e ed be ween hem a his poin , F(2, 22)=3.67,
MSE=.19, p<.05. Planned compa isons showed a signi ican
di e ence be ween he Local and he To al scale, (p=.04),
bu no be ween he Local and he Cen al scale, (p=.24).
The one be ween he Cen al and he To al scale was e y
close o signi icance (p=.053). Mean (SD) RPE alues o
he h ee scales we e 19.19 (.37), 19.33 (.26), and 19.47 (.21)
o he local, he cen al, and he o al scales, espec i ely. In
his case, unlike wha was obse ed in Expe imen 1, i was
he o al RPE subscale, bu no he local RPE subscale, he
one ha mos s ongly e lec ed pe cei ed exe ion.
A exhaus ion, mean (SE) pe cen ages o e he indi idu-
ally es ima ed maximum hea a e (compu ed as 220 minus
age) o he h ee condi ions we e 92.21% (1.63), 93.45%
(1.60), and 93.72% (1.09). The e ec o Feedback/load was
a om signi icance (F<1). Again, his ensu es ha pa ici-
The e ec o men al wo kload on he in ensi y and emo ional dynamics o pe cei ed exe ion 669
anales de psicología, 2013, ol. 29, nº 3 (oc ub e)
pan s we e close o exhaus ion by he end o he inc emen al
e o s ages, bu also ha he h ee condi ions we e equa ed
a his poin .
As expec ed, oxygen consump ion inc eased du ing exe -
ion, F(18, 198)=290.11, MSE=6.40, p<.001. A di e ence
wi h Expe imen 1, oxygen consump ion inc eased a di e -
en a es o di e en Load condi ions, F(36, 396)=2.31,
MSE=2.80, p<.0014.5
Mean (SE) VO2 alues, measu ed in ml/kg·min and a -
e aged o he 30 seconds p io o exhaus ion we e 50.49
(1.69), 46.48 (3.56), and 48.39 (2.38), o he high-load, he
low-load, and he no load condi ions, espec i ely. These
alues did no signi ican ly di e among hem (F<1). One
eco ding om one pa icipan seemed clea ly anomalous
(VO2<25), so we also ca ied ou he same analysis dis e-
ga ding ha pa icipan . Mean (SE) VO2 alues, we e hen
50.75 (1.83), 48.44 (3.25), and 47.51 (2.42). The e ec o
Cogni i e load emained non-signi ican (F<1).
Time o exhaus ion
Time o exhaus ion yielded di e ences among he h ee
condi ions, bu no in he di ec ion expec ed. Mean (SD)
imes o exhaus ion o he Load/nega i e eedback, he
Load/Posi i e eedback, and he No Load condi ions we e
885.5 (38.26), 787.5 (33.97), and 752.5 (30.68) seconds, e-
spec i ely. In o he wo ds, people in he Load/nega i e
eedback condi ion cycled o longe han in he o he wo
condi ions [F(2, 22)=22.06; MSE=2586, p<.01] (no e, how-
e e , ha his di e ence is no e lec ed by oxygen con-
sump ion a es, and does no a ec RPE a ings a he ex-
haus ion poin ; see Foo no e 4).
RPE du ing inc emen al e o
Figu e 5 shows mean RPE sco es o he h ee RPE sub-
scales du ing inc emen al e o . All pa icipan s comple ed
a leas ou e o le els in he h ee condi ions. A 3
(Load/Feedback: Load-Nega i e eedback, Load-Posi i e
eedback, No load) x 5 (Le el: Wa ming up plus ou le els)
x 3 (Subscale: L, C, T) wi hin-subjec ANOVA only yielded
a signi icance e ec o e o le el, wi h RPE almos linea ly
inc easing wi h le el. Mean (SE) RPE alues o he h ee
condi ions we e 12.00 (1.33), 12.66 (1.66), and 12.72 (1.13),
o he Load/nega i e eedback, he Load/posi i e eed-
back, and he No-load condi ions, espec i ely [F(2,
22)=1.99; MSE=14.26, p=.16]. Unlike Expe imen 1, RPEs
45Howe e , oxygen consump ion did no ma ch Load. Ac ually, he condi-
ion wi h no load was he one in which he inc ease o oxygen consump ion
was ( isually) mos ma ked. Acco ding o LSD pos -hoc compa isons, only
he Load/posi i e eedback condi ion signi ican ly de ia ed om he No-
load condi ion (oxygen consump ion o his condi ion was sligh ly lowe in
measu emen in e als 18 and 19). Following he logic desc ibed abo e, his
di e ence migh ha e masked a po en ial RPE di e ence be ween he No-
load and he Load/nega i e eedback condi ions du ing moun ing e o . A
he exhaus ion poin , howe e , all di e ences disappea , so ha all e ec s
a e his poin a e ully eliable.
o he h ee subscales did no di e be ween hem [F(2,
22)=1.77; MSE=2.47, p=.19], no in e ac ed wi h
Load/Feedback (F<1).
Figu e 5. Mean RPE sco es o he h ee RPE subscales du ing inc emen al
e o .
SAM- alence and SAM-a ousal du ing inc emen al e o
Changes in emo ional s a e alence and a ousal, as meas-
u ed by he SAM scale a e displayed in Figu e 6. Repo ed
alence dec eased almos linea ly wi h e o , e lec ing he
in ui ion ha inc emen al e o is el as hedonically nega-
i e, F(4, 44)=39.74, MSE=1.46, p<.01. Mean (SE) alence
alues we e 7.94 (.48), 7.46 (.48), 6.61 (.38), 5.72 (.38), and
4.83 (.52), o he wa ming-up, and he ou e o le els, e-
spec i ely. E o le el did no in e ac wi h Load/Feedback
(F<1)
Figu e 6. Changes in emo ional alence (do ed line) and a ousal (non-
do ed line), du ing exe cise, as measu ed by he SAM scale
670 Da id Cá denas Vélez e . al.
anales de psicología, 2013, ol. 29, nº 3 (oc ub e)
A ousal nea ly inc eased wi h E o le el. Mean (SE)
a ousal alues ac oss le els we e 2.78 (.73), 3.31 (.78), 4.14
(.59), 5.08 (.45), and 6.56 (.37) o he wa ming up, and he 4
e o le els, espec i ely [F(4, 44)=63.39, MSE=1.28,
p<.01]. The e ec o Load and he Load x Le el in e ac ion
we e e y a om signi icance (bo h F<=1).
RPE du ing eco e y
Figu e 7 displays mean RPE measu es om exhaus ion
poin o he end o eco e y. Apa om he ob ious e ec
o Le el (Exhaus ion, Reco e y 1-4) [F(4, 44)=319.59,
MSE=7.20, p<.01], wi h RPE sco es g adually declining du -
ing eco e y, he e was a s ongly signi ican Load/Feedback
x Le el in e ac ion [F(8, 88)=7.38, MSE=2.68, p<.01]. The
in e ac ion was due o he di e en a es o eco e y in he
di e en Feedback/Load condi ions. Mo e speci ically, i
he analysis is es ic ed o he exhaus ion poin and he i s
eco e y s age, he e is a signi ican e ec o Load [F(2,
22)=4.51, MSE=5.04, p=.02]. Mean (SE) RPE sco es e-
s ic ed o his segmen we e 16.32 (.89), 15.32 (.64), and
15.35 (.37), o he Load/Nega i e eedback, he
Load/posi i e eedback, and he No-load condi ions, e-
spec i ely. RPE sco es a e la ge o he Load/nega i e
eedback condi ion han o he o he wo [F(1, 11)=5.48,
MSE=8.28, p=.04], and hus his e ec con ains a signi ican
quad a ic componen [F(1, 11)=5.06, MSE=2.64; p=.046].
Figu e 7. Mean RPE sco es om exhaus ion poin o he end o eco e y.
I he analysis is ex ended o he second eco e y s age,
mean (SE) RPE sco es ( es ic ed o his segmen ) a e 14.34
(1.01), 13.69 (.73), and 13.37 (1.21), o he Load/Nega i e
eedback, he Load/Posi i e Feedback, and he No load
condi ions, espec i ely. The main e ec o Load emained
signi ican [F(2, 22)=3.44; MSE=7.73; p=.05], bu he quad-
a ic componen anished (F<1).
In o he wo ds, he e is a signi ican e ec o
Load/Feedback, mos ly a ibu able o he i s s ages o e-
co e y. In con as wi h wha happened in Expe imen 1,
his e ec ended o anish as eco e y p og essed.
Unlike Expe imen 1, howe e , he e was no e ec o
he subscale ype [F<1 o he ma ginal e ec o subscale;
mean (SE) alues we e 11.61 (1.23), 11.56 (.97), and 11.57
(.96) o he local, cen al, and o al subscales, espec i ely].
The subscale was e y a om in e ac ing wi h any o he
o he ac o s [F(4, 44)=1.80, MSE=.48, p=.15; MSE(8,
88)=1.66, MSE=.26, p=.12; and F(16, 176)=1.16; MSE=.24,
p=.30, o he Feedback/Load x Subscale, Le el x Subscale,
and he h ee-way in e ac ions, espec i ely].
SAM alence and a ousal du ing eco e y
Figu e 8 displays alence and a ousal alues o he h ee
Load/ eedback condi ions, om exhaus ion poin o he
end o he eco e y in e al (Exhaus ion, Reco e y 1-4).
As expec ed, alence became g adually mo e posi i e
du ing eco e y [F(4, 44)=45.03, MSE=3.49, p<.01]. Mo e
in e es ingly, he e was a s ong main e ec o
Load/Feedback [F(2, 22)=7.54, MSE=2.15, p<.01]. Mean
(SD) alence alues we e 5.50 (.55), 6.12 (.47), and 6.53 (.37)
o he Load/nega i e eedback, he Load/posi i e eed-
back, and he No-load condi ions, espec i ely. T end analy-
ses showed only he linea componen o be signi ican . In
o he wo ds, he Load/Nega i e eedback condi ion elici ed
a less posi i e alence han he No-load condi ion, wi h he
posi i e eedback condi ion loca ed be ween hem [F(1,
11)=18.98, MSE=1.69, p<.01].
Figu e 8. Valence and a ousal alues o he h ee Load/ eedback condi-
ions, om exhaus ion poin o he end o he eco e y in e al.
A ousal, on he o he hand, g adually dec eased du ing
eco e y [F(4, 44)=31.12, MSE=5.17, p<.01].
Load/ eedback, howe e , did no exe any signi ican e ec
on a ousal [F(2, 22)=2.36, MSE=2.35, p=.11], no in e ac ed
wi h eco e y le el [F(8, 88)=.13, MSE=1.54, p=.35]. On
o he wo ds, ou p ocedu e was e ec i e a in luencing he